1 Notation

lcc Meaning Units Symbol

Heat Q
Heat rate q
Heat flux q ' '
Volumetric heat generation q̇

2 Basic Heat Transfer

[Conduction (Fourier’s law)] ⃗
q ' ' =−kT [Convection (Newton’s law of cooling)]
q ' ' =h (T ❑ s−T ∞ ) [Radiation] See Section 8 [First Law of Thermodynamics]
Ė❑∈− Ė❑ out+ Ė❑ g= Ė❑ st

3 Heat Equation
[Differential equations] [Rectangular] ρ c p Tt = q̇+ x ( kTx )+ y ( kTy ) + z ( kTz ) [Cylindrical]
1 1
ρ c p Tt = q̇+ r ( krTr )+ 2 ϕ ( kTϕ ) + z ( kTz ) [Spherical]
r r
1 1 1
ρ c p Tt = q̇+ 2 r ( k r Tr ) + 2 2 ϕ ( kTϕ ) + 2
2
θ ( k sin θ T θ ) [1-D steady-state boundary
r r sin θ r sinθ
conditions] [Known surface temperature] T (0 , t)=T ❑ s [Known heat flux] −kTx|x=0=q ' ' ❑ s [1-
D steady-state solutions] [No generation] See Table 1 [Plane wall of width 2 L with uniform q̇ ]

( )
2 2
q̇ L x T s ,2−T ❑ s ,1 x T ❑ s , 1+T ❑ s , 2
T (x)= 1− 2 + ❑ + [Uniform Joule heating] q̇=I 2 R❑ e /¿
2k L 2L L 2
[Other conditions] See Appendix C of [1]

4 Thermal Resistances
[Definition] R❑ t ≡ Δ T /q; the following are also used for transfer per unit arealength:
1
R ' ' ❑ t=RA and R ' ❑ t=RL [Conduction] See Table 1 [Convection] R❑ t , conv= [Radiation]
hA
1
R❑ t , rad= [Contact] R❑ t , c [Overall heat transfer coefficient, U ] q x =UA Δ T ❑ overall ; note
hr A
1
that R❑ tot=
UA

Table 1: One-dimensional, steady-state solutions to the heat equation with no generation [1]
 =_3pt^3pt [c]l c c c Plane Wall Cylindrical Wall Spherical Wall
1 1
Heat equation [2]Tx=0 r ( rTr )=0 2 r ( r Tr )=0
2

r r

Temperature distribution T ❑ s , 1−Δ T

x
L
T ❑ s , 2+ ΔT
[
ln(r /r 2)
ln(r 1 /r 2 ) ]
T ❑ s , 1−Δ T
[ 1−(r 1 /r )
1−(r 1 /r 2) ]
k 2k
Critical radius of insulation, r ❑ cr none
h h
Δ T 2 π Lk Δ T 4 π k ΔT
Heat rate, q kA
L ln (r 2 /r 1) (1/r 1 )−(1/r 2)
L ln(r 2 /r 1) (1/r 1 )−(1/r 2)
Thermal resistance, R❑ t , cond
kA 2 π Lk 4π k

5 Fins
hP 2
[Uniform fin] [2]θ x−m2 θ=0 where θ ≡T −T ∞, m ≡ , P is perimeter, and A❑ c is
k A❑ c
cross-sectional area [Solution] θ=C1 e mx +C 2 e−mx [Boundary conditions] See Table 3.4 of [1] [Fin
q❑ f q❑ f
efficiency] η f ≡ = where A❑ f is the surface area of the fin excluding the
q❑ f , max h A❑ f θ❑ b
q❑ f R t ,b θ b 1
base [Fin effectiveness] ε ❑ f ≡ = ❑ [Fin resistance] R❑ t , f ≡ ❑ =
h A ❑ c , b θ❑ b R ❑ t , f q ❑ f h A ❑ f η❑ f
[Infinite fin] η❑ f =0 and ε ❑ f =
kP
h A❑ c√ [Fin array] [Total surface area] A❑ t=N A ❑ f + A❑ b
N A❑ f
[Overall surface efficiency] η❑ o=1− (1−η❑ f ) [Overall resistance]
A❑ t
θ b 1
R❑ t , o= ❑ =
q❑ t η❑ oh A❑ t

6 Energy Balance Method for Nodal Analysis

For each node, assume that heat flows inward from the four neighboring nodes, then
4
Ė❑∈+ Ė❑ g=0 ∑ ‍q(i )→(m ,n) + q̇ ( Δ x ⋅ Δ y ⋅l)=0
i=1
where, for example from node (m−1 , n) to node (m , n),
T m−1 ,n−T m , n
q(m−1 ,n )→(m ,n)=k (Δ y ⋅l)
Δx

7 Transient Conduction
 7.1 Lumped Capacitance
[Biot number] Lumped capacitance method assumes uniform temperature throughout
the material; this is valid when the Biot number Bi ≪ 1. [Definition] Bi ≡h L❑ c /k where L❑ c is
the characteristic length, usually defined as ¿ A❑ s . [Physical interpretation]
L c /(k A❑ s)
Bi= ❑ ≈ R❑ cond / R❑ conv [General lumped capacitance method]
1/(h A❑ s)
ρ cTt=q ' ' ❑ s A❑ s , h−h A❑ s , c (T −T ∞)−h❑ r A❑ s , r (T −T ❑ sur )+ Ė❑ g for applied heat flux
q ' ' ❑ s on A❑ s , h, convection on A❑ s , c, radiation on A❑ s , r, and generation Ė❑ g. [Thermal
time constant] τ ❑ t ≡ R❑ t C ❑ t=
( 1
)
h A❑s
(ρ c ) [With radiation and T ❑ sur=0]

t=
ρc
( 1
−
3 εσ A T T ❑ i 3
3
1
) [With negligible radiation] [Differential equation] θ t+ a θ−b=0 where
q ' ' ❑ s A❑ s , h+ Ė❑ g θ−b/a −at
θ ≡T −T ∞, a ≡ 1/τ ❑ t , and b ≡ [Solution] =e or, expanded,
ρc θ❑i−b/a
θ T −T ∞ b /a (
1−e ) [Total energy loss from convection when q ' ' ❑ s=0,
−at −at
= =e +
θ❑i T ❑ i−T ∞ T ❑ i−T ∞
t t
q̇=0 ] Q(t )=∫ ‍qt=h A❑ s∫ ‍θ t=ρ c θ❑ i(1−e−at )
0 0

7.2 Semi-Infinite Solid

[Semi-infinite solid] Solid that extends infinitely in all directions but one; has a single flat
surface. The temperature T (x , t) in the solid is a function of distance x away from the surface
k
and time t . [Thermal diffusivity] α =
ρc
[Constant surface temperature] T (0 , t)=T ❑ s ≠ T (x , 0)=T ❑ i
T (x , t)−T ❑ s
T ❑ i−T ❑ s
=
( x
2 √α t )q ' ' ❑ s( t)=
k (T ❑ s−T ❑ i)
√ πα t
[Constant surface heat flux] ❑ q ' ' s=q ' ' 0
2q ' ' 0 √ α t /π
( ) (
q' '0 x
)
2
−x x
T (x , t)−T ❑ i= exp −
k 4αt k 2 √α t
[Constant surface convection] −kTx|x=0=h [T ∞−T (0 , t)]

( ) [ ( )] [( √ h √α t
)]
2
T (x , t)−T ❑i x hx h α t x
= − exp + 2 +
T ∞−T ❑ i 2 √α t k k 2 αt k

8 Radiation

Table 2: Surface properties with respect to radiation

lcl Name Symbol Meaning
Emissivity ε Ratio of amount of actual emission to that of blackbody
 Absorptivity α Portion of irradiation that is absorbed
Reflectivity ρ Portion of irradiation that is reflected
Transmissivity τ Portion of irradiation that is transmitted

Table 3: Important definitions for radiation analysis

lll Flux () Meaning Equation
Irradiation Incident flux G=(ρ+ α+τ )G
Emission Emitted flux E=εσ T 4 s
Radiosity Flux leaving the surface When opaque, J=E + ρ G
Net radiative flux Net flux leaving surface When opaque, q ' ' ❑ rad =εσ T 4 s−α G

A❑ n
[Stefan-Boltzmann constant] σ =5.67 e−8 ◻ 4 [Solid angle] ω ≡ 2 where A❑ n is the
r
q
area normal to r⃗ [Spectral intensity] I λ ,e (λ , θ , ϕ )≡ [Heat rate due to radiation]
( A 1 cos θ)⋅ω ⋅ λ
A 2 cos θ2
q 1→ 2=I 1 A 1 cos θ 1 ⋅ω 2 →1 where ω 2→ 1= 2 [For diffuse surface] total intensity
r
I ❑ e=constant and total emissive power E=π I ❑ e [For gray surface (α =ε )]
4 4
q ' ' ❑ rad =ε E❑ b−α G=εσ (T ❑ s −T ❑ su r ) [For blackbody] ε =1 and α =1 [Radiation heat
transfer coefficient, hr ] q ' ' ❑ rad =hr (T ❑ s−T ❑ sur ) where hr =εσ (T ❑ s+T ❑ sur )(T ❑ s2 +T ❑ su r 2 )
[Planck distribution] See Table 12.2 of [1]

9 Convection
Note that many of the equations listed in this section are empirical approximations. For
more detail about the conditions under which you can apply these equations and for better
approximations, see [1].
ρV l V l c μ ν
[Reynolds number] R e l= = [Prandtl number] Pr= p = [Nusselt number]
μ ν k a
hl F❑ D
N ul = [Drag coefficient] C❑ D ≡ 2
k❑ f A ❑ f ( ρV /2)

9.1 Flat Plate

[Critical Reynolds number] R e x , c=5 e 5 [Steady, incompressible flow with constant fluid
h x
properties over isothermal plate] [Laminar] N u x ≡ x =0.332 R e1x /2 P r 1/3 for Pr ≳ 0.6
k
4/5 1 /3
[Turbulent] N u x =StR e x Pr=0.0296 R e x P r for 0.6 ≲ Pr ≲ 60 [Average]
4 /5 1/ 3 8
NuL =(0.037 R e L − A) P r for 0.6 ≲ Pr ≲ 60 and R e x , c ≲ R e L ≲ 1 0
where A=0.037 R e 4x /5,c −0.664 R e1x /2,c or A=0 when fully turbulent [Steady,
incompressible flow with constant fluid properties over plate with constant heat flux]
[Laminar] N u x =0.453 R e1x /2 P r 1/3 for Pr ≳ 0.6 [Turbulent] N u x =0.0308 R e 4/x 5 P r 1 /3 for
0.6 ≲ Pr ≲ 60

9.2 Cylinder in Cross Flow

1 /2 1/ 3
[Nusselt number] NuD =0.3+ 0.62 R e D P r for R e D Pr ≳ 0.2
¿¿¿

9.3 Internal Flow

[Critical Reynolds number] R e D ,c =2300 [Heat rate] q=ṁ c p Δ T [Fully developed
laminar flow in circular tube] N u D= {
4.36 q❑ s ' '=constant
3.66 T ❑ s=constant
[Fully developed turbulent flow in

{
0.8 0.4
0.023 R e D P r forheating
smooth circular tube] N u D= 0.8 0.3
0.023 R e P rD forcooling

9.3.1 Viscous Pipe Flow

[Major losses] head losses due to viscous effects in straight pipe sections; given by
2 2
L V L 8Q
h Lmajor =f =f 5 2 [EBE with major losses only]
D 2g D π g
2 2
L ρV L 8ρQ
p1− p2= ρ g (z 2−z1 )+ ρ g hL =ρ g(z 2−z 1)+ f =ρ g ( z 2−z 1)+ f 5 2 [Absolute pipe
D 2 D π
roughness, ε ] a measure of the roughness of pipe walls; has units of length. Search online or see
Figure 8.3 of [1] for values of ε . [Friction factor, f ] determine flow type with Reynolds number,
ρVD 4 ρQ
R eD= = , then use:
μ πμ D
64
f=
R eD
highly variable f ; in general, use turbulent value

[( ) ]
1.11
1 ε/ D 6.9
=−1.8 log +
√f 3.7 R eD

10 Heat Exchangers
1 1
[Overall heat transfer coefficient] = where R❑ w is the wall resistance, η0 is
UA ¿ ¿
defined in Section 5, and fouling factors R❑ f ' ' can be found in Table 11.1 of [1]. [First law
analysis]
q=ṁ❑ h(i❑ h , i−i ❑ h , o)=ṁ❑ c(i ❑ c , o−i ❑ c , i)=ṁ❑ h c p , h (T ❑ h , i−T ❑ h , o)= ṁ❑ c c p , c (T ❑ c , o−T ❑ c , i)

10.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method

ΔT 2−ΔT 1 ΔT 1−ΔT 2
[First law] q=UA Δ T ❑lm where Δ T ❑ lm= = ,
ln( ΔT 2 / ΔT 1 ) ln (ΔT 1 / ΔT 2)
Δ T 1 ≡ T h ,1−T c ,1, and Δ T 2 ≡ T h ,2−T c ,2 [Parallel flow heat exchanger] Δ T 1=T ❑ h ,i−T ❑ c , i and
Δ T 2=T ❑ h , o−T ❑ c , o [Counterflow heat exchanger] Δ T 1=T ❑ h ,i−T ❑ c , o and
Δ T 2=T ❑ h , o−T ❑ c , i [Special operating conditions] Depending on the values of C❑ h and C❑ c ,
some simplifications may be made. See Section 11.3.3 of [1] for details. [Multipass and cross-
flow heat exchangers] Δ T ❑ lm=F Δ T ❑ lm ,CF where Δ T ❑ lm, CF is the value that would be
obtained under the counterflow condition. Values of F can be found in Supplement 11S.1 of [1].

10.2 Effectiveness–NTU Method

[Heat capacity rate] C ≡ ṁc p [Max heat rate] q❑ max=C❑ min (T ❑ h , i−T ❑ c ,i)
q UA
[Effectiveness] ε ≡ [Number of transfer units] NTU ≡ [Relationship between ε
q❑ max C ❑ min
C min
and NTU ] ε =f 1(NTU , C❑ r ) and NTU =f 2 (ε , C❑ r ) where C❑ r ≡ ❑ [When C❑ r =0]
C❑ max
−NTU
ε =1−e and NTU =−ln(1−ε) [Other conditions] See Table 11.3, Table 11.4, and Figures
11.10 through 11.15 of [1].

References
[1] Bergman, T. L., Lavine, A. S., Incropera, F. P., and Dewitt, D. P., 2011, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Jefferson City.

[2] Kuznetsov, A. V., 2013, Heat Transfer Fundamentals, MAE 310 course lectures, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

[3] Lyons, K. M., 2014, Design of Thermal Systems, MAE 412 course lectures, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.