Media Access Control (MAC) green and blue)is determined by =1000000000 bytes 1terabyte

addresses. Media Access Control its hexadecimal value. (1TB) =1000000000000 bytes
(MAC) address refers to a number binary addition carry sum 1petabyte (1PB)
which uniquely identifies, a 0+0=0r0 =1000000000000000 bytes
device on a network. The MAC 1exabyte (1EB)
address refers to the network 0+1=0r1 =1000000000000000000 bytes
interface card (NIC),which is part 1+0=0r1 Name of memory size Number of
of the device. The MAC address is bytes Equivalent denary value
rarely changed so that a 1+1=1r0 1kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1024 bytes
particular, device can always be ASCII code system (American 1mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1048576
identified no matter where it is. A Standard Code for Information bytes 1gibibyte (1GiB) 230
MAC address is usually made up Interchange) The standard ASCII 1073741824 bytes 1tebibyte
of 48 bits which are shown as 6 code character set consists of 7- (1TiB) 240 1099511627776 bytes
groups of two, hexadecimal digits bit codes (0 to 127 in denary or 1pebibyte (1PiB) 250
(although 64-bit addresses also 00 to 7F in hexadecimal) that 1125899906842624 bytes
exist): represent the letters, numbers 1exbibyte (1EiB) 260
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. and characters found on a 1152921504606846976 bytes
Each device connected to a standard keyboard, together with The file size of an image is
network is given an address 32 control codes (that use codes 0 calculated as: image resolution
known as the Internet Protocol to 31 (denary) or 00 to 19 (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
(IP) address. An IPv4 address is a The size of a mono sound file is
(hexadecimal)). The main
32-bit number written in denary calculated as: sample rate (in Hz)
disadvantage is that it does not
or hexadecimal form: e.g. × sample resolution (in bits) ×
represent characters in non-
109.108.158.1 (or 77.76.9e.01 in length of sample (in seconds)
Western languages,
hex). IPv4 has recently been Data transmission Data sent over
Unicode can represent all
improved upon by the adoption long distances is usually broken
languages of the world, thus
of IPv6. An IPv6 address is a 128- up into data packets (sometimes
supporting many operating
bit number broken down into 16- called datagrams). The packets of
systems, search engines and
bit chunks, represented by a data are usually quite small,
internet browsers used globally.
hexadecimal number.
There is overlap with standard typically 64KiB, each packet can
HyperText Mark-up Language
ASCII code, since the first 128 be sent along a different route to
(HTML) colour codes. HyperText
(English) characters are the same, its destination.
Mark-up Language (HTML) is used
but Unicode can support several packet header consists of: » the
when writing and developing
thousand different characters in IP address of the sending device
web pages. HTML isn’t a
total. » the IP address of the receiving
programming language but is
device » the sequence number
simply a mark-up language. A The number of bits per sample is of the packet (this is to ensure
mark-up language is used in the known as the sampling resolution that all the packets can be
processing, definition and (also known as the bit depth) reassembled into the correct
presentation of text (for example, Sampling rate is the number of order once they reach the
specifying the colour of the text). sound samples taken per second. destination) » packet size (this is
HTML uses <tags> which are used This is measured in hertz (Hz), to ensure the receiving station
to bracket a piece of text for where 1Hz means ‘one sample can check if all of the packets
example, <h1> and </h1> per second’. have arrived intact).
surround a top-level heading. Bitmap images are made up of
Whatever is between the two For each packet, the payload
pixels (picture elements); Each
tags has been defined as heading consists of the actual data being
pixel can be represented as a
level 1. Here is a short example of sent in the packet (this is usually
binary number, and so a bitmap
HTML code: about 64KiB).
image is stored in a computer as a
series of binary numbers, the packet trailer consists of:
Image resolution refers to the » some way of identifying the
HTML is often used to represent number of pixels that make up an end of the packet; this is essential
colours of text on the computer image; to allow each packet to be
screen. All colours can be made Name of memory size Equivalent separated from each other as
up of different combinations of denary value they travel from sending to
the three primary colours(red, 1kilobyte (1KB) =1000 bytes receiving station » an error
green and blue). The different 1megabyte (1MB) =1000000 checking method; cyclic
intensity of each colour (red, bytes 1gigabyte (1GB) redundancy checks (CRCs) are
used to check data packets: odd number of 1-bits in the byte). together and divide by 10 (4.)
Packet switching is a method of One of the bits in the byte take the remainder, if it is zero
data transmission in which a (usually the most significant bit then use this value, otherwise
message is broken up into a or left-most bit) is reserved for a subtract the remainder from 10
number of packets. Each packet parity bit. The parity bit is set to find the check digit.To check
can then be sent independently according to whether the parity that an ISBN 13-digit code is
from start point to end point. At being used is even or odd. If a correct, including its check digit, a
the destination, the packets will byte has been transmitted from similar process is followed: (1.)
need to be reassembled into their ‘A’ to ‘B’, and if even parity is add all the odd numbered digits
correct order (using the used, an error would be flagged if together, including the check
information sent in the header). the byte now had an odd number digit. (2.) add all the even number
At each stage in the transmission, of 1-bits at the receiver’s end. of digits together and multiply
there are nodes that contain a checksum process is as follows: the result by 3. (3.) add the
router. Each router will determine » when a block of data is about to results from 1 and 2 together and
which route the packet needs to be transmitted, the checksum is divide by 10. (4.) the number is
take, in order to reach its calculated from the block of data correct if the remainder is zero.
destination (the destination IP » the calculation is done using an Modulo-11 The following
address is used in this part of the agreed algorithm (this algorithm algorithm generates the check
process). has been agreed by sender and digit from the other 7 digits: (1)
hopping is used. A hop number is receiver) » the checksum is then each digit in the number is given
added to the header of each transmitted with the block of a weighting of 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 or 2
packet, and this number is data » at the receiving end, the starting from the left (weightings
reduced by 1 every time it leaves checksum is recalculated by the start from 8 since the number will
a router computer using the block of data become eight-digit when the
Simplex data transmission (the agreed algorithm is used to check digit is added). (2) the digit
Simplex mode occurs when data find the checksum) » the re- is multiplied by its weighting and
can be sent in ONE DIRECTION calculated checksum is then then each value is added to make
ONLY compared to the checksum sent a total. (3) the total is divided by
Half-duplex data transmission with the data block » if the two 11. (4) the remainder is then
Half-duplex mode occurs when checksums are the same, then no subtracted from 11 to find the
data is sent in BOTH DIRECTIONS transmission errors have check digit (note if the remainder
but NOT AT THE SAME TIME occurred; otherwise a request is is 10 then the check digit ‘X’ is
Full-duplex data transmission made to re-send the block of used). To check that the eight-
Full-duplex mode occurs when data. digit number is correct, including
data can be sent in BOTH echo check, when data is sent to its check digit, a similar process is
DIRECTIONS AT THE SAME TIME another device, this data is sent followed: (1) each digit in the
Serial data transmission occurs back again to the sender. The number is given a weighting of 8,
when data is sent ONE BIT AT A sender’s computer compares the 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1 starting from
TIME over a SINGLE two sets of data to check if any the left. (2) the digit is multiplied
WIRE/CHANNEL. Bits are sent errors occurred during the by its weighting and then each
one after the other as a single transmission process. value is added to make a total.
stream.Parallel data transmission check digit is the final digit (3) the total is divided by 11. (4)
occurs when SEVERAL BITS OF included in a code; it is calculated the number is correct if the
DATA (usually one byte) are sent from all the other digits in the remainder is zero.
down SEVERAL CHANNELS/WIRES code. Check digits are used for Encryption alters data into a form
all at the same time. Each barcodes on products, such as that is unreadable by anybody for
channel/wire transmits one bit International Standard Book whom the data is not intended. It
universal serial bus (USB) is a Numbers (ISBN) and Vehicle cannot prevent the data being
form of serial data transmission. Identification Numbers (VIN). intercepted, but it stops it from
Parity checking is one method ISBN 13 is the thirteenth digit in making any sense to the
used to check whether data has the number. The following eavesdropper. Symmetric
been changed or corrupted algorithm generates the check encryption uses an encryption
following data transmission. This digit from the 12 other digits: key; the same key is used to
method is based on the number (1.) add all the odd numbered encrypt and decrypt the encoded
of 1-bits in a byte of data. The digits together (2.) add all the
message. Asymmetric encryption
parity can be either called EVEN even numbered digits together
(that is, an even number of 1-bits and multiply the result by 3 (3). uses two keys. public key (made
in the byte) or ODD (that is, an add the results from 1 and 2 available to everybody) private
key (only known to the computer
user).