COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: OVERVIEW, HISTORY, MOVEMENTS AND MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS

Overview • Highlighted the importance of cognitive structures

• Cognitive psychology studies mental processes (schema, models) in providing meaning and
including thinking, perceiving, remembering, and organization to experiences.
learning. Leon Festinger:
• It is influenced by various disciplines such as artificial • Noted that ideas may be compatible or incompatible
intelligence, computer science, philosophy, with each other.
anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and • Identified cognitive dissonance as a motivator for belief
neuroscience. or behavior change.
• The main focus is on how people acquire, process, and • His work did not reference behavioristic ideas.
store information. • Cognitive dissonance is considered a major
• Practical applications include attention, memory accomplishment in psychology.
improvement, problem-solving, decision making, and Notable movements in Cognitive Psychology:
enhancing learning in education. • Studying thoughts is challenging; introspection was an
Brief History of Cognitive Psychology early subjective approach.
• Behaviorism dominated, then focus shifted to • Cognitive psychologists developed models, including
attention, memory, and problem-solving. the information-processing model.
• Wiener introduced input and output in "Cybernetics."• The information-processing model compares the mind to
• Tolman showed internal representations of behavior. a computer.
• Miller's "The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2"
marked cognitive psychology's birth.
• Newell and Simon developed the General Problem
Solver.
• Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed process models of
memory.
Founding of Cognitive Psychology - Key Ideas:
Carl Rogers and Donald Hebb:
• Challenged radical behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
• Rogers emphasized the importance of internal
conscious processes and their role in behavior.
• Hebb encouraged an interest in biological explanations 1. Information Processing:
and cognitive processes. • Psychology approach studying cognitive operations
Herbert Simon and Allen Newell: underlying human behavior.
• Founding fathers of important scientific domains, • Assumes information from the environment is
including artificial intelligence, information processing, processed by various systems (attention, perception,
decision-making, and problem-solving. short-term memory).
George Miller: • Processing systems transform information
• Claimed that short-term memory has constraints and systematically.
can hold approximately 7 (+/-2) chunks of meaningful • Draws parallels between human information
information. processing and computer processing.
Critical event: IEEE Symposium on Information Theory: • Reflects a return to faculty psychology and the
• Allen Newell and Herbert Simon presented papers on understanding of modular brain organization.
computer logic. 2. Artificial Intelligence:
• Noam Chomsky presented his views on language. • Branch of computer science aiming to understand
• George Miller presented his research on the capacity of intelligent behavior.
short-term memory. • Alan Turing raised the question of whether machines
Jerome Bruner: can think and developed the Turing Test.
• Considered central in the cognitive approach to o Weak AI proponents argue computers can
thinking and learning. only simulate human mental attributes.
• Emphasized that learning is an active process where
learners construct new ideas.
 o Strong AI proponents claim computers can • Serve as the building blocks of thought and represent
truly possess understanding and mental larger categories of knowledge.
states. 2. Prototypes:
• John Searle notes that computer programs have • Especially representative examples of concepts used
syntax, not semantics, unlike human thought with for categorization.
intentionality. • The most prominent and recognizable instance of a
3. Cognitive Science: particular concept.
• Interdisciplinary study of intelligence. • Help compare and classify new objects.
• Emerged in the 1970s. 3. Propositions:
• Combines psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, • Units of meaning composed of multiple concepts.
anthropology, and computer science. • Express a single idea or statement.
Behaviourist Vs Cognitivist Approach: • Example: "dogs are clever".
Cognitive Psychologists: 4. Schemas:
• Study internal mental behavior through experiments. • Complex mental representations of what we know
• Emphasize mediational processes between stimulus about a concept.
and response. • Mental frameworks used to understand and
• Learning involves transforming and rearranging interpret the world.
existing knowledge. • Built upon concepts and help us organize our
• Teachers guide students to figure out concepts knowledge and expectations.
independently. 5. Templates:
Behaviorists: • Abstract schemas that provide a general
• Focus on observable, measurable behavior. representation rather than specific details.
• Believe internal behavior cannot be studied. • Used as a structured framework for tasks or
• Learning is shaped by external stimuli and activities.
reinforcement. • Example: A researcher's knowledge about how to
• Emphasize repetitive practice for desired behaviors. write a research report.
Similarities: 6. Mental Models:
• Aim to improve teaching and learning. • Representations of possibilities or potential states of
• Consider previous knowledge in instruction. affairs in the world.
• Both approaches are used in classrooms. • Each model represents a specific scenario or
situation.
• Used for reasoning, understanding, and making
predictions about the world.
Assimilation and Accommodation:
• Assimilation: Incorporating new information into
existing schemas without significant changes.
• Accommodation: Modifying or creating schemas to
Cognitive Approach Summary: incorporate new information that doesn't fit existing
• Cognitive psychology is a scientific field based on schemas.
laboratory experiments. • Assimilation involves broadening current schemas,
• Behavior is explained through the information while accommodation may require changing or
processing approach. creating new schemas.
• The mind functions similarly to a computer, processing • These processes allow for learning, adaptation, and
input, storing, and retrieving information. the development of more complex schemas.
• Mediational processes occur between stimulus and Who Should Study Cognitive Psychology?
response. Students in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-
The building blocks of thought: ‘Mental Representations organizational psychology, artificial intelligence, and
related areas. Engineers, scientists, artists, architects, and
1. Concepts:
designers seeking to understand internal mental states
• Mental categories that group objects, relations, and processes. Teachers, educators, and curriculum
activities, and abstractions. designers interested in how people process, learn, and
• Can be hierarchically structured. remember information.
 ATTENTION

Introduction - Cognitive factors (interest, attitude, and preparatory

▪ Attention is an active component of consciousness set)
▪ Attention involves concentrating the mind on a specific Theories of Selective Attention:
matter Filter theory:
▪ Attention and consciousness are related but distinct - Stimuli enter receptors and go through a selective filter
concepts - Only one stimulus passes through for higher-level
Definitions processing
▪ Dumville defines attention as the concentration of Filter-attenuation theory:
consciousness on one object over others. - Stimuli not accessing the filter are weakened but not
▪ Morgan and Gilliland define attention as being keenly completely blocked
aware of a specific factor in the environment, which - Personally relevant stimuli can be noticed even at a low
prepares us for a response. level of sound
Characteristics of attention Multimode theory:
▪ Selective mental activity: Attention involves focusing on - Attention allows stimulus selection at three stages:
a specific stimulus or activity while disregarding other sensory representations, semantic representations,
distracting stimuli. and consciousness
▪ Shifting/changeable: Attention constantly shifts from - More processing requires more mental effort
one object or aspect to another. - Early selection (stage one processing) requires less
▪ Focus of consciousness: Attention involves directing mental effort than late selection (stage three
consciousness towards a particular object. processing)
▪ State of preparedness/alertness: Attention requires 2. Sustained Attention
being alert and ready to process information. Factors Influencing Sustained Attention:
▪ Motor and sensory adjustments: Attention involves • Sensory modality: Superior performance with auditory
making adjustments in motor and sensory processes. stimuli compared to visual stimuli
→ Attention deficit: Attention deficit can occur in • Clarity of stimuli: Intense and long-lasting stimuli
conditions such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity facilitate sustained attention and improve performance
Disorder (ADHD), characterized by difficulties in • Temporal uncertainty: Regularly appearing stimuli are
sustaining attention and being highly distractible. attended to better than irregularly appearing stimuli
▪ Limited capacity: Attention has a limited capacity to • Spatial uncertainty: Fixed-location stimuli are more
receive stimuli, referred to as the "span of attention" or easily attended to than stimuli appearing at random
"perceptual span." locations
▪ Span of attention: The span of attention is the amount Practical Implications of Attention:
of information an individual can grasp from a complex o Designing number plates of motorbikes and cars to be
array of stimuli at a single momentary exposure. easily noticed by traffic police
→ Magic number: The "magic number" is the widely o Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a
cited limit of seven plus or minus two items that can common behavioral disorder in primary school-age
be attended to at a time, although this can vary under children
exceptional conditions. 3. Divided Attention:
Implications in education and driving: Attention difficulties - People can attend to multiple things simultaneously,
can affect learning and performance in school, and but with varying levels of effort and attention
distractions can impact tasks such as driving. allocation.
Types of Attention - Highly practiced activities can be performed with
1. Selective Attention: divided attention.
Factors Affecting Selective Attention: - Automatic processing:
External factors: o Occurs without intention
- Size, intensity, and motion of stimuli o Takes place unconsciously
- Novelty and moderate complexity of stimuli o Involves minimal thought processes
- Human photographs and rhythmic auditory stimuli Multitasking and Divided Attention:
- Sudden and intense stimuli - Multitasking involves attempting to perform multiple
Internal factors: tasks simultaneously.
- Motivational factors (biological or social needs)
- Research shows that multitasking leads to more - Cognitive load refers to the total mental effort used in
mistakes and slower task performance. working memory.
- Dividing attention among multiple tasks increases - Attention increases cognitive load.
cognitive load. - Limited cognitive resources are similar to limited
Cognitive Load: memory storage in a computer
PERCEPTION

Definition of Perception: - When there are gaps or missing parts in a visual

- Perception is the process of receiving and making sense of stimulus, our perceptual system fills in the missing
information about the world around us. information to create a complete whole.
- It involves selecting, categorizing, and interpreting - We tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete
information based on existing knowledge. by mentally closing the gaps.
- It helps individuals give meaning to their environment. • Continuity:
Perceptual Stages: - We tend to perceive continuous patterns and lines
Sensation: Detecting stimuli in the immediate environment. rather than disjointed or fragmented ones.
Selection: Eliminating some stimuli and retaining others for - Our perceptual system prefers smooth and
further processing. continuous lines or patterns, even if they are
Organization: Placing selected stimuli into a framework for interrupted or overlapped.
storage. 4. Interpreting:
Translation: Interpreting stimuli and giving them meaning. • Attribution: Explaining behavior by assigning causes or
motives to it.
Perceptual Process: • Stereotyping: Making assumptions about people based
1. Receiving Stimuli: External and internal factors influence on generalizations about their social or demographic
what stimuli we notice. group.
2. Selecting Stimuli: • Halo Effect: Forming a positive bias based on an overall
• External factors : Nature, Location, Size, Contrast, positive impression of a person.
Movement, Repetition, Similarity • Projection: Attributing one's own thoughts or
• Internal factors: Learning, needs, age, Interest. characteristics to others as a defense mechanism.
3. Organizing: 5. Response:
a. Law of Figure and Ground: • Covert responses include attitudes, motivation, and
- Gestalt psychologists propose that our perception is feelings
oriented toward perceiving a good figure. • Overt responses involve observable behavior.
- The visual field is organized into a figure (the object Processing Approaches in Perception:
of focus) and a ground (the background). 1. Bottom-up Processing:
- Certain aspects of the visual field stand out as - Recognition begins from the parts and builds up to
separate entities (figures), while others recede into recognize the whole.
the background (ground). - Perception is data-driven, starting from sensory input.
- For example, words on a page, a painting on a wall, - Emphasizes the features of stimuli in perception.
or birds in the sky are perceived as figures against a - James Gibson's theory suggests that perception is
background. direct and does not require learning.
b. Perceptual Grouping - Perception is a process of mental construction.
• Proximity: 2. Top-Down Processing:
- Elements that are close to each other are perceived - Recognition begins from the whole and identifies its
as belonging together. components.
- When objects or elements are grouped closely - Uses contextual information and past experience to
together, we perceive them as a single unit or group. understand stimuli.
• Similarity: - Cognitive style, such as field dependent and field
- Elements that are similar in appearance (e.g., color, independent, influences perception.
shape, size) are perceived as belonging together. - Richard Gregory's theory emphasizes the role of past
- Similarity in characteristics leads to grouping and the experience and inferences in perception.
perception of a cohesive whole. - Perception involves making the best guess or
• Closure: hypothesis about what is perceived.
Gibson's Theory:
 - Perception is not subject to hypotheses but is a direct - Motion parallax is an example supporting the direct
phenomenon. perception of size and distance based on visual cues.
- Our environment provides sufficient information for
perception without relying on prior knowledge.
COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Introduction Cognitive Development:

• Multiple brain areas are crucial for language • Cognitive development is the emergence of the
development and comprehension. ability to think and understand.
• Children, especially those with language learning • It involves acquiring the ability to think, reason, and
abilities, have a remarkable ability to learn language. problem-solve.
• Initial language learning begins in the first year of life, • Piaget studied cognitive development by observing
but full language development takes years. children's thought processes.
• Some individuals learn multiple languages fluently, often • It is a gradual and orderly process that becomes more
from childhood. complex and sophisticated over time.
• Multiple theories explain the development of language • New schemes are established, and assimilation and
and related brain structures in children. accommodation play key roles.
Cognitivist Theory Key Ideas: Key Concepts:
• Learning combines previous knowledge with new • Assimilation: Integrating new ideas into existing
information. cognitive structures.
- Input: Receiving information. • Accommodation: Adjusting or modifying schemas as
- Process: Encoding information for memory. new information is assimilated.
- Output: Retrieving information for specific purposes. • Equilibrium: The balance between assimilation and
• Learning is a meaning-making process. accommodation in cognitive development.
• Teaching requires understanding students' mental Developmental Stages:
models. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):
• Students construct their own meanings. - Differentiation between self and objects.
• Assessment is integral to learning. - Development of sensory knowledge and object
Cognitivist and Constructivist Theories of Learning: permanence.
• Jean Piaget's theory of language development: 2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years):
Children use assimilation and accommodation to learn - Language development and representation of objects
language. through words and images.
• Lev Vygotsky's theory of language development: - Egocentric thinking and difficulty considering others'
Focuses on social learning and the zone of proximal viewpoints.
development (ZPD). - Challenges with conservation.
• Jerome Bruner's contribution to the cognitive 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):
revolution: Emphasized the construction of meaning - Logical thinking about objects and events.
and criticized the information processing metaphor. - Ability to use rules to solve problems.
Highlighted the role of culture in shaping thoughts and - Grasping the concept of conservation.
language expression. 4. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years):
I. Jean Piaget's Theory: - Flexible thinking and ability to reason about abstract
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a prominent concepts.
developmental psychologist. - Symbolic thinking and the use of symbols to represent
• He focused on understanding how children learn and mathematical equations.
develop their knowledge. - Concerns with hypothetical situations and the future.
• Piaget's theory emphasizes children's cognitive II. Social Development/Constructivist Theory:
development. Definition:
• It proposes discrete stages of development with • Social construction emphasizes culture and context
qualitative differences. in constructing knowledge.
• It is concerned with children rather than all learners. • Acknowledges the importance of social interactions
• Piaget's theory examines how thought processes and cultural influences.
change with age. Key Ideas/Concepts:
 • Cognitive development is a social process 6. Social Learning
influenced by language. • Emphasizes the social nature of learning.
• Intellectual growth relies on the development of • Adults play an active role in facilitating children's
social language. learning.
• Children develop in a social world, influenced by • Teachers encourage and support students.
their environment, culture, and social interactions. 7. Scaffolding
• Learning is based on real-life experiences and • Complex tasks are broken down into smaller,
requires social and cultural interaction. manageable steps.
• Language is crucial for learning and communication • Adults provide support, gradually reducing it as
between adults and children. learning progresses.
• Children internalize language as thought and use 8. Spiral Curriculum
inner speech. • Opposes Piaget's stages of learning and readiness.
• Vygotsky's theory focuses on social learning and the • Topics revisited at deeper and more complex levels.
zone of proximal development (ZPD). • Helps learners make connections and link concepts.
• The ZPD is the gap between a child's potential and
actual learning through social interactions.
• Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social
interactions in language development, contrasting
with Piaget's views.
III. Bruner's Theory on Constructivism
1. Jerome Bruner
9. Advantage and Criticism
• American psychologist focused on schooling
• Advantage: Spiral curriculum promotes deeper
• Believed education should reflect societal values.
understanding and concept linking.
• Influenced by Vygotsky and social constructivism.
• Criticism: Some learners may find the approach
• Interested in the influence of context and culture
repetitive.
on learning.
IV. Cognitivist Theories: Key Impacts on Learning
2. Modes of Making Sense
1. Child/Learner-Centered Approach
• Enactive: Understanding through actions and
• Emphasizes discovery learning, active learning, inquiry-
muscle memory.
based learning, and reciprocal learning.
• Iconic: Mental images and pictures aid learning.
• Learning is focused on the needs and interests of the
• Symbolic: Information stored as code, symbols, and learner.
language.
2. Teacher as Facilitator
3. Constructivist Approach
• Teachers guide and assist students in their learning
• Learning is an active process.
process.
• Learners construct new ideas based on prior
• The role is to facilitate learning rather than simply
knowledge.
transmitting information.
• Supports discovery learning and problem-solving
• The concepts of the zone of proximal development
activities. (ZPD) and scaffolding are employed.
• Meaning is central to cognition and understanding. 3. Education Shaped by Society
4. Language
• Education aligns with societal values and belief
• Language is crucial for developing thinking skills, systems.
problem-solving, and understanding abstract
• The broader social context influences the content and
concepts.
methods of teaching.
5. Motivation
• Learners need to be interested and motivated to learn By : Majda
effectively.