Networks

 Networks can range from simple configurations with two

computers to extensive networks connecting millions of devices.
 Businesses and large organizations utilize networks for tasks such
as information storage, consolidation, and access to network
servers.
 Essential network services include email, instant messaging, and
collaboration tools for employees.
 Different types of networks exist, including:
1. Small Networks:
 Peer-to-Peer Networks: Common in small businesses and
home settings, where multiple computers function as both
servers and clients. Each device can share resources directly
with others without a centralized server.
 Small Home Networks: Typically consist of a few
computers connected to each other and to the internet,
allowing for shared access to resources like printers and files.
2. Small Office and Home Office (SOHO) Networks:
 These networks facilitate connections between a home office
or remote office and a corporate network, enabling access to
centralized resources and services.
3. Medium to Large Networks:
 Used by corporations and educational institutions, these
networks can span multiple locations and connect hundreds
or thousands of devices. They often require more
sophisticated management and security measures to handle
the larger volume of data and users.
4. World Wide Networks:
 The internet itself is the largest example of a network of
networks, connecting millions of computers globally. It
provides a vast array of services and resources accessible
from virtually anywhere.
In summary, networks are essential for facilitating communication,
collaboration, and access to information in various contexts, from
simple home setups to complex corporate infrastructures.
Client-Server Communications
 In network terminology, computers involved in the communication
are categorized as hosts, also referred to as end devices,
endpoints, or nodes.
 Servers are specialized computers equipped with software to
provide services to other devices on the network.
 Servers can be single-purpose (e.g., only serving web pages) or
multipurpose (e.g., serving web pages, emails, and files).
 Client computers have the necessary software to request and
display information from servers, and a single computer can run
different types of client software.
 Examples of server types include:
1. Hosts: In networking terminology, all devices involved in
communication are classified as hosts. These are also known as end
devices, endpoints, or nodes. They play a crucial role in the network
by sending and receiving data.
2. Servers: Servers are specialized computers that run specific
software designed to provide services to other devices on the
network. They can be categorized into two types:
 Single-purpose servers: These servers are dedicated to
providing one specific service. For example, a web server
may only serve web pages to clients.
 Multipurpose servers: These servers can handle multiple
types of services simultaneously. For instance, a single server
might provide web hosting, email services, and file transfer
capabilities.
3. Clients: Client computers are equipped with software that allows
them to request information from servers and display the received
data. A single client device can run various types of client software,
enabling it to interact with different servers for different services.
For example:
 File Server: A file server stores corporate and user files
centrally, allowing clients to access these files using client
software like Windows Explorer.
 Web Server: A web server hosts websites and serves web
pages to clients using browser software, such as Google
Chrome or Mozilla Firefox.
 Email Server: An email server manages email
communications, with clients accessing their emails through
mail client software like Microsoft Outlook or Thunderbird.
In summary, the Client-Server model is fundamental to network
communications, where servers provide resources and services, and
clients utilize these services to perform tasks such as accessing files,
browsing the web, or sending emails.

Typical Network Sessions

 Network users typically utilize devices to connect with servers,
which may be in proximity or distant locations.
 Example scenarios illustrating this include:
1. At School:
 Students, like Terry, use laptops and tablets to access
learning resources via the school's Wi-Fi network.
 When Terry performs a search using a search engine, her
device sends the search query wirelessly to the school's
network. This data is encoded into binary and transmitted as
radio waves, which are then converted into electrical signals.
 The request travels through the school's wired network to the
Internet Service Provider (ISP), where it reaches the search
engine's servers. The results are processed and sent back to
her device through the same network path.
2. While Gaming:
 Michelle connects her gaming console to the internet via a
router and cable modem, which allows her home network to
access her ISP's cable TV network.
 Her gaming actions generate data that is transmitted to the
gaming network, including her identity, the game being
played, and her network location. This data is sent at high
speeds to the game provider's network, where the results
(graphics and sounds) are returned to her console.
3. In Medical Consultations:
 Dr. Ismael Awad uses a cloud service to consult with
specialists regarding patient cases. His hospital digitizes
patient X-rays and encrypts this data for secure transmission.
 When an X-ray is taken, the image is sent over the internet to
a cloud service provider's data centre, where it can be stored
and retrieved securely. The data is addressed correctly to
ensure it reaches the intended service.
These examples demonstrate how various technologies and protocols
facilitate communication between users and servers in different
environments, highlighting the complexity and efficiency of modern
network sessions.
Tracing Network Paths
 Cybersecurity analysts must understand network operations
thoroughly to trace traffic origins and destinations.
 Network traffic from a computer to an internet server typically
journeys over diverse paths reliant on copper and fibre-optic
cables, both terrestrial and submarine.
 Global ISPs, categorized as Tier 1 and Tier 2, interconnect various
internet segments through Internet Exchange Points (IXP).
 Local networks connect to these ISPs via Points of Presence
(PoP), facilitating access for homes and businesses through Tier 3
ISPs.

Communications Protocols
 Communication between end devices necessitates adherence to
established rules called protocols, which govern how messages
are transmitted.
 Network protocols detail the specifics surrounding message
encoding, formatting, size, timing, and delivery methods.
 Commonly utilized network protocols include:
 Effective communication relies on a structured message
framework, with protocols managing information sharing, session
management, and pathway sharing.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as the backbone of both
internet and modern networking technologies.
 Recognized for being both an open standard and standards-
based, TCP/IP is universally approved within the networking
industry.
 Key protocols in the TCP/IP suite are organized across several
layers, described as follows:
1. Application Layer: Responsible for providing network services
directly to end-user applications. Key protocols include:
  DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names into
IP addresses.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns IP
addresses dynamically to devices on a network.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Facilitates the sending
of emails.
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Governs the exchange of
multimedia files on the web.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Allows for the transfer of files
between hosts.
2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transmission between
devices. It includes:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable,
connection-oriented communication, ensuring that data is
delivered accurately and in order.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers a connectionless
communication method, which is faster but does not
guarantee delivery or order.
3. Internet Layer: Responsible for addressing and routing packets of
data. Key protocols include:
 IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): Uses 32-bit addresses for
routing packets.
 IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): The successor to IPv4,
utilizing 128-bit addresses to accommodate the growing
number of devices on the internet.
 NAT (Network Address Translation): Allows multiple devices
on a local network to share a single public IP address.
4. Network Access Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of
data over network media. It includes:
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to
MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
 Ethernet: Defines the wiring and signalling standards for local
area networks (LANs).
Benefits of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite:
 Interoperability: Allows different types of devices and networks to
communicate with each other, regardless of their underlying technology.
 Scalability: Can accommodate a growing number of devices and
increased data traffic.
 Flexibility: Supports a variety of applications and services, making it
suitable for diverse networking environments.
In summary, the TCP/IP protocol suite is essential for facilitating
communication over the internet and within networks, providing a
structured approach to data transmission across various layers, each
with its own set of protocols and functions.

Message Formatting and Encapsulation

 Message delivery across networks adheres to specific structure
mandates, impacting how data is encoded and transferred.
 The encapsulation process involves placing a message within
another to convey it over the network (analogous to sending a
letter in an envelope).
 Each layer of the network encounters and processes data
differently, referred to as Protocol Data Units (PDU), which vary
by layer:
 Proper message size and timing are crucial for effective
communication, influencing how information is parsed and
transmitted.

Data Encapsulation Techniques

 Data segmentation is vital for efficient network communication,
dividing large streams of data into manageable packets for
transmission.
 Each packet can navigate different paths to destinations,
promoting both speed and reliability.
 Sequencing is essential to ensure packets are reassembled
correctly upon arrival, a role fulfilled by TCP.
 Encapsulation includes adding relevant information at various
protocol levels leading to the transmission of data.
 The reverse process, de-encapsulation, involves stripping headers
from received messages as they ascend through the protocol
stack to reach applications.
 Lab activities may include analysing network traffic using tools
like Wireshark to enhance understanding of data encapsulation
and transmission protocols.