COMPUTER NETWORKS SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Introduction: Uses of Computer Networks, Types of networks: WAN, LAN, MAN, Network
Topologies, Reference models: OSI, TCP/IP.
Physical Layer: Transmission media: magnetic media, twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics,
wireless transmission.

UNIT II
Data link layer: Design issues in data link layer: framing, flow control, error control, Error
Detection and Correction: Parity, CRC checksum, Hamming code, Flow Control: Sliding Window
Protocols, Applications : Data link layer protocols HDLC, PPP.

UNIT III
Medium Access sub layer: Channel allocation problem, MAC Protocols: ALOHA, CSMA,
CSMA/CD, MAC addresses, IEEE 802.X, Standard Ethernet, Wireless LANS. Bridges, Types of
Bridges.

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UNIT IV

Network Layer: Design issues in Network Layer, Virtual circuit and Datagram subnets-Routing
algorithm: Shortest path routing, Flooding, distance vector routing, Link state routing,
Hierarchical routing, Broad casting, Multi casting, Routing for mobile hosts.
Internetworking: Concatenated Virtual Circuits, Connectionless internetworking, Tunneling,
Internetwork routing, Fragmentation.

UNIT V

Network layer in internet: IPv4, IP addresses, Sub netting, Super netting, NAT.
Internet control protocols: ICMP, ARP, RARP, DHCP, Network Layer in ATM Networks.
Congestion Control: Principles of Congestion, Congestion Prevention Policies.
Congestion Control in datagram Subnet: Choke packet, load shedding, jitter control.
Quality of Service: Leaky Bucket algorithm and token bucket algorithm.

UNIT VI

Transport Layer: Transport Services, Connection establishment, Connection release and TCP
and UDP protocols.
Application Layer: Domain name system, FTP, HTTP, SMTP, WWW

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TEXT BOOKS

1. Computer Networks — Andrew S Tanenbaum, 4th Edition. Pearson

Education/PHI
2. Data Communications and Networking – Behrouz A. Forouzan.Third
Edition TMH.
3.Data Communication and Netwoks- ,Bhushan Trivedi, Oxford Higher
Education.

REFERENCES
1. An Engineering Approach to Computer Networks-S.Keshav, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education
2. Understanding communications and Networks, 3rd Edition, W.A. Shay,
Thomson

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Chapter 1

Introduction

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 What is Computer Network
• A collection of Autonomous computers
interconnected by any media.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected
if they are able to exchange information.
• The connection may be via a copper wire/
fiber optics/microwaves/infrared/ satellites.
 Why people are interested in
Computer Networks
• Resource sharing:
To make all physical resources such as printers,
scanners, equipment, etc., available to anyone on the
network without regard to the physical location of
the resource and the user.
• Information sharing:
Allowing users to access relevant information and
documents, i.e data available to any one on the
network instantly without regard to the location of
the data and the user accessing it.
Uses of Computer Networks

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues

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Business Applications of Networks
• A network with two clients and one server.

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Business Applications of Networks (2)
• The client-server model involves requests and
replies.

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 Home Applications

• Access to remote information

• Person-to-person communication
• Interactive entertainment
• Electronic commerce

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 Home Applications (2)
• In peer-to-peer system there are no fixed
clients and servers.

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 Home Applications (3)
• Some forms of e-commerce.

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 Mobile Users
• Combinations of wireless networks and
mobile computing.

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 Types of Network
• Local Area Networks
• Metropolitan Area Networks
• Wide Area Networks

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Types of transmission technology

• Broadcast links
• Point-to-point links

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 Broadcast Networks (2)
• Classification of interconnected processors by
scale.

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 Network
• Network: A set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links
• Node: Computer, printer, or any device capable of sending and/or
receiving data
• To be considered effective and efficient, a network must meet a
number of criteria

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Type of Connection

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 Type of Connection
• Point-to-point
– Dedicated link between two devices
– The entire capacity of the channel is reserved
– Ex) Microwave link, TV remote control

• Multipoint
– More than two devices share a single link
– Capacity of the channel is either
• Spatially shared: Devices can use the link simultaneously
• Timeshare: Users take turns

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Physical Topology

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 Mesh Topology
• Dedicated point-to-point link to
every other nodes
• A mesh network with n nodes
has n(n-1)/2 links. A node has
n-1 I/O ports (links)
• Advantages: No traffic
problems, robust, security, easy
fault identification & isolation
• Disadvantages: Difficult
installation/reconfiguration,
space, cost

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 Star Topology
• Dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, called a hub
• Hub acts as an exchange: No direct traffic between devices
• Advantages: Less expensive, robust
• Disadvantages: dependency of the whole on one single point, the hub

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 Bus Topology
• One long cable that links all nodes
• tap, drop line, cable end
• limit on the # of devices, distance between nodes
• Advantages: Easy installation, cheap
• Disadvantages: Difficult reconfiguration, no fault isolation, a fault or
break in the bus stops all transmission

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 Ring Topology
• Dedicated point-to-point link only with the two nodes on each sides
• One direction, repeater
• Advantages: Easy reconfiguration, fault isolation
• Disadvantage: Unidirectional traffic, a break in the ring cab disable the
entire network

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 Hybrid Topology
• Example: Main star topology with each branch connecting several stations
in a bus topology
• To share the advantages from various topologies

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Categories of Networks

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 LAN
• Usually privately owned
• A network for a single office, building, or campus  a few Km
• Common LAN topologies: bus, ring, star
• An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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 MAN
• Designed to extend to an entire city
• Cable TV network, a company’s connected LANs
• Owned by a private or a public company

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 WAN
• Long distance transmission, e.g., a country, a continent, the world
• Enterprise network: A WAN that is owned and used by one company

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 Internetwork
• Internetwork (internet) : two or more networks are
connected by internetworking devices
• Internetworking devices: router, gateway, etc.
• The Internet: a specific worldwide network

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 Internetwork Example
• A heterogeneous network : four WANs and two LANs

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 Network Software
• Protocol Hierarchies
• Design Issues for the Layers
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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 Protocol Hierarchies
• To reduce the design complexity, most
networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, name of the layers,
function of the layers differ from one network
to other.
• Each Layer is to offer certain services to the
higher layers.
• Each layer shields the details of how the
offered services to the higher layers
Technical words
• Protocol : The rules and conventions used in the conversation
between layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine
are collectively known as the layer n protocol.
A Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties
on how communication is to proceed.
• Peers: The entities comprising the corresponding layers on
different machines are called peers.
• Interface: Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
The interface defines which primitive operations and services
the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
• Network Architecture: A set of layers and protocols is called
a network architecture.
• Protocol stack: A list of protocols used by a certain system,
one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.
Layered Model: Sending a Letter

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 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

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 Protocol Hierarchies (2)

The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.

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 Protocol Hierarchies (3)

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

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 Design Issues for the Layers
• Addressing
• Rules for data transfer
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Disassembly and Reassembly
• Multiplexing
• Routing

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Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services
Six different types of service.

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 Service Primitives
• Five service primitives for implementing
a simple connection-oriented service.
 Service Primitives (2)
• Packets sent in a simple client-server
interaction on a connection-oriented
network.
 Services to Protocols Relationship
• The relationship between a service and a
protocol.
 Reference Models
• The OSI Reference Model
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
• A Critique of the OSI Model and
Protocols
• A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference
Model
 Reference Models

The OSI
reference
model.
 Reference Models (2)
• The TCP/IP reference model.
 Reference Models (3)
• Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model
initially.
 OSI Model
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model

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Interaction between layers in the OSI model
Layer and interface

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An exchange using the OSI model
Encapsulation with header and possibly trailer

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 Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next
• Mechanical and electrical specification, the procedures and functions

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 Physical Layer: Duties
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode

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 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from
one hop (node) to the next
• Transform the physical layer to a reliable (error-free) link

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 Data Link Layer: Duties
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Flow control
• Error control

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Hop-to-Hop Delivery

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 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
packets from the source host to the destination host

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 Network Layer: Duties
• Logical addressing and routing

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 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a
message from one process to another

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 Transport Layer: Duties
• Service-point (port) addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control

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Reliable Process-to-Process Delivery of a Message

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 Session Layer
• Session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization

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 Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption

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 Application Layer
• Application layer is responsible for providing services to
the user

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 Application Layer: Services

• Mail services
• File transfer, access, and management
• Directory services

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Summary of Layers

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TCP/IP and OSI Model

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Host-to-network : Physical and data link layer
– No specific protocol
• Network layer
– IP(Internet Protocl), ARP(Address Resolution Protocol),
RARP(Reverse ARP), ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol),
IGMP(Internet Group Message Protocol)
• Transport layer
– TCP(Transmission Control Protocol), UDP(User Datagram Protocl),
SCTP(Stream Control Transmission Protocol),
• Application Layer
– Combined session, presentation, and application layers

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 Addressing
• Four levels of addresses in TCP/IP protocols
• Physical (link), logical (IP, network), port, and specific addresses

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Relationship of Layers and
Addresses

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 Physical Address
• A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical
address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).
As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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 Logical (IP) Address

• The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical
addresses usually remain the same
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 Port Address
• The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and
port addresses usually remain the same

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 Specific Address
• Some application have user-friendly addresses
that are designed for that specific address
• Example 1: e-mail address: [email protected]
– Defines the recipient of an e-mail
• Example 2: URL (Universal Resource Locator, now
it is renamed as Uniform Resource Locator) :
www.kbs.co.kr
– Used to find a document on the WWW

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The physical layer
 Physical Layer
The purpose of the physical layer is to transport a raw bit
stream from one machine to another.
Various physical media can be used for the actual
transmission.
Transmission Media:
Media are grouped into guided media and unguided media.
Guided media means waves are guided along solid
medium.
Ex: copper wire, fiber optics.
Unguided media is a media doesn't use any physical
connectors between the two devices communicating.
Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere.
Ex: radio waves, micro waves, Infrared waves
The physical layer and transmission Medium
Classes of transmission media
Guided Transmission Data

• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
 Magnetic Media
• One of the common way to transport data from
one computer to another is to write them on to
magnetic tape or removable media (DVD)
physically transport the tape or DVD to the
destination machine and read them.
• The tape densities are increasing.
• It is not suitable in applications, where on-line
connection is needed
 Twisted Pair
• Oldest transmission media
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires typically about
1mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
• Twisting reduces interference (two parallel wires constitute a simple
antenna; a twisted pair does not.)
• Cheap medium
• Commonly used for communications within buildings and in
telephone networks
• For longer distance repeaters are needed.
• Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital
signals.
• Produced in unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP) forms, and in
different performance categories.
• Cables may hold hundreds of pairs. Neighbor pairs typically have
different twist lengths to reduce crosstalk.
• Category 5 has more twists per centimeter.
Twisted-pair cable
 Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.
UTP and STP cables
 Coaxial Cable
Pair of conductors separated by insulation
• It has better shielding than twisted pair
• Offers longer distances and better speeds than twisted pair, due to
better shielding.
• Used for cable TV and local-area networks. Had been widely
used in telephone systems, but optical fiber is now assuming this
task.
• Baseband Coaxial Cable 50-ohm cable, commonly used for
digital transmission. Broadband Coaxial Cable 75-ohm cable,
commonly used for analog transmission.
• A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core,
surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by
a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided mesh.
The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
• Good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise
immunity.
• It is widely used for cable television and metropolitan
networks.
Coaxial cable
Categories of coaxial cables
 Fiber Optics
Optical Fiber
• Three key components: light source, transmission system, and a
detector
• The detector generates an electric pulse when hit by light
• 1-a pulse of light; 0-missing pulse of light.
• optical rays travel in ultra-thin fiber of glass
• By attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a
detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data transmission
system
• accepts an electrical signal converts to light at sending side
transmits light pulses and then reconverts the light pulses to an
electrical signal at the receiving end.
• A light ray incident at or above the critical angle is trapped inside
the fiber.
Bending of light ray
Optical fiber
 Fiber optic cable
• Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the
braid.
• At the center is the glass core through which the light
propagates.
• Multimode fiber, the core is typically 50 microns
• Single mode fiber, the core is 8 to 10 microns.
• The core is surrounded by a glass cladding, to keep all the
light in the core.
• Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
• Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer
sheath.
• Fibers can be connected in three different ways.
1. plugged in to fiber Sockets.
2. Mechanical splices: clamp the two ends of fiber
3. fusion splice: two pieces of fiber can be fused(melted) to
form a solid connection
 Fiber optic cable contd…
Two kinds of light sources are typically used to do the
signaling. Electrical signals are converted into light.
• LED ( Light Emitting Diode)
• semiconductor lasers
Light Detector
• Photo diode: it gives an electrical pulse when struck by
light.
Fiber optics can be used for LANs as well as for long
transmission.
Two types of interfaces are used.
1) passive interface 2) active interface
 Fiber Cables

(a) Side view of a single fiber.

(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
 Fiber Optics contd..
• Many different rays will be bouncing internally
around at different angles. Each ray is said to have a
different mode, so a fiber having this property is
called a multimode fiber.
• If the fiber’s diameter is reduced to a few
wavelengths of light, the light can propagate only in a
straight line, without bouncing, this property is called
a single mode fiber.
• Single mode fiber are more expensive but are widely
used for longer distances.Transmit data at 50 Gbps
for 100Km without amplification.
Propagation modes
Modes
 Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

 Comparison between Fiber Optics and
Copper Wire
Fiber optic
1) It can handle higher bandwidth than copper
2) Due to low attenuation repeaters are needed only about every 50
km long line, whereas copper wire every 5 km
3) Cost saving as less repeaters are needed
4) Not being affected by electromagnetic interference or power
failures. It is not affected by corrosive chemicals
5) Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap, excellent
security against potentially wire tappers
6) Thin and light weight
7) Lower installation cost
8) Few skilled engineers having fiber technology are available
9) Fibers can be damaged easily by being bent too much.
10) Two way communication requires two fibers
11) Fiber interfaces are costly
12) Long distance fiber is good choice
 Wireless Transmission

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission
Wireless transmission waves
 Wireless transmission
Radio Transmission
• Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long advances,
and can penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used
for communication.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel
in all directions from the source.
• At low frequencies, radio waves power falls off with
distance from the source
• In the VLF,LF and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground.
• In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be
absorbed by the earth. The waves reach the ionosphere, a
layer of charged particles circling the earth at a height of
100 to 500 km, are refracted by it and sent back to earth.
• The military also communicate in the HF and VHF bands.
Propagation methods
Bands
 Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow

the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
 Wireless transmission
• Radio waves are used for multicast
communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems.
• Microwaves are used for uni-cast
communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks and wireless LANs.
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.