Real functions of one variable; domain and range

Types of functions and properties

Operations with functions

Unit 3. FUNCTIONS
Course: Mathematics I

Vladimir Zaiats

Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Year 2021–2022

Updated October 13, 2021

Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 1 / 65

Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Types of functions and properties
Operations with functions

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Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 2 / 65

 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Types of functions and properties
Operations with functions

1 Real functions of one variable; domain and range

Definition of a function
Specifying the domain and the range

2 Types of functions and properties

Important examples of functions
Linear functions
Graphical solution of linear systems
Important functions

3 Operations with functions

Mathematical operations with functions
Composite functions
Inverse functions

Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 3 / 65

 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Definition of a function

Functions are important in practically every area of pure and

applied mathematics, including mathematics applied to economics.
The language of economic analysis is full of terms like demand and
supply functions, cost functions, production functions,
consumption functions, etc.
In this unit we present a discussion of functions of one real
variable, illustrated by some very important economic examples.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Laffer curve
In economics, the Laffer curve,
popularised by supply-side
economist Arthur Laffer,
illustrates a theoretical
relationship between rates of
taxation and the resulting levels
of the government’s tax revenue.
The Laffer curve assumes that no
tax revenue is raised at the
extreme tax rates of 0% and
100%, and that there is a tax Source: Released to the public domain by
Lawrencekhoo
rate between 0% and 100% that
maximises government tax
revenue.
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 5 / 65
 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Laffer curve
One implication of the Laffer curve is that reducing or increasing
tax rates beyond a certain point is counter-productive for raising
further tax revenue.
In the United States, conservatives have used the Laffer Curve to
argue that lower taxes may increase tax revenue.
However, the hypothetical maximum revenue point of the Laffer
curve for any given economy cannot be observed directly and can
only be estimate — such estimates are often controversial.
The Laffer curve was popularised in the United States with
policymakers following an afternoon meeting with Ford
Administration officials Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld in 1974,
in which Arthur Laffer reportedly sketched the curve on a napkin
to illustrate his argument
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 6 / 65
 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Definition of a function

The Laffer curve relates each value of one variable (tax rate) to a
definite value of another variable (tax revenue).
If an electrocardiogram (ECG) is taken, a doctor observes a rule
showing electrical activity as a function of time.
In this way, one can give the following definition.
Definition 1
Let D ⊆ R. A function f of a real-valued variable x is a rule
assigning to each value x ∈ D a unique real number y = f (x ).
The set D is called the domain of the function f . The set of all
possible values y = f (x ) obtained when x runs over the domain D,
is called the range of the function f .

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Definition of a function

We call x the independent variable, or the argument of f .

The variable y is called the dependent variable, because the value
y (in general) depends on the value of x .
The domain of the function f is then the set of all possible values
of the independent variable, whereas the range is the set of
corresponding values of the dependent variable.
In economics, x is often called the exogenous variable, which is
supposed to be fixed outside the economic model, whereas for each
given x the equation y = f (x ) serves to determine the endogenous
variable y inside the economic model.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Definition of a function

Example 1
The total euro cost of producing x units of a product is given by
the formula: √
C (x ) = 100x x + 500,
for each nonnegative integer x .
Find the cost of producing 16 units.
Suppose the firm produces a units; find the increase in the cost
from producing one additional unit.

The cost of producing 16 units is:

√
C (16) = 100 · 16 · 16 + 500 = 100 · 16 · 4 + 500 = 6, 900 euros.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Definition of a function
The cost of producing a units is:
√
C (a) = 100 · a · a + 500.

If one additional unit is produced, we have (a + 1) units whose

production cost is:
√
C (a + 1) = 100 · (a + 1) · a + 1 + 500.

The increase in cost is

√
C (a + 1) − C (a) = 100 · (a + 1) · a + 1 + 500 −
√

− 100 · a · a + 500 =
h √ √ i
= 100 · (a + 1) a + 1 − a a .

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

The definition of a function is not really complete unless its
domain is either obvious or specified explicitly.
The natural domain of the function f defined by f (x ) = x 3 is the
set of all real numbers, D = R.
√
In Example 1, where C (x ) = 100x x + 500 denotes the cost of
producing x units of a product, the domain was specified as the set
of nonnegative integers, D = {x ∈ Z | x ≥ 0}.
We will adopt the following convention:
Convention on the domains of functions
If a function is defined using an algebraic formula, the domain
consists of all values of the independent variable for which the
formula gives a unique value, unless another domain is explicitly
mentioned.
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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

Example 2
Find the domains of the following functions:
1 √
(a) ; (b) 2x + 4.
x +3
Solution. (a) When we deal with a denominator, we should always
require that the expression contained in the denominator should
NOT be equal to zero.
In our case, this reduces to the inequality x + 3 6= 0, that is,
x 6= −3.
Therefore we can write the domain of f in the following ways:

Df = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, +∞) or Df = R \ {−3}.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

(b) When we deal with a square root, we should always require

that the expression contained under a square root sign should be
greater than or equal to zero.
In our case, this reduces to the inequality 2x + 4 ≥ 0, that is,
x ≥ −2.
Therefore we can write the domain of f as follows:

Df = [−2, +∞).

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

Let f be a function whose domain is D. The set of all values f (x )

that the function takes is called the range of f .
The domain of f is often denoted by Df , and the range, by Rf .
The graph of the function y = f (x ) is the set of all points
(x , f (x )), where x ∈ Df . Recall that in this case, the so-called
Cartesian coordinate system is used. It is formed by two
perpendicular oriented lines. The position of each point is specified
by a set of numerical coordinates.
These coordinates are the signed distances to the point from the
coordinate axes.
The coordinates (x , y ) are called the abscissa (x ) and the
ordinate (y ).

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

The Cartesian coordinate system

(0, 0) is the origin

Other three points
are marked and
labeled with their
coordinates:
(2, 3) in green,
(−3, 1) in red,
(−1.5, −2.5) in blue

Source: Released into the public domain by Kbolino

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Graphs of functions

Here you have 3 examples of graphs that represent functions

Source: Montse Corbera, own work

Any vertical line intersects each of these graphs at not more than
one point

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Graphs of functions
Here you have 3 examples of graphs that DO NOT represent
functions

Source: Montse Corbera, own work

Find those vertical lines that have more than one intersection with
each of these graphs
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 17 / 65
 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

Examine the following graph:

Source: Montse Corbera, own work

Does this graph represent a function?

If yes, find the domain and the range of this function
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 18 / 65
 Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Definition of a function
Types of functions and properties
Specifying the domain and the range
Operations with functions

Specifying the domain and the range

Yes, this graph represents a function, since any vertical line crosses
this graph at no more than one point.
The domain: Df = (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 3) ∪ [4, +∞)
The range: Rf = (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, +∞).
Important
When you use your calculator, and it returns Math ERROR, this
means that there are problems with the domains of definition of
the functions that are involved in the calculation.
√
Try to enter −8 or log 0 to your calculator. What result
√ do you
3
get? What is the error? Would it occur if you enter −8? Why?
HINT. In case of this type of error, use left or right arrow to
instantly get to the point where an error has occurred.
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 19 / 65
 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Important examples of functions

Here are six important examples of functions you should memorise.
Find the domain and the range of each of these functions.

Source: K. Sydsæter et al. Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Important examples of functions

Check your answers!

Function Domain Range

y =x R R
y= x2 R [0, +∞)
y = x3 R R
√
y= x [0, +∞) [0, +∞)
y = 1/x (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
y = |x | R [0, +∞)

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Definition 2
A linear function is defined by the following expression:

f (x ) = ax + b (1)

where a and b are real-valued constants.

The constant a is called the slope and b is said to be the
intercept.

The graph of (1) is a straight line.

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions
Take an arbitrary value of x ∈ R. Then

f (x + 1)−f (x ) = a(x + 1) + b−(ax +b) = 

ax b −
+ a +S −S
ax b = a.

Important
The constant a measures the change in the value of the linear
function when x increases by one unit.

For this reason, the number a is the slope of the line.

If the slope a is positive, then the line slants upward to the right. If
a is negative, then the line slants downward to the right.
If x = 0, then f (0) = a · 0 + b = b, and b is called the y -intercept,
or often just the intercept. It is the ordinate of the point where the
straight line intersects (“intercepts”) the Y -axis.
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 23 / 65
 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Example 3
Find and interpret the slopes of the following straight lines.
(a) The cost function for US Steel Corp. during the period
1917–1938 was estimated to be C = 55.73x + 182, 100, 000,
where C is the total cost in dollars per year, and x is the
production of steel in tons per year.
(b) The demand function for rice in India, for the period
1949–1964, was estimated to be q = −0.15p + 0.14, where p
is price per kilo in Indian rupees, and q is the annual
consumption per person, measured in kilos.

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions
Solution. (a) C = 55.73x + 182, 100, 000.
The slope is 55.73 meaning that if production increases by one ton,
then the cost increases by $55.73.
(b) q = −0.15p + 0.14.
The slope is −0.15 telling us that if the price increases by one
Indian rupee per kilo, then the quantity demanded decreases by
0.15 kilos per year.
The intercept can often be interpreted, too. In Example 3(a) it
would mean the cost of US Steel Corp. if no steel is produced.
On the other hand, in Example 3(b) a similar interpretation does
not make much sense: if the price for rice were 0 rupees, it would
be difficult to imagine that the annual rice consumption would
have been of only 0.14 kilos per person!
Vladimir Zaiats Mathematics I. Unit 3 25 / 65
 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Defining a linear function (1)

A straight line passing through two different points
A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ), A 6= B:

y − y1 y2 − y1
= . (2)
x − x1 x2 − x1

A straight line having slope a and passing through a point

A( x0 , y0 ):
y − y0 = a (x − x0 ). (3)
REMARK. Equation (3) can NEVER describe a vertical line.

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Defining a linear function (2)

A vertical line passing through a point A( x0 , y0 ):

x = x0 . (4)

REMARK. Strictly speaking, equation (4) does not

correspond to a function.
A horizontal line passing through a point A( x0 , y0 ):

y = y0 . (5)

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Defining a linear function (3)

A straight line parallel to a vector ~v = ( α , β ) (called the
direction vector) and passing through a point A( x0 , y0 ):

x − x0 y − y0
= . (6)
α β

A straight line perpendicular to a vector ~n = ( α , β ) (called

the normal vector) and passing through a point A( x0 , y0 ):

α (x − x0 ) + β (y − y0 ) = 0. (7)

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Example 4
Find the equation of the line passing through ( −1 , 3 ) and
( 5 , −2 ).

Solution. Apply pattern (2):

y− 3 −2 − 3 y −3 −5
= ⇐⇒ = ⇐⇒
x − ( −1 ) 5 − ( −1 ) x +1 6
5 5 5
⇐⇒ y − 3 = − (x + 1) ⇐⇒ y = − x − + 3 ⇐⇒
6 6 6
5 13 1
⇐⇒ y = − x + ⇐⇒ y = (−5x + 13)
6 6 6
The final result can also be written as 5x + 6y − 13 = 0

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

Example 5
Find the equation of the line through ( −2 , 3 ) with slope −4 .
Then find the y -intercept and the point at which this line
intersects the X -axis.

Solution. Apply pattern (3):

y − 3 = (−4) · (x − ( −2 )) ⇐⇒ y − 3 = (−4) · (x + 2)
⇐⇒ y − 3 = −4x − 8 ⇐⇒ y = −4x − 5

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Linear functions

The y -intercept is obtained by substituting x = 0 into the

equation: b = −4 · 0 − 5 = −5.
This means that the line y = −4x + 5 intersects the Y -axis at
(0, −5).
The point where the line y = −4x − 5 intersects the X -axis has
y = 0. Therefore 0 = −4x − 5 ⇔ x = − 45 .
The line y = −4x − 5 intersects the X -axis at (−5/4, 0).

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

Example 6
Solve each of the following systems of linear equations graphically:
( (
x +y =5 3x + y = −7
(a) (b)
x − y = −1 x − 4y = −2
( (
3x + 4y = 2 3x + 4y = 4
(c) (d)
6x + 8y = 24 6x + 8y = 8

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

Useful: How can we draw a straight line?

Recall that drawing a straight line given by an equation
y = ax + b, or in general, ax + by + c = 0, is quite simple.
You should recall that two points completely define a straight line.
Therefore one should find two points belonging to the line. The
easiest way is to put x = 0 in the equation and calculate y . Then
one can substitute y = 0 into the equation and calculate x .

For example, the equation x + y = 5 defines the line passing

through the points (0, 5) and (5, 0).
In a similar way, the line x − y = −1 passes through the points
(0, 1) and (−1, 0).

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

Solution of Example 6.
(a) As we just have said, the line
x + y = 5 runs through the
points (0, 5) and (5, 0), while the
line x − y = −1 passes through
the points (0, 1) and (−1, 0).
We plot these lines and find that
they intersect at the point (2, 3)
giving a solution to the system:
x = 2, y = 3 Source: K. Sydsæter et al. Essential Mathematics
for Economic Analysis

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

(b) The line 3x + y = −7 runs

through the points (0, −7) and
(−7/3, 0), while the line
x − 4y = 2 passes through the
points (0, −1/2) and (2, 0).
We plot these lines and find that
they intersect at the point
(−2, −1) giving a solution to the
system: x = −2, y = −1 Source: K. Sydsæter et al. Essential Mathematics
for Economic Analysis

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

(c) The line 3x + 4y = 2 runs

through the points (0, 1/2) and
(2/3, 0), while the line
6x + 8y = 24 passes through the
points (0, 3) and (4, 0).
We plot these lines and find that
they are parallel. Therefore the
system has no solutions.
This fact may be written as Source: K. Sydsæter et al. Essential Mathematic
follows: x ∈ ∅, y ∈ ∅ for Economic Analysis

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Graphical solution of linear systems

(d) The line 3x + 4y = 4 runs

through the points (0, 1) and 3x + 4y = 4, 6x + 8y = 8
(4/3, 0), and the line 6x + 8y = 8
passes through the points (0, 1)
and (4/3, 0), meaning that both
these two lines just coincide.
Therefore the system has infinite
solutions:
x ∈ R, y = 1 − 34 x .
(Here, we have just solved
Source: Own work
3x + 4y = 4 for y .)

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Important functions
We give a brief summary of other important functions.
Let r ∈ R be an arbitrary constant.
Definition 3 (Power function)

A power function is defined as follows:

f (x ) = x r , x > 0. (8)

Let a > 0, a 6= 1, be an arbitrary constant.

Definition 4 (Exponential function)

An exponential function is defined as follows:

f (x ) = ax , x ∈ R. (9)
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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Important functions

Let a > 0, a 6= 1, be an arbitrary constant.

Definition 5 (Logarithmic function)

A logarithmic function is defined as follows:

f (x ) = loga x , x > 0. (10)

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Power functions

Source: Own work based on Power function. Encyclopedia of Mathematics

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Exponential functions

Graphs of y = ax for various

bases a: a = 10, a = e, a = 2,
a = 1/2. Each curve passes
through the point (0, 1) because
any nonzero number raised to the
power of 0 is 1. At x = 1, the
value of y equals the base
because any number raised to the
power of 1 is the number itself.

Source: Released to the public domain by Jalanpalmer

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 Important examples of functions
Real functions of one variable; domain and range
Linear functions
Types of functions and properties
Graphical solution of linear systems
Operations with functions
Important functions

Logarithmic functions

y = loga x for: a > 1, 0<a<1 Source: Public domain

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Sum and difference of two functions

Suppose in general that f and g are functions having their

respective domains Df and Dg .

Definition 6 (Sum and difference of two functions)

The function F defined by the formula F (x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) for any

x ∈ Df ∩ Dg is called the sum of f and g, and denoted by
F = f + g.
The function G defined by G(x ) = f (x ) − g(x ) for any
x ∈ Df ∩ Dg is called the difference between f and g, and
denoted by G = f − g.

The graph of the sum F = f + g is obtained by piling the graph of

g on top of that of f .

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Product and ratio of two functions

Suppose in general that f and g are functions having their

respective domains Df and Dg .

Definition 7 (Product and ratio of two functions)

The function F defined by the formula F (x ) = f (x ) · g(x ) for any

x ∈ Df ∩ Dg is called the product of f and g, and denoted by
F = f · g, or F = fg.
The function G defined by G(x ) = f (x )/g(x ) for any
x ∈ Df ∩ {x ∈ Dg | g(x ) 6= 0} is called the ratio between f
and g, and denoted by G = f /g.

It is difficult to give useful general rules about the behaviour of the

graphs of fg and f /g given those of f and g.

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Composite functions
Suppose the demand for a commodity is a function f of its price p.
Suppose that price p is not constant, but depends on time t.
Then it is natural to regard f as a function of t.
In general, if y is a function of u, and u is a function of x , then y
can be regarded as a function of x .
Definition 8 (Composite function)
We call y a composite function of x. If we denote the two
functions involved by f and g, with y = f (u) and u = g(x ), then
we can replace u by g(x ) and so write y in the form
y (x ) = f (g(x )).
Note that when computing y , we first apply g to x to obtain g(x ),
and then we apply f to g(x ). Here, g(x ) is called the kernel, or
interior function, while f is called the exterior function.
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Composite functions

The function that maps x to f (g(x )) is often denoted by f ◦ g.

This is read as “f of g” or “f after g,” and is called the
composition of f with g.
Correspondingly, g ◦ f denotes the function that maps x to
g(f (x )). In this way, we have

(f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )) and (g ◦ f )(x ) = g(f (x )). (11)

Usually, f ◦ g and g ◦ f are quite different functions.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Composite functions

In order for the composite function f ◦ g(x ) = f (g(x )) to be

well-defined, the range Rg of the internal function g should be
contained in the domain Df of the external function f .

Source: Own work

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Composite functions

Example 7
Suppose that g(x ) = 2 − x 2 and f (u) = u 3 . Calculate the
compositions f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution. When we have (f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )), we first take x and

apply the function g to x : g(x ) = 2 − x 2 .
Then we take the result and apply the function f which raises its
argument to the third power.
The result of this second step will be (f ◦ g)(x ) = (2 − x 2 )3 .

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
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Composite functions

When we have (g ◦ f )(x ) = g(f (x )), we first take x and apply the
function f to x : f (x ) = x 3 .
Then we take the result and apply the function g which squares
the argument and subtracts it from 2.
The result of this second step will be
(g ◦ f )(x ) = f (g(x )) = 2 − (x 3 )2 = 2 − x 6 .
In this way, we indeed see that the compositions f ◦ g and g ◦ f
lead to two quite different results.

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Composite functions

Example 8
Suppose that g(x ) = (x − 1)/(3 − x ) and f (u) = ln u. Calculate
the composition f ◦ g. What is the domain of the composite
function f ◦ g?

Solution. When we have (f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )), we first take x and

x −1
apply the function g to x : g(x ) = .
3−x
Then we take the result and apply the function f which takes the
natural logarithm of its argument.
x −1
 
The result of this second step will be (f ◦ g)(x ) = ln .
3−x

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Composite functions

x −1
 
The composite function (f ◦ g)(x ) = ln involves a
3−x
logarithm.
Then for calculating the domain of this function one should require
the logarithm to contain a strictly positive argument:
x −1
> 0.
3−x
This inequality was solved in Example 5 of Unit 1. The solution
was x ∈ (1, 3).
Therefore Df ◦g = (1, 3).

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Composite functions

Example 9
u
Suppose that g(x ) = |x − 2| and f (u) = 1−u . Calculate the
composition f ◦ g. What is the domain of the composite function
f ◦ g?

Solution. When we have (f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )), we first take x and

apply the function g to x : g(x ) = |x − 2|.
Then we take the result and apply the function f which takes the
u
previous “output” as u and constructs the fraction 1−u .
|x − 2|
The result of this second step will be (f ◦ g)(x ) = .
1 − |x − 2|

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Composite functions

|x − 2|
The composite function (f ◦ g)(x ) = contains a
1 − |x − 2|
fraction.
Then for calculating the domain of this function one should require
the denominator not to be equal to zero:

x − 2 6= +1 x 6= 3
" "
6 0 ⇐⇒ |x −2| =
1−|x −2| = 6 1 ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒
x − 2 6= −1 x 6= 1

Therefore Df ◦g = R \ {1, 3} = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Inverse functions

Suppose that the demand quantity D for a commodity depends on

the price per unit P according to D = 30/(P 1/3 ).
This formula tells us directly the demand D corresponding to a
given price P. If, for example, P = 27, then

D = 30/(271/3 ) = 30/3 = 10.

So D is a function of P, that is, D = f (P) with f (P) = 30/(P 1/3 ).

Note that demand decreases as the price increases.

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Inverse functions

If we look at the matter from a producer’s point of view, however,

it may be more natural to treat output as something it can choose
and consider the resulting price.
The producer wants to know the inverse function, in which price
depends on the quantity sold.
This functional relationship is obtained by solving D = 30/(P 1/3 )
for P.
First we obtain P 1/3 = 30/D, and then
 3 303 27, 000
P = P 1/3 = (30/D)3 = = .
D3 D3

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
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Inverse functions
This equation gives us directly the price P corresponding to a
given output D.
For example, if D = 10, then

P = 27, 000/103 = 27, 000/1, 000 = 27.

In this case, P is a function g(D) of D, with g(D) = 27, 000/D 3 .

The two variables D and P in this example are related in a way
that allows each to be regarded as a function of the other.
In fact, the two functions

D = f (P) = 30/(P 1/3 ) and P = g(D) = 27, 000/D 3

are inverses of each other. We say that f is the inverse of g, and

that g is the inverse of f .
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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Inverse functions

When a function can be inverted?

In order to be invertible, a function should be strictly monotone,
that is, strictly increasing or strictly decreasing. It is also said that
the function is one-to-one.

Source: Own work Source: Own work

A strictly increasing function A strictly decreasing function

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Inverse functions

Definition 9 (Inverse function)

Let f be a function with domain A and range B. If and only if f is

one-to-one, it has an inverse function, denoted by f (−1) whose
domain is B and range A. The function f (−1) is given by the
following rule:
For each y ∈ B, the value f (−1) (y ) is the unique number x ∈ A
such that f (x ) = y . Then

f (−1) (y ) = x ⇐⇒ y = f (x ), x ∈ A, y ∈ B. (12)

A direct implication of (12) is as follows:

f (−1) (f (x )) = x for any x ∈ A, f (f (−1) (y )) = y for any y ∈ B.

(13)
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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Inverse functions
Calculating the inverse function
Suppose that a function y = f (x ), x ∈ A, is invertible.The inverse
function f (−1) is calculated in the following two steps:
1 Isolate x from the equality y = f (x ), that is, solve y = f (x )
for x .
2 Interchange x ↔ y in the expression obtained in Step 1. What
you get is the formula giving the inverse function
y = f (−1) (x ), x ∈ B.

Example 10
Find inverse functions to the following ones:
√
3 3x + 1
(a) y = 2x + 5; (b) y = x + 1; (c) y = .
x −4
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Inverse functions

Solution. (a) We have

y −5
Step 1: y = 2x + 5 ⇐⇒ 2x = y − 5 ⇐⇒ x = .
2
x −5
Step 2: [x ↔ y ] y= .
2
x −5
Answer: f (−1) (x ) = .
2

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Inverse functions

(b) One has

√ (∗)
√ 3
Step 1: y= 3
x + 1 ⇐⇒ y 3 = 3
x +1 = x + 1 ⇐⇒

⇐⇒ x = y 3 − 1.

Step 2: [x ↔ y ] y = x 3 − 1.

Answer: f (−1) (x ) = x 3 − 1.
In (*), we have raised both sides of the equality to power 3

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Inverse functions

(c) We obtain

3x + 1
Step 1: y= ⇐⇒ y (x − 4) = 3x + 1 ⇐⇒
x −4
⇐⇒ y x − 3x = 4y + 1 ⇐⇒ x (y − 3) = 4y + 1 ⇐⇒
4y + 1
⇐⇒ x = .
y −3
4x + 1
Step 2: [x ↔ y ] y = .
x −3
4x + 1
Answer: f (−1) (x ) = .
x −3

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Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Plotting inverse functions

Important property of inverse functions

Suppose f and f (−1) are inverses of each other. Provided that the
scales of the coordinate axes are the same, the graphs of y = f (x )
and y = f (−1) (x ) are symmetric about the line y = x.

Source: Released into the public domain by its author, Jim.belk at English Wikipedia

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Operations with functions Inverse functions

Examples of inverse functions

Suppose that a > 0, a 6= 1. The functions y = ax , x ∈ R, and

y = loga x , x > 0, are inverses of each other.

In particular,

aloga x = x for any x > 0, (14)

loga (ax ) = x for any x ∈ R.

(15)

We plot the case of a > 1.

Source: dkmathstats Website

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 Real functions of one variable; domain and range Mathematical operations with functions
Types of functions and properties Composite functions
Operations with functions Inverse functions

Examples of inverse functions

Assume that r ∈ Q, r > 0, is a positive rational number. The
functions y = x r , x ≥ 0, and y = x 1/r , x > 0, are inverses of each
other.
In particular, if r = n ∈ N, then the
functions are y = x n and
√
y = x 1/n = n x :
√n
x n = x for any x ≥ 0,
√n

n
x = x for any x ≥ 0.

Observe that in the following figure, the

plots of x 2 (x 4 , x 8 ) and x 1/2 (x 1/4 , Source: Released into the public domain by
x 1/8 ) are symmetric about the bisecrtix Geek3
y =x
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