BCA – I

BCA102 (Computer Fundamentals)

UNIT - I

What is Computer ? - A computer is an electronic device machine that accepts data as input,
processes that data using programs, and outputs the processed data. It can can perform arithmetic or
logical operations.

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Q. Computer characteristics,capabilities and limitation.

Ans.
Computer characteristics & Capabilities

Speed:-
 It can process millions of instruction in seconds.
 Same calculation that would have taken hours and day to complete can be completed in a
few seconds.
 The speed of computer is calculated in (MIPS) (millions of instruction per second)
Automation :
 Perform all work automatically.
Accuracy:-
 A computer provides a high degree of accuracy.
 Every calculation is performer with the same accuracy.
Diligence:-
 Computer can work for hours without any break or boredom.
 It does not get tried .It can perform complex.
 Calculation with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
Storage capacity/(memory)
 Computer can store very large amount of data
 We have many storage devices like Hard Disk, CD, DVD , Pen drive
Versatility :-
 Computers can be used to perform different types of tasks.
Low Cost & Reduced Size /Compactness :-
 Day by day computer size is decreasing with new technology.
 Low cost and high performance.
Reliability:-
 Computer will not do mistaken.
 they are a lot reliable than humans.
 It we give wrong input can we recalled at any time.
Power of remembering :-
 The data stored in the computer can we recalled at any time.

Adaptability :
 It means the quality of it to complete a different type of tasks: simple as well as complex.

Limitation of Computer
Lack of common-sense
 Computers function based on the stored programme(s)
Zero IQ(Intelligence Quotient )
 They are unable to see and think the actions to perform in a particular situation
Lack of Decision-making
 The computer system does not have the ability to make decisions on their own because they
do not possess all the essentials of decision-making.
Depend on users input.
 Computer depends on input instruction like program(s)
No Feeling
 Lack of feelings organs like available in human
Depend on users input.
Computer have no imagination.
Cannot detect error in logic.

Q. Block Diagram of Computer.

Ans.

Block Diagram of Computer

The Processor Unit (CPU)

 It is the brain of the computer system.
 All major calculation and comparisons are made inside the CPU
 It is also responsible for activation and controlling the operation of other unit.
  This unit consists of two major components, that are arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control
unit (CU).
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Here arithmetic logic unit performs all arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It also uses logic operation for comparison.
Control Unit (CU)
 Controls the entire operation of the computer. It also controls all devices such as memory,
input/output devices connected to the CPU.
 It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
 It is acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
Input/Output Unit
 The input/output unit consists of devices used to transmit information between the external
world and computer memory.
 The information fed through the input unit is stored in computer's memory for processing
and the final result stored in memory can be recorded or display on the output medium.
Storage/Memory Unit
 Memory unit is an essential component of a digital computer. It is where all data
intermediate and find results are stored.
 The data read from the main storage or an input unit are transferred to the computer's
memory where they are available for processing.
 This memory unit is used to hold the instructions to be executed and data to be processes.
Primary Storage Unit
 Primary memory has direct link with input unit and output unit.
 It stores the input data, calculation result.
Secondary Storage Unit
 The primary storage is not able to store data permanently for future use. So some other types
of storage technology is required to store the data permanently for long time, it is called
secondary or auxiliary storage.
Q. Computer Hardware and Software.
Ans. Computer Hardware
 Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer which we can seen.
 This is also sometime called the machinery or the equipment of the computer.
 Examples of hardware in a computer are the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse , the CPU,
Motherboard, Speaker, Hard-disk, CD,DVD, Printer etc
Computer Software
 It can not seen directly, it can seen with the help of hardware.
 Commonly known as programs or apps(applications).
 Consists of all the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.
 Instructions come from a software developer .
 Example like System Software(Operating System, Compiler, Interpreter, Linker Loader,
Device Driver), Application Software(Word processing , Spreadsheet , Desktop Publishing
(DTP), Database Software, Communication , Presentation , Internet Browsers , Email
Programs. etc ) & Utility Software( Multimedia, Anti-virus, Disk checker, Data recovery,
Games )
Q. Different Data Processing
Ans.
What is Data ?
 Data is any set of characters that is gathered and translated for some purpose, usually
analysis.
 It can be any character, including text and numbers, pictures, sound, or video.
 In computer's storage, data is a series of bits (binary digits) that can have the value one or
zero. Data is processed by the CPU, which uses logical operations to produce new data
(output) from source data (input).
Data Type
A data type, in programming, is a classification that specifies which type of value a variable has and
what type of mathematical, relational or logical operations can be applied to it .

Data Type Used for Example

String Alphanumeric characters hello world, Alice, Bob123

Integer Whole numbers 7, 12, 999

Float (floating point) Number with a decimal point 3.15, 9.06, 00.13

Character Encoding text numerically 97 (in ASCII, 97 is a lower case 'a')

Boolean Representing logical values TRUE, FALSE

What do you mean by data processing?

Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or
automatically. Most of the data processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically.
The output or “processed” data can be obtained in different forms like image, graph, table, vector
file, audio, charts or any other desired format depending on the software or method of data
processing used.

Data Processing by Application Type

1. Scientific Data Processing
When used in scientific study or research and development work. Scientific data is a special type of
data processing that is used in academic and research fields.
2. Commercial Data Processing
Commercial data processing has multiple uses, and may not necessarily require complex sorting. It
was first used widely in the field of marketing, for customer relationship management applications,
and in banking, billing, and payroll systems.

Types of data processing on basis of technology

Manual data processing: In this method data is processed manually without use of machine or
electronic device. This method is slow and less reliable, chances of error is high and this method is
very old when technical innovations were few and rare. This also makes processing expensive and
requires large manpower .
Mechanical data processing –Data processing is done by use of mechanical device or very simple
electronic devices like calculator and typewriters. The advantage of this method is more reliability
and saving of time as compared to manual data processing but still the output is limited.
Electronic data processing or EDP – Electronic Data Processing is the fastest and best available
method with highest reliability and accuracy. Technology used is latest as this method uses
computers. Manpower required is minimal. Processing can be done through various programs and
predefined set of rules.
Types of data processing on basis of process/steps performed
1. Batch Processing
2. Real time processing
3. Online Processing
4. Multiprocessing
5. Time sharing
Batch Processing –This is one of the widely used type of data processing which is also known as
serial/sequential, tacked/queued of offline processing. The fundamental of this type of processing is
the that different jobs of different users are processed in the order received. Once the stacking of
jobs is complete they are provided/sent for processing while maintaining the same order.
Examples include: Examination, payroll and billing system.
Real time processing –As the name suggests this method is used for carrying out real-time
processing. This is required where the results are displayed immediately or in lowest time possible.
The data fed to the software is used almost instantaneously for processing purpose. The nature of
processing of this type of data processing requires use of internet connection and data is stored/used
online. This method is costly than batch processing as the hardware and software capabilities are
better. Example includes banking system, tickets booking for flights, trains, movie tickets, rental
agencies etc.
Online processing –This processing method is a part of automatic processing method. This method
at times known as direct or random access processing. Under this method the job received by the
system is processed at same time of receiving. This can be considered and often mixed with real-
time processing.
Multi processing – This type of processing perhaps the most widely used types of data processing.
It is used almost everywhere and forms the basic of all computing devices relying on processors.
Multi processing makes use of CPUs (more than one CPU). The task or sets of operations are
divided between CPUs available simultaneously thus increasing efficiency and throughput.
Examples include processing of data and instructions in computer, laptops, mobile phones etc.
Time sharing –Time based used of CPU is the core of this data processing type. The single CPU is
used by multiple users. All users share same CPU but the time allocated to all users might differ.
The processing takes place at different intervals for different users as per allocated time.

Data processing steps

• Data capture, or data collection.
• Data storage.
• Data conversion (changing to a usable or uniform format).
• Data cleaning and error removal.
• Data validation (checking the conversion and cleaning).
• Data separation and sorting (drawing patterns, relationships, and creating subsets).
• Data summarization and aggregation (combining subsets in different groupings for more
information).
• Data presentation and reporting.
The future of data processing
The future of data processing lies in the cloud. Cloud technology builds on the convenience of
current electronic data processing methods and accelerates its speed and effectiveness. Faster,
higher-quality data means more data for each organization to utilize and more valuable insights to
extract.

Types of Computers

What is Analog / Analogue

Computer ?
An analog computer is a
computer which is used to
process analog data. Analog
computers store data in a
continuous form of physical
quantities and perform calculations with the help of measures. It is quite different from the digital
computer. Analog computers are excellent for situations which require data to be measured directly
without converting into numerals or codes. Analog computers, although available and used in
industrial and scientific applications like control systems and aircraft, have been largely replaced by
digital computers due to the wide range of complexities involved. Examples of analogue computer
are temperature(Thermometer), pressure (tyre-pressure gauge) , telephone lines, Speedometer,
resistance of capacitor (Multimeter) , frequency of signal and voltage (Voltmeter), Quartz clock,
Balances etc.

Digital Computer
A computer that represents discrete(digital) information by numerical (binary) digits is called a
digital computer , or we say a computer that performs calculations and logical operations with
quantities represented as digit, usually in the binary number system. It is used for processing data
represented by discrete, localized physical signals, as the presence or absence of electric current.

Classification of Digital Computer

The digital computers that are available now sizes and types. These digital computers are broadly
classified into four categories based on their size and type.

• Micro Computer
• Mini Computer
• Mainframe Computer
• Super Computer

Micro Computer:

INPUT A.L.U. + C.U. OUTPUT

Microprocessor

Micro Computer are small low cast and single user digital computers. It is a device
with microprocessor,Input unit ,storage unit and output unit. Microcomputer
Computer formerly a commonly used term for Personal Computers particularly any
of class of any small digital computers. Its CPU contained on a single integrated
semi conductor chip. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple
Macintosh are some Examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop
computers, notebook computers or laptop,tablet compute, handheld computer, smartphones and
notebook.

Types of Micro Computers:

A)Desktop Computer or Personal Computer(PC):-It is the most type
of microcomputer. A desktop computer is a personal computer
designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table
due to its size and power requirements. It is not very expensive and is
suited t the needs of a single user at home,small business units,and
organization.
Examples:IBM PC , Apple,Dell,Lenovo ,Sony,HP,etc are some of the
PC manufactures.

B)Notebook Computers or Laptop:-A laptop is a small, portable computer

and have all the features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the
laptop is that it is small in size, so it can be carried anywhere. Notebook
computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies,
to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. Laptops
Computers are costlier than the desktop computers.
 C)Netbook:-These are smaller notebooks optimized for low
weight and low cost, and are designed for accessing web-based
applications. Netbooks deliver the performance needed to
enjoy popular activities like streaming videos ort music,e-
mailing,web surfing or instant messaging.
D)Tablet:- A tablet is a wireless, portable
personal computer with a touchscreen
interface. The tablet form factor is
typically smaller than a notebook
computer, but larger than a smartphone.

E)Handheld Computer or Personal Digital

Assistant(PDA) or Palmtop :-It is a small
computer that can be held on the top of the
palm. It is small in size. PDA uses a pen or
a stylus for input,instead of the keyboard.
They have a limited memory and are less
powerful. PDAs can be connected to the
Internet via wireless connection.

F)Smart Phones: A smart phone is a mobile phone with highly advanced

features. A typical smartphone has a high-resolution touch screen display,
WiFi connectivity, Web browsing capabilities, and the ability to accept
sophisticated applications. The majority of these devices run on any of
these popular mobile operating systems: Android, Symbian, iOS,
BlackBerry OS and Windows Mobile.

G)Workstation Computer :A workstation is a special

computer designed for technical or scientific applications.
Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they
are commonly connected to a local area network and run
multi-user operating systems.

IBM PC

IBM PC IBM PC/XT IBM PC/AT

Year of Launch 1981 1983 1984 - 2000
Microprocessor Intel 8088 Intel 8088 Intel 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium
I,II,III,IV
Speed 4.77 MHz 4.77 MHz 6 MHz- 8 MHz-33 Mhz-66 Mhz – 133
MHz- .. 1 GHz
RAM 16 kB – 256 kB 128 kB – 640 kB 256 KB- 1 GB
External Floppy disk Floppy disk , 10 20 MB hard drive, 1.2 MB HD 135 mm
Memory MB Hard disk (5.25") floppy – CDROM, DVD,
Operating IBM BASIC / PC PC DOS 3.0 and later, OS/2 1.x, PC/IX
System DOS 2.0-3.20 / 1.1, IBM & SCO Xenix, Windows 1.0 –
PC/IX / SCO 3.0, DOS 6.22, Windows 95,98,Xp
Xenix / Minix

Mini Computer:
A minicomputer is a type of computer that possesses most of the features and capabilities of a large
computer but is smaller in physical size. A minicomputer fills the space between the mainframe and
microcomputer, and is smaller than the former but larger than the latter. Minicomputer are still
recognized as being able to process large amounts of data. It is a class of small computers that was
introduced into the world in the mid-1960s. A minicomputer is a computer which has all the
features of a large size computer, but its size is smaller than those. A minicomputer lies between the
mainframe and the microcomputer because its size is smaller than the former one and larger than
the latter one. Minicomputers are mainly multi-users systems where more than one user can work
simultaneously. Minicomputers can do time-sharing, batch processing, and online processing. Mini
computer examples: IBM’s AS/400e, Honeywell200, TI-990

History of Minicomputer

The term minicomputer was come to know in the 1960s and through that time only the small
computers are made by making the use of transistors and core memory technologies. The first
minicomputer which was developed was known as Digital Equipment Corporation, which was
made by using transistors and it costs from the US $16000.
Uses of minicomputer
Each person using a minicomputer has their own terminal attached by wires or via a modem to the
computer proper. (A terminal isn't a computer-it's basically just a keyboard and a monitor) The
minicomputer spends a little bit of time on one person's task, then moves on to the next, and so on,
juggling the work based on which jobs it thinks are most important.

They were used for three primary purposes:

Process control
Minicomputers are primarily used by the companies for the manufacturing control of the process.
Process Control has two primary functions- data acquisition and feedback.
Ex:- factories make use of minicomputers to control the manufacturing process. If any problem
appears in any part of the process, then it recognizes the change and made required adjustments.

Data management
Minicomputers that we use for the data management can do any task regarding data like it can take,
restore or generate data.

Communication
Minicomputers act as an interface between the human operator and a larger processor. The user can
run operations such as error checking with the help of minicomputer and then can use the device for
making adjustments also.
The other uses are as follows:
• They are also used for scientific computations.
• Used for business-transaction processing.
• Used for database management.
• Used for file handling.
• Used for engineering computations.
Characteristics of a minicomputer
• Its size is smaller than a mainframe or supercomputer.
• It is less expensive than mainframe or supercomputer.
• It is less powerful than mainframe or supercomputer and more powerful than microcomputers and
workstations.
• It can do several tasks at once.
• It can be used by many people at one time.
• It is used by small enterprises.

Applications of minicomputer
1 Minicomputer was used in business accounting.
2 A network of minicomputers can be created which allows a large library with its different-2
branches to build its own internal network and this network is more powerful than those handled by
large-scale computer installations.
3 It is used by the various sub-departments of the companies so that they can unload the task of
mainframe computers.
Advantages of minicomputer
• They are easy to use.
• They can fit anywhere.
• They are small and very portable.
• They are easy to carry.
• As compared to their size, they are fast.
• They hold a charge for a long time.
• They did not require a carefully controlled operational environment.
• They are more reliable.

Disadvantages of minicomputer
• The user may not be familiar with the operating system.

Mainframe Computer:
Mainframes are a type of computer that generally are known
for their large size, amount of storage, processing power and
high level of reliability. They are primarily used by large
organizations for mission-critical applications requiring high
volumes of data processing. Main frame computers generally
require special attention and are kept in a controlled
atmosphere. They are multi-tasking and generally used in areas
where large database are maintained example as government
agency or airline industry. Examples:-IBM LinuxONE
A mainframe has an enormous storage space on disk and tape (like thousands of kilobytes,
measured in gigabytes), and an enormous amount of main memory. Theoretically, it works a lot
faster than the fastest personal computer. A mainframe also costs big bucks, from half a million or
so on up.

In today’s world where all the business, transactions, communications are real time. So to perform
all this task, a powerful computer require on the server side, which processes the instructions and
provides the output in seconds. According to the usage of computers in today’s world, we can
categories computer in Supercomputer, Mainframe Computer, and Mini Computer and
microcomputer categories. A mainframe computer is the fastest computer after supercomputer to
execute complex and lengthy calculations. A mainframe computer is more powerful than Mini and
Microcomputer, but less powerful than Supercomputer. A mainframe computer is used in the large
organization.
A mainframe computer is a combination of memory (RAM) and many processors. It acts as a
central processing unit for many workstations and terminals connected with it. A mainframe
computer is used to process the large and huge amount of data in petabytes. It can control thousands
of user ’s. Name ‘Mainframe’ means that a frame for holding a number of processors and main
memory. Mainframe computer plays a significant role in e-business where hundreds to thousands of
people connect to a server to precede their request in a real time. Similarly, In banking, government,
education system mainframe computer play a valuable role.
All mainframes are multi-tasking, multi-user machines, meaning they are designed so many
different people can work on many different problems, all at the same time. Mainframe computer
initially created in early 1950’s. Initially, the size was too big because of the vacuum tube. But after
the invention of transistors main frame computer size get reduced.

Mainframes serve most often as information stores and processors. An army of smaller computers is
connected to the mainframe. These smaller computers are not in the same room; they may be
connected through phone lines across the world. Ordinary people in the company never touch the
mainframe itself. Instead, they interact with the computer using a terminal, which is more or less a
keyboard and a monitor connected to the mainframe with wires, or by modem over the phone lines.
People use the smaller computers and get information from and send information to the mainframe.

IBM manufactured many mainframe computers for commercial, scientific and engineering use with
different serial numbers. IBM manufactured 700 and 7000 series models with use of vacuum tube
and transistors. In 1964, System/360 was manufactured for both commercial and scientific users. S/
360 was the first computer to offer microcode. Microcode functionality makes the system
modifiable without changing the computer. Now the customer can create their own application
according to requirement. In 2000, Z-Series was introduced by IBM. Z-series computers are very
powerful to process the instruction.
Components of Mainframe computer

CPU: CPU contains the processors, memory, control circuits, and interfaces for channels. A channel
is an independent path between I/O devices and memory. This path is used for data movements and
for controlling the computer components.

Controllers: Channels are used to connect devices with control units. Channel is also known as a
bus. In Mainframe computer, the different control unit (internal circuit and logic) is used for
different -different devices like tape, disk. Control unit is further connected with storage unit.

Cluster controller: Cluster controller is a device to connect channel terminal to host system. Cluster
controls have two types

Channel-attached cluster controllers and link-attached cluster controllers.

Cluster controllers provide advanced features like IBM Token Ring attachment interfaces,
management, and monitoring.

I/O channels: During I/O connectivity, we used some term like IOCDS, ESCON, FICON, CHIPD’s
having unique definitions and purpose.

ICODS: ICODS stands for I/O control data set. It is a control file in I/O layer to translate physical
I/O address into device address.

ESCON (Enterprise Systems Connection): is a first IBM and vendor product for connecting more
than one mainframe computer and with locally attached workstations. It is Fiber Optic channel to
transfer the data with the maximum speed of 17 MBPS. We can extend the local to mainframe
network up to 60 km. It has some limitations regarding speed and network area. To make it better
IBM next version was FICON. FICON (fiber connector) is used to increase the transfer speed of
ESCON channel. One Ficon connector is equal to eight ESCON connector.
Multiprocessors: Multiprocessors indicate that number of processors. Multiple processors in
mainframe computer used some Prefix Storage Area to process the data (For error handling and
interrupt handling).Using special instruction set processor can communicate with another processor
using special instruction set.
The advantage of mainframe computer
Mainframe computer has many advantages as well as disadvantages. From the last 50 years, there
was a great revolution in mainframe computer in all field like size, processing speed, data transfer
speed, security, and flexibility.
• Mainframe computer provides a great security against the attack of viruses, warm, spyware,
malware. Encryption technique like file encryption, dataset and file encryption, network encryption,
clustering encryption empower security.
• Mainframe computers are compatible with all types of software and hardware. Because different
user connects with servers along with different hardware and software on their system. They can
easily communicate with server-side without any interrupt.
• Mainframe computer deals with thousands of users to execute their instructions simultaneously.
And can store
• Without disturbing process on the computer, we can add storage, processors or memory and
extend its capability.

Disadvantage
• A mainframe computer is expensive. It is not easy to purchase a mainframe as a comparison to the
microcomputer. The microcomputer is handled by the single user, but mainframe handled many
users. Installation is not easy.

Super Computer: Super Computers operate

very fast and have multiple processors. This
type of computer has been developed for
scientific applications usually involving
complex arithmetic and mathematical
operations. One such use is in weather
forecasting.
A supercomputer is a type of computer that has
the architecture, resources and components to
achieve massive computing power. Although
advances like multi-core processors . "FLOP"
(short for "floating-point operation").
A petaflop is one thousand teraflops, floating Figure : Super Computer
point operations per second.

Year Supercomputer Speed Location

2018 IBM Summit 122.3 PFLOPS Oak Ridge, U.S.
2016 Sunway TaihuLight 93.01 PFLOPS Wuxi, China
2013 NUDTTianhe-2 33.86 PFLOPS Guangzhou, China
2012 CrayTitan 17.59 PFLOPS Oak Ridge, U.S.
2012 IBMSequoia 17.17 PFLOPS Livermore, U.S.
2011 FujitsuK computer 10.51 PFLOPS Kobe, Japan
2010 Tianhe-IA 2.566 PFLOPS Tianjin, China
2009 CrayJaguar 1.759 PFLOPS Oak Ridge, U.S.
2008 IBMRoadrunner 1.026 PFLOPS Los Alamos, U.S.
Indian Super Computer PARAM
Main
Name Release Year CPUs Technology Speed
Contributor
Inmos T800 Transputers,
PARAM 8000 1991 64
Distributed Memory MIMD
PARAM 8600 256 Intel i860 5 GFLOPS
Sun Enterprise 250, 400Mhz
PARAM 6.4
1998 160 UltraSPARC UltraSPARC II
10000 GFLOPS
processor
1TB storage, 248 IBM
PARAM 1024
2003 - April Power4 - 1GHz, IBM AIX
Padma GFLOPS
5.1L, PARAMNet
4608 cores, Intel 73XX - 2.9
38.1 to 54
PARAM Yuva 2008 - November GHz, 25 to 200 TB,
TFLOPS
PARAMnet 3
PARAM Yuva 2013 - February - 524
C-DAC
II 08 TFLOPS
PARAM
C-DAC and
Kanchenjung 2016 - April - 17 15 TFLOPS
NIT Sikkim
a
PARAM 3.8
2016 C-DAC
SHAVAK TFLOPS
PARAM 20 September 250 C-DAC and
300 Terabits capacity
ISHAN 2016 TFLOPS IIT Guwahati
PARAM 833 C-DAC and
19 February 2019
SHIVAY TFLOPS IIT BHU
PARAM 0.85 C-DAC and
September 2019 1PB storage
Brahma PFLOPS IISER Pune

Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer is a computing system that combines both digital and analog components.
Traditionally, the analog components of the computer handle complex mathematical computations.
The digital components take care of logical and numerical operations, in addition to serving as the
controller for the system. For examples: Computer used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the
patient. Devices used in petrol pump. In scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.

General-Purpose Computers
Personal computers, including desktops, notebooks, smartphones and tablets, are all examples of
general-purpose computers. A general purpose computer is used for different programs(software)
for different functions. It can be used to do a lot of things. ENIAC, in full Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, built
during World War II by the United States. Most computers in use today are General-Purpose
computers - those built for a great variety of processing jobs. Simply by using a general purpose
computer and different software, various tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing
(word processing), manipulating facts in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory, making
scientific calculations, or even controlling organization’s security system, electricity consumption,
and building temperature. General purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of
functions and operations. A general purpose computer is able to perform a wide variety of
operations because it can store and execute different programs in its internal storage.

Special purpose computers

Special-purpose computers refer to computers that are built to perform specific tasks, such as
automatic teller machines or washing machines. Special-purpose computers also include systems to
control military planes, boats, police work equipment and other defense-oriented applications. They
utilize unique operating systems that are plain to performing their specific functions. Other
examples of special purpose computers include traffic-light control systems, weather-forecasting
simulators, oil-exploration systems and traffic-control computers. These computer systems share
similar features, but their design aims to fulfill a distinct role. They perform a singular function,
allowing them to eliminate excess memory and the amount of information that can be submitted
into it. Special-purpose computers possess a logical structure and data input-output devices that are
built to solve strictly-defined issues in an efficient manner. Special-purpose computers utilize
embedded systems or other unique operating platforms to work independently of other functions.

TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

Traffic light control systems are a system which can be used to manage the traffic on the road.
Some detectors are buried in or under the road. These detectors are used to detect the presence of
traffic that wait for green
light in order to pass the roadway.

FORECASTING SIMULATORS
Weather forecasting simulators is the technology of science that invented by human to predict the
weather with the aid of computer simulators. It can be done by collecting the data for the current
state of the atmosphere. The data such as wind speed, temperature, humidity and others are
collected. The data collected will then entered into the computer. In the computer, the data will be
use in the calculation to predict the weather based on the current state of the
atmosphere. For the calculation, the equation that created based on the understanding of
atmospheric such as thermodynamic equation is used. Therefore, the weather that forecasted is obey
the law of thermodynamics
which define the fundamental physical quantities which are energy, temperature and entropy . The
mathematical modelling is done with the aid of computer.

GPS NAVIGATOR
Global Positioning system, GPS, is a navigation system that make up of 24 satellite that placed in
the orbit which provides the exact time and any place in the globe. The satellites embedded with
atomic clock which is known as the most stable and most accurate time and frequency. Any
deviation from true and accurate time is corrected daily to ensure the accurateness. Normally the
GPS receiver have less accurate and less stable time.

SMART WATCH
A smart watch is a computerized watch that not only used for timekeeping. The smart watch
nowadays playing the role of the personnel assistant of the users that can be used to perform basic
tasks which helps the users in daily life. In fact, the smart watch at the early stage can be used
perform some basic tasks such as calculations. most of the smart watch can be used to even run the
mobile apps since it uses the mobile operating system. Due to this, the smart
watch can perform most of the functions same like the mobile phone. Some of the smart watch can
even be used to make an d answer the incoming phone calls. Not only that, the smart watch can be
used to help the users in their daily activities such as remind the users to carry out their task
(reminders), personnel heath care (record the sleeping time, measure the pulse rate),
alarm (to alert) and others.

SMART WASHING MACHINE

Washing machine is a machine that used to wash laundry, such as clothes and fabrics. The function
such as spinning, washing, rinsing and draining is controlled by the computer that located in the
washing machine.
For the washing machine to function, there are some parts and components th
at play very important role for the washing machine to function. The basic idea
for the washing machine to function is the washing machine sloshes the clothes in soap for a while
then it will spin in high speed to remove the dirty water after done washing process.
CASH REGISTER
Cash register is a computer of for special purpose which is to use in the regulation of the transaction
of the money with customers in the places of business. It has the compartment to put the cash and
the copy of the bills.
Not only that, it also displays the amount of money and the total of every sale and even record
every single of them. The cash register also normally attached to a printer which is used for receipts
printing. The cash register will only be turned on when there is the right key used for the particular
cash register. The money detector is used to detect the fake note. There are also a cash drawer with
lock to keep the cash safely.

AUTOMATED TELLER MACHINE, ATM

The main function of the ATM is a machine that invented for the convenience of the users with
debit or credit cards to complete their basic transactions for 24 hours and not limited to office hours
only. There are basically two types of ATMs. The basic one only provide the service for the users to
withdraw money from their bank account and to check their account balance only. While for the
more complex machine, it provides additional services as it accepts deposits, facilitate the line of
the credit payments and also can be used to report the
account information.

Automatic Billing System : It is using for billing in shopping mall .

Biometric system : It is use for attendance or trace presence of any person using thumb, RF(radio
frequency) id or face recognizer using cc(close circuit)tv camera.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER AND SPECIAL

PURPOSE COMPUTER

SPEED
In terms of speed, the special purpose computer tends to be perform faster compared to the general
purpose computer. This is because the special purpose computer only needs to handle one specific
task while the general
purpose computer needs to handle more than one task.

COST
In term of cost, the special purpose computer tends to be more expensive compare to the general
purpose computer. This is because the computer is specially designed for one task only and involve
the more complicated processes compared to the general purpose computer.

RELIABILITY
In terms of reliability, the special purpose computer tends to be more reliable compared to general
purpose computer. A reliable product is totally with zero error. The probability of the special
purpose computer to make error is much lower since they only handle one task unlike the general
purpose computer.

MAINTENANCE
The maintenance is meant by keeping the any devices in a good state. The special purpose computer
easier to be maintained compared to general purpose computer since they handled only single task.
However, the process to
repair them is more difficult compared to general purpose computer since it involves the
complicated processes.
Generation of Computers
There are five generations of computers.
1. FIRST GENERATION
  Vacuum tube technology
  Unreliable
  Supported Machine language only Figure : Vacume Tube
  Very costly
  Generate lot of heat
  Slow Input/Output device
  Huge size
  Need of A.C.
  Non portable
  Consumed lot of electricity
Some computer of this generation were:
  ENIAC
  EDVAC
  UNIVAC IBM-701
  IBM-650

 Introduction:
1. 1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.
2. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic computer
called ENIAC(Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator).
 Few Examples are:
1. ENIAC (Electronic Numeric
Integrated And Calculator)
2. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer)
3. UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer)
4. IBM-701 (International Business
Machine)
5. IBM-650 Figure : First Generation Computer

 Advantages:
1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component
available during those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
 Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of
magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so
another disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a large
cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.
2. SECOND GENERATION

  Use of transistors
  Reliable as compared to First generation computers
  Smaller size as compared to First generation
computers
  Generate less heat as compared to First generation
computers
  Consumed less electricity as compared to First
generation computers
  Faster than first generation computers
  Still very costly
  A.C. needed
 Support machine and assmebly languages
Some computer of this generation were:
  IBM 1620
  IBM 7094
  CDC 1604
  CDC 3600
  UNIVAC 1108

 Introduction:
1. 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.
2. 3.Second generation computers were based on Transistor instead of vacuum
tubes.
 Few Examples are:
1. Honeywell 400
2. IBM 7094
3. CDC 1604 (Control Data Corporation)
4. CDC 3600
5. UNIVAC 1108
 Advantages:
1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum
tubes, the size of electron component decreased. This
resulted in reducing the size of a computer as compared to
first generation computers.
2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first generation.
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.
4. Low cost than first generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to first generation
 Disadvantages:
1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.

3. THIRD GENERATION

  IC used
  More reliable
  Smaller size Generate less heat
  Faster
  Lesser maintenance
   Still costly
  A.C needed
  Consumed lesser electricity
  Support high level language
Some computer of this generation were:
  IBM-360 series
  Honeywell-6000 series
  PDP(Personal Data Processor)
  IBM-370/168
  TDC-316
 Introduction:
1. 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.
2. These computers were based on Integrated circuits.
3. IC (Integrated Circut) was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-
1959.
4. IC was a single component containing number of transistors.
 Few Examples are:
1. PDP-8
2. PDP-11
3. ICL 2900
4. IBM 360
5. IBM 370
 Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as
compared to second-generation
computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.
4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the
performance of the computer as compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the
concept of time-sharing and multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to
nanoseconds.
 Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC
chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.

4. FOURTH GENERATION

  VLSI technology used

  Very cheap
  Portable and reliable
  Use of PC's
  Very small size
  Pipeline processing
  No A.C. needed
  Concept of internet was introduced
  Great developments in the fields of networks
   Computers became easily available
Some computer of this generation were:
  DEC 10
  STAR 1000
  PDP 11 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
  CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
 Introduction:
1. 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.
2. This technology is based on Microprocessor.
3. A microprocessor is used in a computer for any
logical and arithmetic function to be performed in
any program.
4. Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was
exploited to offer more comfort to users.
 Few Examples are:
1. IBM 4341
2. DEC 10
3. STAR 1000
4. PUP 11
 Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous
generation of computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
 Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.
5. FIFTH GENERATION
  Robotics
  Neural networks
  Game Playing
  Development of expert systems to make decisions in
real life situations.
  Natural language understanding and generation.
The main features of Fifth Generation are: ULSI technology
  Development of true artificial intelligence
  Development of Natural language processing
  Advancement in Parallel Processing
  Advancement in Superconductor technology
  More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
  Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
  Desktop
  Laptop
  NoteBook

 Introduction:
1. The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.
2. This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
 3. The aim of the fifth generation is to make
adevice which could respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.
4. This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten
million electronic component.

 Few Examples are:

1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. NoteBook
4. NetBook
5. Smartphone
 Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia
features.
 Disadvantages:
1. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

Limitation of microcomputer

 Not use as server – Microcomputer memory is less or limited so we can,t use as server for
operate maximum number of system.
 Least powerful: Microcomputer have low computational power as compared to mini,
mainframe and supercomputers.
 Less storage: Microcomputer have less storage and for storage large data you will need extra
storage devices.
 Weak in performance: Many microcomputer have low processor that will effect computer
performance e.g. playing games and running big software is difficult .
 Difficult to upgrade: Microcomputer’s have different motherboards for every type of
processor so it is difficult to upgrade PC for high performance.
 Lack of security : Hackers can hack your computer if it is connected to the Internet and your
sensitive data can be stolen or loss by virus attack , antivirus help us but limited or more
expensive for high security it also .

Number System

Decimal Number : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Base : 10
Min. Number : 0
Max. Number : 9

Binary Number: 0,1

Base : 2
Min. Number : 0
Max. Number : 1

Octal Number : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Base : 8
Min. Number : 0
Max. Number : 7

Hexadecimal : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A(10), B(11), C(12), D(13), E(14), F(15)

Base : 16
Min. Number : 0
Max. Number : F

Convert Decimal to Binary

Example. (125)10=(?)2
Divide the given number (125) with the base of convert number(Binary:2)

2 125 Remainder
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

So answer is (125)10=(1111101)2

Convert Binary to Decimal

Example. (1111101)2=(?)10
Multiply the convert number base (Binary:2) each with position value and addition all.
(1111101)2= (1X26)+(1X25)+(1X24)+(1X23)+(1X22)+(0X21)+(1X20)
= 26+25+24+23+22+0+20
= 64+32+16+8+4+1 ( n0=1)
= 125
So (1111101)2 = (125)10
Convert Decimal to Octal
Example. (129)10=(?)8

Divide the given number (129) with the base of convert number(Octal : 8)

8 129 Remainder
8 16 1
8 2 0
0 2

So answer is (129)10=(201)8

Convert Octal to Decimal

Example. (201)8=(?)10
Multiply the convert number base (Octal : 8) each with position value and addition all.
(201)8= (2X82)+(0X81)+(1X80)
= (2X64)+(0X8)+1 ( n0=1)
= 128+0+1
= 129
So (201)8 = (129)10
Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal
Example. (1212)10=(?)16
Divide the given number (1212) with the base of convert number(Hexadecimal : 16)

16 1212 Remainder
16 75 C
16 4 B
0 4

So answer is (1212)10=(4BC)16

Convert Hexadecimal to Decimal

Example. (4BC)16=(?)10
Multiply the convert number base (Hexadecimal : 16) each with position value and addition all .
(4BC)16= (4X162)+(BX161)+(CX160)
= (4X256)+(11X16)+12 ( n0=1)
= 1024+176+12
= 1212
So (4BC)16 = (1212)10

Convert floating points number

Example (125.25)10=(?)2
Convert integer and decimal points value separately

(125.25) Integer value = 125

Decimal value = .25
(125)10=(?)2
2 125 Remainder
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

(125)10=(1111101)2

For floating number multiply the base number and remove the integer part, perform this till not get
0 at last or value repeated. If we not get 0 then we can’t get accurate answer, we find only nearest
value.
(.25)10 = (?)2
.25 Integer part
.25x2
0.5X2 0
1.0 1
0
(.25)10 = (.01)2

So answer is (125.25)2=(1111101.01)2

Convert (.26)10 = (?)2

.26 Integer part
.26x2
 0.52X2 0
1.04X2 1
0.08X2 0
0.16X2 0
0.32X2 0
0.64X2 0
1.28X2 1
0.48 0
(.26)10 = (.01000010)2

Convert (.01)2 = (?)10

Multiply binary number base with position value in inverse with each number and addition all.
(.01)2 = (0X2-1)+(1X2-2)
= 0+1/22
= 1/4
= .25
(.01)2 = (.25)10
Convert (.01000010)2= (?)10
(.01000010)2 =(0X2-1)+(1X2-2)+(0X2-3)+(0X2-4)+(0-5)+(0X2-6)+(1X2-7)+(0X2-8)
= 0+1/22+ 0+0+0+0+1/27 +0
= 1/4+1/128
= (32+1)/128
= 33/128
(.01000010)2 =(.2578)

Addition of Binary Number

Rules:
1+0=1
0+1=1
0+0=0
1+1=0 (1 Carry)
Examples : Add binary number 1110011 with 11111
1110011
+ 0011111
10010010

Subtraction of Binary Number

Rules:
1- 0 = 1
0- 0 = 0
1- 1 = 0
0 -1 = 1 (1 Borrow)
Examples : Subtract binary number 1110011 with 11111
1110011
- 0011111
1010100

1’s and 2’s Compliment

1’s Compliment – It is binary number system which use for subtract the binary with addition. In 1’s
compliment 0 compliment is 1 and 1 compliment is 0.
Example : find the compliment of binary number 11001
110011 ---->> 1’s compliment = 001100
Example : Subtract the binary number 1110011 with 11111 using 1’s complement.
Solution- First equal the bit size with add 0 left side because both number should be in same size.
Find the 1’s compliment of negative number and add the number. If subtract the big number to
small number then we get extra bit. Add extra bit to result and get answer . If subtract small number
to big number then we not get extra bit so again find 1’s compliment of result and we get answer
but it is negative number.

1110011
- 0011111 first equal the bit size with add 0 , the 1’s compliment of negative
number of 0011111 is 1100000

1110011
+ 1100000
extra bit 11010011
1010011
+ 1
1010100 (Answer)

Example : Subtract the binary number 11111 with 1110011using 1’s complement.
0011111
- 1110011 first equal the bit size with add 0 , the 1’s compliment of negative number of
1110011 is 0001100

0011111
+ 0001100
0101011
No extra bit find so again find 1’s compliment of result so - 1010100(Answer but negative)

2’s Compliment
Addition 1 in 1’s compliment is known as 2’s compliment. It is also use subtract the binary number
with addition. The subtract procedure is same as 1’s compliment. But If subtract big no. to small the
get extra bit and ignore the extra bit for get answer and it is denote positive number. If subtract
small to big number the extra bit not found, for answer find 2’s compliment of result it denote
negative number.
Example : Subtract the binary number 1110011 with 11111 using 2’s complement.

1110011
- 0011111 first equal the bit size with add 0 , find the 2’s compliment of negative
number of 0011111
1’s compliment = 1100000
+ 1
2’s compliment 1100001

1110011
+ 1100001
extra bit 11010100 Ignore extra bit ( 1010100 Answer )
Example : Subtract the binary number 11111 with 1110011using 2’s complement.

0011111
- 1110011 first equal the bit size with add 0 , 2’s compliment of negative number of
1110011 is

1’s compliment = 0001100

+ 1
2’s compliment 0001101

0011111
+ 0001101
0101100 No extra bit find so find-out 2’s compliment of result

1’s compliment = 1010011

+ 1
2’s compliment -1010100 ( Answer but negative)

Binary Code
When numbers, letters or words are represented by a specific group of symbols, it is said that the
number, letter or word is being encoded. The group of symbols is called as a code. The digital data
is represented, stored and transmitted as group of binary bits. This group is also called as binary
code. The binary code is represented by the number as well as alphanumeric letter.
Advantages of Binary Code
Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.
 Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.
 Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
 Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the binary codes.
 Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.
Classification of binary codes
The codes are broadly categorized into following four categories.
 Weighted Codes
 Non-Weighted Codes
 Binary Coded Decimal Code
 Alphanumeric Codes
 Error Detecting Codes
 Error Correcting Codes
Weighted Codes
Weighted binary codes are those binary codes which obey
the positional weight principle. Each position of the
number represents a specific weight. Several systems of
the codes are used to express the decimal digits 0 through
9. In these codes each decimal digit is represented by a
group of four bits.
Non-Weighted Codes
In this type of binary codes, the positional weights are not assigned. The examples of non-weighted
codes are Excess-3 code and Gray code.
Excess-3 code
The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is non-weighted code used to express decimal
numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived from the 8421 BCD code words adding (0011)2 or
(3)10 to each code word in 8421. The excess-3 codes are obtained as follows −

Example

Gray Code
It is the non-weighted code and it is not arithmetic codes. That means there are no specific weights
assigned to the bit position. It has a very special feature that, only one bit will change each time the
decimal number is incremented as shown in fig. As only one bit changes at a time, the gray code is
called as a unit distance code. The gray code is a cyclic code. Gray code cannot be used for
arithmetic operation.
Application of Gray code
 Gray code is popularly used in the shaft position encoders.
 A shaft position encoder produces a code word which represents the angular position of the
shaft.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code
In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to express
each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can represent sixteen
numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of these are used (0000 to 1001). The
remaining six code combinations i.e. 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.
Advantages of BCD Codes
 It is very similar to decimal system.

 We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.

Disadvantages of BCD Codes
 The addition and subtraction of BCD have different rules.
 The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.
 BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So BCD is
less efficient than binary.
Alphanumeric codes
A binary digit or bit can represent only two symbols as it has only two states '0' or '1'. But this is not
enough for communication between two computers because there we need many more symbols for
communication. These symbols are required to represent 26 alphabets with capital and small letters,
numbers from 0 to 9, punctuation marks and other symbols.
The alphanumeric codes are the codes that represent numbers and alphabetic characters. Mostly
such codes also represent other characters such as symbol and various instructions necessary for
conveying information. An alphanumeric code should at least represent 10 digits and 26 letters of
alphabet i.e. total 36 items. The following three alphanumeric codes are very commonly used for
the data representation.
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).
ASCII code is a 7-bit code whereas EBCDIC is an 8-bit code. ASCII code is more commonly used
worldwide while EBCDIC is used primarily in large IBM computers.

ASCII Code - ( ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character
encoding standard for electronic communication. The purpose of ASCII is to create a standard for
character-sets used in electronic equipment's. ASCII codes represent text in computers,
telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are
based on ASCII. ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was as a
seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. The first edition of the standard was
published in 1963. It was developed under the protection of a committee of the American Standards
Association (ASA).
EBCDIC code :
Extended binary coded decimal interchange code is an 8-bit binary code for numeric and
alphanumeric characters. It was developed and used in 1963 and 1964 by IBM . It is a coding
representation in which symbols, letters and numbers are presented in binary language.
It is an eight-bit character encoding, developed separately from the seven-bit ASCII encoding
scheme. It was created to extend the existing Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) Interchange Code
Logic gate
Digital electronic circuits operate with voltages of two logic levels namely Logic Low and Logic
High. The range of voltages corresponding to Logic Low is represented with ‘0’. Similarly, the
range of voltages corresponding to Logic High is represented with ‘1’.
The basic digital electronic circuit that has one or more inputs and single output is known as Logic
gate. Hence, the Logic gates are the building blocks of any digital system. We can classify these
Logic gates into the following three categories.
 Basic gates
 Universal gates
 Special gates
Now, let us discuss about the Logic gates come under each category one by one.
Basic Gates
In earlier chapters, we learnt that the Boolean functions can be represented either in sum of products
form or in product of sums form based on the requirement. So, we can implement these Boolean
functions by using basic gates. The basic gates are AND, OR & NOT gates.
AND gate
An AND gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and produces an output, which is the
logical AND of all those inputs. It is optional to represent the Logical AND with the symbol ‘.’.
The following table shows the truth table of 2-input AND gate.

A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input AND gate. If both inputs are ‘1’, then only
the output, Y is ‘1’. For remaining combinations of inputs, the output, Y is ‘0’.
The following figure shows the symbol of an AND gate, which is having two inputs A, B and one
output, Y.

This AND gate produces an output Y

, which is the logical AND of two inputs A, B. Similarly, if there are ‘n’ inputs, then the AND gate
produces an output, which is the logical AND of all those inputs. That means, the output of AND
gate will be ‘1’, when all the inputs are ‘1’.
OR gate
An OR gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and produces an output, which is the
logical OR of all those inputs. This logical OR is represented with the symbol ‘+’.
The following table shows the truth table of 2-input OR gate.
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input OR gate. If both inputs are ‘0’, then only
the output, Y is ‘0’. For remaining combinations of inputs, the output, Y is ‘1’.
The following figure shows the symbol of an OR gate, which is having two inputs A, B and one
output, Y.
This OR gate produces an output Y
, which is the logical OR of two inputs A, B. Similarly, if there are ‘n’ inputs, then the OR gate
produces an output, which is the logical OR of all those inputs. That means, the output of an OR
gate will be ‘1’, when at least one of those inputs is ‘1’.
NOT gate
A NOT gate is a digital circuit that has single input and single output. The output of NOT gate is the
logical inversion of input. Hence, the NOT gate is also called as inverter.
The following table shows the truth table of NOT gate.

A Y = A’
0 1
1 0

Here A and Y are the input and output of NOT gate respectively. If the input, A is ‘0’, then the
output, Y is ‘1’. Similarly, if the input, A is ‘1’, then the output, Y is ‘0’.
The following figure shows the symbol of NOT gate, which is having one input, A and one output,
Y.
This NOT gate produces an output Y which is the complement of input, A.

Universal gates - NAND & NOR gates are called as universal gates. Because we can implement
any Boolean function, which is in sum of products form by using NAND gates alone. Similarly, we
can implement any Boolean function, which is in product of sums form by using NOR gates alone.
NAND gate
NAND gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and produces an output, which is the
inversion of logical AND of all those inputs.
The following table shows the truth table of 2-input NAND gate.
A B A.B Y = (A.B)’
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input NAND gate. When both inputs are ‘1’, the
output, Y is ‘0’. If at least one of the input is zero, then the output, Y is ‘1’. This is just opposite to
that of two input AND gate operation.
The following image shows the symbol of NAND gate, which is having two inputs A, B and one
output, Y.
NAND gate operation is same as that of AND gate followed by an inverter. That’s why the NAND
gate symbol is represented like that.
NOR gate
NOR gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and produces an output, which is the
inversion of logical OR of all those inputs.
The following table shows the truth table of 2-input NOR gate

A B A+B Y = (A+B)’
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output. If both inputs are ‘0’, then the output, Y is ‘1’. If at
least one of the input is ‘1’, then the output, Y is ‘0’. This is just opposite to that of two input OR
gate operation.
The following figure shows the symbol of NOR gate, which is having two inputs A, B and one
output, Y.

NOR gate operation is same as that of OR gate followed by an inverter. That’s why the NOR gate
symbol is represented like that.

Assignment Questions
Q 1. Write the characteristics and capability of computer.
Q2. Draw the block diagram of computer and explain it.
Q3. What do you mean by data processing ? Explain the different types of data processing system.
Q4. Explain the types of computer.
Q5. Discuss about the general and special purpose computer.
Q6. Explain the generation of computer and their characteristics.
Q7. Discuss the limitation of micro computer.
Q8. Explain the all number system.
Q9. Convert the following numbers
(i) (125)10=(?)2 (ii) (125)10=(?)8 (iii) (1212)10=(?)16 (iv) (1011001)2=(?)8 (iv) (1110101)2=(?)16
Q.10. What is 1’s and 2’s compliment ?
Q.11 Subtract the binary number using 2’s compliment .
1101110
- 10101
Q12. Explain the different types of binary codes.
Q13. What is logic gates ? Explain all logic gates with their truth table .