Relativity

Observer in car
Here we can see the Effect of Reference frame on the

Observations taken by the observer.
Observer on earth
Special Relativity
• Special Relativity
–Galilean transformation
–Basic Postulates.
–Lorentz transformation
•Length contraction
•Time dilation
•Rest mass is least, relativistic mass.
•Energy mass equivalence.
2 Simple Postulates
• “The laws of physics are the same in
every inertial frame of reference”
– Laws of physics are covariant.
• “The speed of light in vacuum is the

same in all inertial frames of
reference, and is independent of the
motion of the source”
– Speed of light is invariant.
What is an inertial frame of reference?
A frame of reference is a system of

co-ordinates. An inertial frame is one
that’s not accelerating.
Experiment at rest Experiment in moving frame
Ball rises and ends up in the thrower’s hand. Ball in the air the same
length of time.
Experiment looks different from ground observer (parabolic trajectory,

speed as a function of time) and observer on the truck.
However, they both agree on the validity of Newton’s laws.

Conditions of the Galilean
Transformation
• Parallel axes
• K’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to K
• Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,

i.e., the same for all inertial observers
6
Numerical
An observer in the laboratory sees two particles colliding at
x = 20.5 m, y=0, z=0 and t= 7.2 s. What are the co
ordinates of this event in a frame moving at 30.5 m/s with
respect to the laboratory frame?
Ans: x’=-199.1 m, y’=0, z’=0 and t’=7.2s.
K y P = (x, y, z, t)
P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)
x
z
The constancy of the speed of light
Consider the fixed system K and the moving system K’.
At t = 0, the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with
system K’ moving to the right along the x axis.
A flashbulb goes off at both origins when t = 0.
According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both
systems and the wavefronts observed in both systems must be
spherical.
K
The constancy of the speed of light is not
compatible with Galilean transformations.
Spherical wavefronts in K:
Spherical wavefronts in K’:
Note that this cannot occur

in Galilean transformations:
There are a couple
of extra terms
(-2xvt + v2t2) in the
primed frame.
The Lorentz Transformations
The special set of linear transformations that:
preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c)

between inertial observers; with the
assumption that the time is not an absolute
quantity
Therefore t ≠ t′
known as the Lorentz transformation equations

11
Derivation
12
Derivation
The complete Lorentz
Transformation
If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and γ ≈ 1, yielding the familiar Galilean transformation.

Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.
Consequence of Relativity
• The Major Consequences To This Theory are:-
• Length Contraction
• Mass Expansion
• Time Dilation
Lorentz Contraction
v = 10% c
A
fast-movi v = 80% c
ng plane
at
v = 99% c
different
speeds.
v = 99.9% c
Length contraction
Y
Y’
S
Z X’
Z’
S’ v
Time Dilation
Time Dilation
Assume a clock is placed at x’ in the moving frame S’.
When an observer in S’ measures a time interval
The observer in S, will measure this interval as
The time interval observed

in rest frame will be longer
than real time; called Time
dilation.
Numerical
A particle with a proper life time of 1 µs moves
through the laboratory at 0.9c. What is its
lifetime as measured by observers in the
laboratory?
Ans:2.294 μs.
Example of Time Dilation
Muon is created The life time of μ mesons is 2.2 μs and their
speed 0.998c, so that they can cover only a
distance of 0.998c x 2.2 μs or 0.66km in their
life time, and yet they are found in profusion
~6.6×102 m
at sea level, i.e., at a depth of 10km from the
upper atmosphere where they are
produced. How may this be explained on the
basis of (i) length contraction (ii) time
Muon decays dilation?
Example of Time Dilation
Muon is created
Muon decays
Concept of simultaneity: Relative Character of time
"Events which are simultaneous in one reference
frame may not be simultaneous in another."
Suppose two events occur at two different places x1 and x2 but at the
same time(to) in stationary frame (w.r.t. an observer). Therefore for an
observer in moving frame , the event occurs at x1 at
And that at x2 occur at
Hence the two events are separated to an observer in moving frame by a

time interval of
There is nothing like “absolute time” which is same for all observer.
Time is relative and is different for for observers in relative motion.
Velocity Addition
Example
Try more numerical

1. Two photons approach each other. What is their relative
velocity?
2. One photon and one electron (0.9 c) approach each other.
3. Two electrons (0.7 c) approach each other.

Relativity of Mass
Mass at rest.
When v is small as compared to c, v2/c2 <<<1

⇒ m = m0 i.e. at velocities much smaller than c the
mass of the moving object is same as the mass at rest.
When v is comparable to c, the √1- v2/c2 < 1 , m > m0
⇒ mass of the moving object is greater than at rest.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o o o
Relation between Mass and Energy
Limiting Case: When v << c
Limiting Case: When v → c

K.E. tends to infinity. ⇒ to accelerate the particle to the speed
of light infinite amount of work would be needed to be done .
Examples of mass-energy equivalence
1) Pair Production when a photon of energy equal to or greater than 1.02 MeV passes
close to an atomic nucleus, it disappears and a pair of electron and positron is created
i.e.
γ (Gamma Photon) =e- (electron) + e+ (positron)
Positron is a particle of same mass as electron but equal and opposite charge.
(2) Pair Annihilation when an electron and positron come close together, they
annihilate each other and equal amount of energy is produced in the form of a pair of γ-
ray photons.
e- (electron) + e+ (positron) = γ + γ
Relation between Total energy (E) and momentum(p)
Relation between Kinetic energy (K) and momentum (p)
☞ Limiting value of
Relativistic Kinetic Energy
Relation between Kinetic energy (K) and momentum (p)
Mass less Particle? (Classically impossible)

1) When m0=o and v<c, E=0, p=0
2) When m0=o and v=c, E=0/0, p=0/0
indeterminate form, hence must have E and p.

Mass less Particle? (Classically impossile) Photon.
Units of energy, mass and momentum

• Energy; eV, keV, MeV, GeV • Rest mass Energy of
• Mass; MeV/c2, – Electron: m0c2=0.51MeV
• Momentum: MeV/c – Proton: m0c2=938 MeV
– Neutron: m0c2=931 MeV
– Photon: m0c2=0 as massless particle
Ex : Find the mass and speed of 2MeV electron.
m=3.55 × 10-30kg
v=2.90 × 108 ms-1
Ex: Calculate the speed of an electron accelerated through a potential

difference of 1.53×106 volts.
Given c=3×108 m/sec, mo=9.1×10-31Kg, and e= −1.6×10-19
Coulomb
v=0.968c
Ex: A body whose specific heat is 0.2kcal/kg-oC is heated through

100oC. Find the % increase in its mass.
% increase =9.33×10-11
Ex: A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1 kg

that move apart at speeds of 0.6c relative to the original body. Find
the mass of the original body.
2.5 kg
Summary
•Velocity Addition

Relativity

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Observer in car

Here we can see the Effect of Reference frame on the

• “The speed of light in vacuum is the

A frame of reference is a system of

Experiment looks different from ground observer (parabolic trajectory,

However, they both agree on the validity of Newton’s laws.

• Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,

Ans: x’=-199.1 m, y’=0, z’=0 and t’=7.2s.

Spherical wavefronts in K’:

Note that this cannot occur

preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c)

known as the Lorentz transformation equations

If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and γ ≈ 1, yielding the familiar Galilean transformation.

• The Major Consequences To This Theory are:-

The observer in S, will measure this interval as

The time interval observed

And that at x2 occur at

Hence the two events are separated to an observer in moving frame by a

Try more numerical

2. One photon and one electron (0.9 c) approach each other.

3. Two electrons (0.7 c) approach each other.

When v is small as compared to c, v2/c2 <<<1

Limiting Case: When v << c

Limiting Case: When v → c

Relation between Kinetic energy (K) and momentum (p)

Mass less Particle? (Classically impossible)

2) When m0=o and v=c, E=0/0, p=0/0

indeterminate form, hence must have E and p.

Units of energy, mass and momentum

Ex: Calculate the speed of an electron accelerated through a potential

Ex: A body whose specific heat is 0.2kcal/kg-oC is heated through

Ex: A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1 kg

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