UNIT 1

RATIO, PROPORTION

APPROXIMATION

RULES OF CALCULATION, USE OF CALCULATOR

FRACTIONS

ALGEBRAIC RULES

SOLVE SIMPLE LINEAR EQUATIONS

At the end of this section you should

* understand the concept of a ratio, a rate and proportion
* be able to simplify a ratio
* be able to approximate/ round off a number to a certain degree of
accuracy
* be able to write a number in scientific notation
* be able to interpret scientific notation
* be able to use a calculator to make accurate calculations after substituting
values into formulas.
* be able to find a LCM
* be able to convert fractions from proper to improper and back
* be able to add and subtract fractions without a calculator
* be able to multiply and divide fractions without a calculator
* be able to add and subtract algebraic expressions
* be able to multiply and divide algebraic terms
* be able to remove the brackets from an algebraic expression
* be able to solve simple linear equations
* be able to test your answer to the solution of equations

1
1.1 Ratio and proportion
Ratio
A ratio is a comparison between two or more like quantities in the same units. A ratio is a way of
comparing quantities; e.g a and b that are in the same units. Ratios can be expressed in the following
a
ways: a : b ; or a . a and b are always whole numbers (not fractions or decimals).
b b

Proportion:
In English a proportion represents the relative contribution of a quantity to the whole. In mathematics
3 12
when we set two ratios equal to each other we have a proportion. E.g. 3 : 5 = 12 : 20 or = is a
5 20
proportion. The proportion 3 : 5 = 12 : 20 is read as “3 is to 5' as '12 is to 20”. A proportion can be used
3 ?
to find an unknown quantity, e.g. = . The English use of the term is often used to express what
5 125
portion a part is of the whole. For example if two quantities X and Y occur in the ratio a : b then X
a
occurs in proportion
a+b

Rate
A rate is a comparison between quantities of different kinds, e.g.
Average speed (rate of travel) = Distance travelled ÷ Time taken, and will be expressed on km/h. A
rate is expressed as …. per …, or …/…, as in R5 per kg, 60km/hr or 12km/litre.

Example
At the Happy Home for Disabled Persons every resident’s allowance is divided in the ratio of 5 : 3
in respect of lodging fees and pocket money. This means that: Lodging fees + Pocket money = 8 parts
and then:

• R5 out of every R8 will be paid for lodging and R3 out of every R8 is pocket money

5 3
• of the total income will be paid for lodging and will be pocket money.
8 8

5 3
• If a person’s income is R800, then of R800 = R500 goes towards lodging and of R800 = R300
8 8
is pocket money.

The total is 8 parts and is divided in the ratio of 5 parts to 3 parts.

Example: Change these sentences to ratios in their simplest form:

a. Nomso has R150 and Phiwe has R200.
b. Allen has 24 marks and Jock has 36.

2
Solution:
a. Nomso : Phiwe = 150 : 200. Divide each number by 50 which gives 3 : 4
3 4 1
Their money is in the ratio 3 : 4 or Nomso has of Phiwe’s amount and Phiwe has or 1 of
4 3 3
3 4
Nomso’s amount. Nomso has of the total amount and Phiwe .
7 7

b. Allen : Jock = 24 : 36. Divide each number by 4 which gives 2 : 3

2
Allen has of Jock’s marks or their marks are in the ratio 2 : 3
3

Rates example
During a sale of men’s shorts, a store sold 568 pairs in 22 minutes. Express the sales as:
a) number of pairs sold per minute
b) number of pairs sold per hour.
Solution
568
a) 568 pairs in 22 minutes therefore in one minute ≈ 26 pairs are sold ( ≈ means “approximately
22
equal”. One cannot sell 25.8 pairs in one minute so one rounds up)
568
b) 568 pairs in 22 minutes therefore in 60 minutes × 60 ≈ 1549 pairs are sold.
22

Ratios are used in industry, business and daily life for example:

* Metals are mixed in certain ratios for particular properties; paint colours are mixed in certain
ratios, etc.

* Fruit juice usually has an apple juice base mixed with other juices in a certain ratio
to name but a few instances.

* When you apply for a mortgage the bank applies a ratio to determine whether you qualify for a
loan. If the ratio of fixed payments to monthly income is more than (e.g.) 25:100, the bank is
unlikely to grant the loan.

* Many companies use a ratio to determine the charge for their goods or services, for Example, a
storage company charges a fixed amount for every square metre occupied; rent for shop space in
a mall is also charged per square metre, etc.

* Recipes are adapted for larger or smaller groups by changing all the ingredients in the correct
proportion.

* Often the quality of education has been determined by the ‘student : teacher’ ratio.

* Which product is the cheaper one is determined by the price per quantity (e.g. R/kg).

To simplify a ratio you multiply or divide each number in the ratio by the same number.

3
Examples:
1. Joalane pours 1 carton of apple juice and 3 cartons of peach juice into a large jug.
What is the ratio of apple juice to peach juice in the jug?

2. Mrs. Grey uses 900 ml of apple juice and 1 500 ml of peach juice. Find the ratio in the simplest
form (lowest terms).
1
3. Mrs. Grey uses 1 litres of apple juice and 2 litres of pine juice. Find the ratio in the simplest
3
form.
4. Sophia makes 750 ml of detergent from a detergent concentrate. Water is added to the
concentrate in the ratio of 5:1. How much concentrate is needed?
Solutions:
1. Apple juice : peach juice = 1 : 3

900 1500
2. 900 : 1 500 = : = 3:5 (divide both numbers by 300)
300 300

1 4 4
3. 1 :2 = :2 = × 3 : 2 × 3 change to improper fractions; then to whole numbers
3 3 3
= 4 : 6 ( now divide each number by 2) = 2 : 3
4. A ratio of 5:1 means there are 6 parts altogether; 5 of water and 1 part concentrate.
The ratio of the concentrate to the mixture is 1 : 6.
1 ?
Therefore: = (multiply both sides by 750.)
6 750
750
?= = 125 ml which means that 125 ml represents one part,
6
so the amount of water will be 5 parts of 125ml each = 5 × 125 = 625 ml.

Methodology in solving problems relating to PROPORTION

The method illustrated below is useful but pretty mechanical. It allows people to solve fairly complicated
proportion problems, both direct and inverse proportion, quite easily without necessarily understanding
the mathematics. I feel that it is nevertheless appropriate because proportion problems will appear
frequently as the course proceeds.

Example 1 If a cyclist travels 20km in 40 minutes how far would he cycle in an hour (60 minutes) if
his speed remains the same?
Solution: Set out the problem like this:
Km Minutes
20 40
x 60
20
Proceed as follows: Write down x = × ..... and then ask the question “If 20 km take 40 minutes, will
1
I go further or shorter in 60 minutes?” If your answer is “further, more, greater, bigger, etc.” then replace
the … with the fraction with the larger number as numerator. If your answer is “shorter, less, fewer,
smaller etc” then replace the …. with the fraction with the smaller number as the numerator. In our case
60 20 60
the answer is “further” thus the … gets replaced with . So x = × = 30 km
40 1 40
4
Example 2 A bricklayer takes 6 days to build a wall of 84 m². How long would it take 3 bricklayers to
build the same wall working at the same rate?
Solution Bricklayers Days
1 6
3 x
6
x = × ...... We now ask ourselves the question “If one bricklayer does the job in 6 days
1
will it take more days or fewer days to do the job if 3 bricklayers worked on the job?”. Our answer here
6 1
is fewer days ∴ x = × = 2 days. This is an example of Inverse proportionality.
1 3

Now for a really hard one: If 5 cats catch 5 mice in 5 days, how long would it take 3 cats to catch 3
mice?
Solution: Cats Mice Days
5 5 5
3 3 x
We divide this into 2 sums each with 2 columns and proceed like we did before. First we use Cats
and Days, then we use Mice and Days. We always need to use the column with the x .
5
Using columns Cats/Days we write down x = × ..... and ask ourselves “If 5 cats do the job in 5
1
days will 3 cats take longer or less time to do the job?” The answer is “longer or more time”
5
therefore the fraction we need is . Now using columns Mice/Days we ask the question “If 5
3
mice are caught in 5 days will 3 mice get caught in more or fewer days?” The answer here is
3
“fewer” days. Therefore the fraction we need here is . Thus
5
5 5 3
x = × × = 5 days
1 3 5

Examples for Ratio and Proportion to work through

1. Paula, John and Amica form a partnership in which Paula invests R 54 000, John R 45 000 and
Amica R 63 000. Paula and Amica are each to receive a salary of R 20 000 out of the profit, while the
remaining profit is to be divided between the three in the ratio of their investments. Find how much
each will receive in total if the profit is: (a) R76 000 (b) R112 000 (c) R 184 000

2. Three brothers Pete, Andrew and Damon agree to share their company’s profit under the following
conditions:
Pete receives 30% of the profit or R20 000 whichever is the smallest amount.
After Pete takes his share, Andrew receives 30% of the remaining profit.
Damon receives what is left over after Pete and Andrew have taken their share.
(a) If the profit is R 50 000, how much does each brother get?
(b) If the profit is R100 000, how much does each get?

3. Express these in the lowest terms (simplest form):

1
a. 100 : 5 b. 4 : 6 c. 5.5 : 2.5 d. 2 : 2½ e. 3.25 : 1
3

5
4 (a) A bookstore manager notes that the ratio of customers who browse in the store to those who
actually buy something is 7 : 5. In a total of 180 customers, find the number in each category.
(b) If the ratio for male customers only is 5 : 3 and 60% of the customers are female, what is he ratio
for the females?

5. Vujani and Ilrene are partners in a clothing business in which Vujani has contributed a total of
R 4 000 over 8 months and Ilrene a total of R 10 000 over 5 months. If profits are to be shared
according to average monthly investment, calculate how much each would receive on a profit of
(a) R 20 000 (b) R 40 000 (c ) R 100 000:

6. A certain supermarket sells milk in 1L and 600ml cartons. The ratio of 1L cartons of milk to 600ml
cartons sold is 17:23.
(a) Find the percentage of each size carton sold.
(b) If the supermarket sold a total of 6 600 cartons of milk, how many of each size carton did it sell?

7. A sales representative notes that during the past month she has driven 1650 km and used 125 L of
petrol. Express her petrol usage in the form kilometers / 100 L.

8. A store has the following sales figures for beach umbrellas during the first 4 months of the year:

January February March April

240 203 124 51

(a) Express each of the sales figures as a ratio compared to February (the base month) where the
second number in the ratio is 100 (round off to nearest integer).
(b) Use your answer to (a) to calculate the percentage changes in sales in each of the other months
compared to February.
(c ) Answer (a) and (b) again, using April as the base month.

9. Anele and Siphelo have been employed to paint a room. Anele estimates that he could paint the room
by himself in 3 hours. Siphelo estimates that he could do the job on his own in 2 hours. If their
assumptions are correct how long would it take them to paint the room if they work together?

10. Two partners in a business each received their share of the profit according to the ratio that had
been decided upon in their business agreement. Partner A received R42 000 and partner B
R48 000. What ratio had they agreed upon?

11. Write the following statements as ratios in the simplest form.

a. In a class 3 out of every 5 people are female.
b. The number of cups of coffee consumed in the cafeteria is 225 a day while the number of cups
of tea is 150.
c. A cup of tea costs R3.50 and a mug of coffee costs R4.00.

12. An income of R624 000 is divided in the ratio 1: 3: 4. How much is each part.

13. Two partners buy a CD shop for R680 000. They invest in the business in the ratio 11:5. How
much does each partner contribute?

6
14. A car travels 925 km and uses 74 litres of fuel.
a)What is the rate of fuel consumption expressed as km/litre?
b) How many litres are used to travel 100km?.

15. Write the average cost/year of keeping a student at the university if it cost R138 000 for 6 years.

16. Which is cheaper: 750 ml olive oil at R33.35 or 1.2 litres at R48?

17. The ratio of male to female students at a college is currently 7 : 5. The rector of the college would
like to even things out by having the same number of male and female students at the college. There
are currently 4 080 students of which 30% will graduate at the end of the year. The new intake of
first year students is to be 1 500 in the new year. If the rector’s wishes are to be upheld, how many
male and female students should be admitted? What would be the ratio of Male : Female new
students who are admitted? (Express the ratio in its simplest form.)

18. A 100 ml container of low fat yoghurt contains about 343 kiloJoules. Approximately how
many kiloJoules does a serving of 175 ml contain?

19. An advertisement says that 5 out of every 9 dentists recommended the use of a certain toothpaste. If
136 dentists recommended it, how many were interviewed?

20. A travelling salesman notes that in a particular week he drove 1350 km and used 120 litres of
petrol. His sales partner drove 940 km in another vehicle and used 88 litres of petrol.
a. Express their petrol usage as a rate in the form km: 100 litre.
b. Express their petrol usage as a rate in the form km : 1 litre.

21. If 4 painters complete a painting job in 15 days working 8 hours per day, how long would it take 6
painters working 10 hours per day to finish the job?

1.2 Approximation
Dramatic progress in the field of technology during the latter part of the twentieth century enables us to
perform time consuming calculations accurately and in a wink of an eye. It is however still the
responsibility of the mathematician to interpret answers given by calculators in such a way that any error
is minimised.

1.2.1 Rounding off numbers

Numbers are rounded off to minimise error. You already know the rule that is used to round off a number
to a specified number of decimal places. To round off a number like 0.063 868 to say 3 significant
figures the following method is used:
1) Starting on the left-hand end, move to the first non-zero digit (0.06).
2) Including this non-zero digit, move 3 digits to the right (0.0638).
3) Now round off according to the value of the next digit in the sequence (0.0639).

Example: If 46 783 tickets were sold at a game of soccer the local newspapers would probably report a
rounded off attendance of 46 780 (to the nearest ten, or 4 significant figures), 46 800 (to the nearest
hundred, or 3 significant figures) or 47 000 (to the nearest thousand, or 2 significant figures).

7
The table shows four numbers rounded off to the indicated number of decimal places and significant
figures.

Number 3 dec places 2 dec places 1 dec places 3 sig. figures 2 sig. figures 1 sig. figures
519.000 8 519.001 519.00 519.0 519 520 500
17.446 7 17.447 17.45 17.4 17.4 17 20
0.034 621 0.035 0.03 0.0 0.034 6 0.035 0.03
0.004 636 5 0.005 0.00 0.0 0.004 64 0.004 6 0.005

The mathematical rules discussed above are often overruled to minimise error in everyday activities, e.g.:

* when a service is advertised a charging R50 per hour or part thereof then 2 hours and 10 minutes
will be rounded to 3 hours. This is also the principle on which cell-phone charges are based.
* when recording distances in athletics the distance must always be rounded off downwards to the
previous 0.01 metres, e.g. a distance of 2 m 25.89 cm must be registered as 2.25 m.
* when paying at a till in a supermarket, the amount due is rounded down to the nearest 5c. Thus
an amount of R55.68 will be rounded to R55.65, and you save 3c.

1.2.2 Scientific notation

Technology enables mathematicians to work accurately with very large numbers. An American
mathematician, Edward Käsner, defined the large number consisting of a 1 followed by a hundred
noughts, as a googol. Mathematicians use scientific notation to write down this number as 1 x 10100. This
notation can also be used to write down very small numbers. Suppose a biochemist using a powerful
75
microscope discovers an organism which is mm, i.e. 0.000 000 75 mm long. By using
100 000 000
powers of 10 we can express the fraction in scientific notation as 7.5 x 10-7 (7.5 times 10 to the power of
-7), because
75 75
. = 8 = 75 × 10 −8 = 7.5 × 10 × 10 −8 = 7.5 × 10 −7
100 000 000 10
A figure written in scientific notation is the product of two factors.

* The first factor is the number 1 or a number between 1 and 10 , or 1 ≤ n < 10.
* The second factor is a power of 10.

Example:
Write these numbers in scientific notation: a) 34 600 000 b) 0.000 000 089

Method and solution:

i) Move the decimal point to the left (if number >10) or right (if number is less than 1) until you have
only one non-zero digit to its right.
ii) Count the number of digits passed along the way.
iii) That number is the power of 10. If moving right then the power is negative.
a) i move decimal point to the left: 3.4 6 0 0 0 0 0 ii the decimal point moved 7 places iii thus
3.46 × 10 7

8
b) i move decimal point to the right: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.9 ii the decimal point moved 8 places iii thus
8.9 × 10 −8

Exercises
1 Round off to 2 decimal places.
1.1 10.456 s 1.2 3.456 m
1.3 470.653 cm 1.4 3.0098

2 Round off according to supermarket rules.

2.1 R10.46 2.2 R3.77
2.3 R470.65 2.4 R348.49

3 Write these numbers in scientific notation, e.g. 0.007 4 = 7.4 x 10-3.

3.1 38 760 3.2 725 000 000
3.3 0.000 000 009 24 3.4 4 758.25
3.5 10 000 000 000 3.6 0.000 000 000 001 3

4 Write these as ordinary numbers e.g. 5.8 x 10-5 = 0.000 058

4.1 5 × 107 4.2 2.36 × 10-5
4.3 3.4 × 10-2 4.4 3.4 × 102
-8
4.5 1.125 × 10 4.6 9.555 7 × 1011

5 Correct the numbers which are not written in scientific notation.

5.1 8.9 × 105 5.2 44.4 × 103
7
5.3 1.10 × 1.10 5.4 1.88 × 10-11
5.5 188 × 1011 5.6 3.3 × 52

6 Write the following numbers rounded to 3 significant figures.

6.1 3579862 6.2 0.00538923
6.3 234.679 6.4 3.83268
6.5 268930000

7 Write each number in scientific notation in the units indicated:

7.1 The first manned spacecraft reached a height of about 187 000 m (in meters, m).
7.2 A microsecond is 0.000 001 of a second.
7.3 The world’s oldest fossil of a flower is 65 000 000 years old. Express this in hours (1 year =
365 days)
7.4 A grain of rice weighs about 0.000 011 kg. (in g or grams)
7.5 An atomic nucleus has a diameter of 0.000 000 000 000 001 m. (in mm)
7.6 The earliest rock paintings are 1 000 000 000 000 seconds old.

You are now ready to write GATEWAY TEST no. 1 on

sections 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3

9
1.3 Mathematical Rules of Calculation and Using the Calculator
This indicates the order in which operations (+;-; ×;÷ ) are done.
B brackets O of D division M multiplication A addition S subtraction
B O D M A S
( )’s of ÷ × + −

These are the internationally agreed order of calculation.

NB: ‘of ’ is treated as multiplication but happens before division and multiplication.
The calculator is programmed accordingly. Therefore, if you want to calculate:
4+8
and you key into the calculator: 4 + 8 ÷ 2 the calculator will FIRST DIVIDE 8 by 2 and
2
then ADD the 4 giving an answer of 8. This is not the correct answer, so in such a case we need to
use BRACKETS to tell the calculator to change its order of calculation to suit the question:
( 4 + 8 ) ÷ 2 which gives the correct answer of 6.

What we do in effect is to rewrite all calculations on a single line, using brackets to tell the calculator
which calculations should enjoy preference. Try these, writing them in a single line first:

7−4 3
1. 5+ − = 5 + (7 − 4) ÷ (6 × 2) − 3 ÷ 4 = 4.5 or 4½
6×2 4

4+2
2. 5+4 − 9 × =
32

47 − 13
3. log =
17

4. Place brackets in the following to make them correct:

4.1 6 × 12 – 3 + 1 = 55 × 4.2 6 × 12 – 3 + 1 = 68

4.3 6 × 12 – 3 + 1 = 60 4.4 5 × 4–3+2=7

4.5 5 x 4 – 3 + 2 = 15 4.6 5 × 4 – 3 + 2 = -5

5. Determine the values of the following formulas, substituting the values and using your calculator
correctly.
The following formulas are often encountered in commercial and statistical calculations and thus, by
the
time you need to use these formulas, they will already have some familiarity.

When substituting values into a formula, it is firstly very important to know what each of the symbols
represent in order to put the correct number into the correct place. Once the numbers have been
written
into the correct places, it is important to do the calculation in the correct order.

10
 Be sure to tell the calculator the correct thing or it will not do what you want it to do. The most
important thing is to know how to work with brackets, so that one can do any calculation in one step.
In this way, by executing the calculation in one step, there are less chances for mistakes (because
numbers do not have to be written down and typed in again), giving as accurate an answer as possible.

Opening stock + Closing stock

5.1 Average Stock = (Opening stock = 2975, Closing stock = 3024)
2

5.2 The maturity value (S) of the principal is: S = P + I = P(1 + RT ) [ P = 1250, R = 0.075, T = 4]

( N + 1) × E
5.3 The flat rate of interest (R) is: R = [ N = 4, E = .0974]
2N

5.4 The compound interest formula, accumulated value (S) is: S = P(1 + i ) n [ P = 325, i = 0.05, n = 6]

5.5 The present value (P) at compound interest of S is: P = S (1 + i ) − n [ S = 548, i = 0.075, n = 4]

 S n
5.6 The compound interest rate (i) per period is: i =   − 1 [ S = 3673, P = 3275, n = 4]
P
5.7 The number of periods (n) required for an amount of P to accumulate to an amount of S,

S
log 
when the compound interest rate is I per period, is: n =  P
[ S = 3673, P = 3275, i = 0.04]
log(1 + i )

(1 + i ) n − 1
5.8 The future value (S) of an annuity is: S = R × [ R = 500, i = 0.075, n = 4]
i
S
5.9 An amount of the annuity payment (R ) made per period is: R =
(1 + i ) n − 1
i
[ S = 5000, i = 0.075, n = 12]

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You are now ready to write GATEWAY TEST no. 4 on
Calculator skills

11
1.4 Fractions
Rational numbers: When the set of integers is extended to include fractions the new set is
called rational numbers.
a
A fraction is a number which appears in the form , where both a and b are whole numbers
b
and b can never be zero (b ≠ 0).
1
• a is called the numerator and b the denominator. Take as an example. The denominator is 4
4
because it says how many equal parts the whole is divided into and the numerator is 1 because it says
how many of the 4 parts are used.
Remember:
Denominator is the name of the fraction and numerator is the quantity.
• If the denominator is greater than the numerator it is called a proper fraction. Examples:
1 3 2 21 13
; ; ; ;
4 4 5 40 18
• If the denominator is less than the numerator it is called an improper fraction. Examples:
4 5 40 18
; ; ;
3 2 21 13
5 4+1 4 1 1
• An improper fraction can be written as a mixed number, e.g. = = + = 2+ ,
2 2 2 2 2
1
which is written as 2 . In the same way a mixed number can be written as an improper fraction.
2
2 2 15 2 17
Example: 3 = 3 + = + = .
5 5 5 5 5
• Common fractions (as opposed to decimal fractions) consist of proper and improper fractions. All
common fractions can be represented on the number line.
1
• If you divide a number by four you get 4 quarters. There four fractions, each equal to .
4
1
Likewise, dividing a number by 6 gives 6 equal parts, each equal to th and dividing by 11 gives 11
6
1
parts, each of which is an eleventh of the original number, th.
11

NOTE: A Rational number is one that can be expressed as a fraction.

5 11
2, 3.5, 0.467, -1.578, , 4 are all rational. π , e, 2 , 4 5 are all irrational as they cannot be
6 15
expressed as fractions. What about recurring decimals? Are they rational or irrational?

1.4.1 Addition and subtraction of fractions

1. Adding and subtracting fractions that have the same denominator.
Because the denominators are the same one is adding quantities of the same kind, so one simply adds the
numerators.:
1 3
Example 1: Add the following fractions a. +
6 6
12
 1+ 3 4 4 2× 2 2 2 2 2
Solution: = (and can be simplified: = = × = 1× = )
6 6 6 2×3 2 3 3 3

1 2 3 8 3 3 2 1 8
b. + + (ans. = 1 ) c. + + (ans. = 1)
5 5 5 5 5 8 8 8 8

Example 2: Subtract the second fraction from the first.

11 7 11− 7 4 1
a. – Solution: = (simplified: )
16 16 16 16 4
21 13 21− 13 8
b. − Solution: =
15 15 15 15

2. Adding and subtracting fractions that have different denominators

We can only add fractions if the denominators are the same, so we need to change fractions with different
denominators into fractions that have the same denominator. We do this by finding the lowest common
multiple or LCM (also called a common denominator) of the different denominators and then changing
each fraction in turn. It is best illustrated by examples. (See how to find a LCM in the box below)
2 4 5
Add: + +
3 9 6
Solution: The LCM of 3, 9 and 6 is 18 ( 3; 3× 3 and 2× 3 so LCM = 3 × 3 × 2 = 18).
So, each of the fractions has to be converted to an equivalent fraction that has denominator equal to 18.
2 2 6 12 4 4 2 8 5 5 3 15
= × = = × = = × = and thus
3 3 6 18 9 9 2 18 6 6 3 18

2 4 5 12 8 15 12 + 8 + 15 35 17
+ + = + + = = (can be simplified to 1 )
3 9 6 18 18 18 18 18 18

To calculate a LCM:
If the denominators are not the same, we have to change the fractions so that they become the same. In order to do this we have
to find the lowest common multiple of all the denominators.
2 2
Example: + cannot be added as the fractions have different denominators. The denominators have to be made equal. This
7 3
means we have to find the smallest possible number that is a multiple of both 7 and 3. (this means that 7 and 3 should divide
into the number we are looking for). There are two ways of finding this number. Let’s explain using 8 and 12 as an example.
First method: write down the multiples of both numbers until you get one that appears in both lists.
8: 8; 16; 24; 32…
12: 12; 24… It is clear that 24 is the lowest common multiple (the word “common” here means belonging to both).

Second method: find the factors of the denominators and find the smallest number that contains all the factors of each number.
Let us look at an example like 8 and 12: Factors: 8: 2 × 2 × 2 and 12: 2 × 2 × 3. The number that is the lowest common multiple
must have 2 × 2 × 2 and 2 × 2 × 3. Start by writing down the factors of one of the numbers,
e.g. 8: 2 × 2 × 2, now add those from the other number(s) that do not appear in the list yet:
2 × 2 × 2 × 3 =24, so the lowest common multiple (called LCM for short) is 24.

13
Exercises

1. Calculate the following: Check all the answers

a 18 + 83 b 4
5
– 3
5 using the fraction key on
c 1
+ 1
d 5
− 3 your calculator.
3 6 7 5

2. Calculate:
a 103 + 105 b 6
7
− 85 c 5
11
+ 23 − 5
33

d 52 − 13 + 75 e 1
4
+ 185 f 23
25
− 100
31
g 8
13
+ 125

Comparing fractions can often be done by reasoning.

5 5
For example is more than because if the same whole were divided into 8 parts one part would be
8 9
1 1
more than if it were divided into 9 parts, i.e. is more than . The rest follows. However this is not
8 9
always so obvious. To arrange fractions into ascending order one needs to convert each of the fractions
to have a common denominator. In other words one needs to find the LCM of the denominators.

3 Write the following in ascending order. (from the smallest to the greatest number)
Use reasoning where possible.

3 1 3 5 7 7 7 11 11 9
a ; ; ; b ; ; c ; ;
8 2 4 8 11 10 12 15 20 20

1.4.3 Converting fractions

a. Converting an improper fraction to a mixed number

Look for wholes in the number and write them as whole numbers and the remainder as a proper fraction.
5 3 2 2 2
Example 1: = + = 1 + = 1
3 3 3 3 3

14 10 4 4 4
Example 2: = + = 2 + = 2
5 5 5 5 5

b. Converting mixed numbers to improper fractions

4 4 5 4 9
Example: 1 = 1 + = + = . The whole number has been written as a fraction with the
5 5 5 5 5
same denominator as the fraction part of the number.

Remember that a whole number can be written as any fraction that suits your purpose,
1 2 3 5 15 7 14 21 35 105
for example: 1 = = = = = and 7 = = = = = , etc.
1 2 3 5 15 1 2 3 5 15

14
 8 5 2 8 3 5 First find the LCM of 9 and 6:
Example + = × + ×
9 6 2 9 3 6 9 = 3× 3 and 6 = 2 × 3
LCM = 3 × 3× 2 = 18.
16 15 So multiply 9 by 2 and multiply 6 by 3
= +
18 18
31 18 13 13 13
= = + = 1+ =1
18 18 18 18 18

When we add mixed numbers we must change the whole to fractions first.
5 2 5 2
Example: 3 8 + 12 5 = (3 + 8 ) + (12 + 5 )
24 5 60 2 29 62
= ( + 8) + ( + 5) = + and now the LCM of 8 and 5 is 40
8 5 8 5
5 29 8 62
= × + ×
5 8 8 5
145 492 641 640 1 1 1
= + = = + = 16 + = 16
40 40 40 40 40 40 40
1.4.4 Subtracting fractions

1 1
Example 1: Calculate: 2 − .
6
Can you give the answer without doing any calculations? No, because halves and sixths do not have the
same denominator. The same as with the addition of fractions, the denominators have to be the same
when we subtract fractions.
1 3 1 1 3 1 2 1
We know that 2 = 6 . Therefore: 2 – 6 = 6 – 6 = 6 = 2

2 1
Example 2: Calculate: 3 − :
2
You have to find a common denominator for 2 and 3. Use Note that 1 has been written as
any of the methods shown above to find the LCM of 6. So: 2 3
and respectively for the
2 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 4 3 1 2 3
− =1× −1× = × − × = − = first and second terms
3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 6 6 6

See what happens when we subtract mixed numbers:

3 4 28 34 56 34 22 2
5 5 – 3 10 = 5 – 10 = 10 – 10 = 10 = 2 10

Exercises

1. Calculate the following without a calculator

a 14 + 34 b 1425
– 259 c 1
3
+ ( 12 + 1
4
)
d 23 – 16 e 101 + 1000
1
+ 100
57
f 2
5
– 53
g 76 – 12
33
h 12 11
– 56 i 13
30
– 103

15
1.4.5 Multiplying and dividing fractions

Refer to the sketch of a slab of chocolate on the left:

a What part of the slab is shaded?
b Complete 9 = 1
? 2
c How many pieces of chocolate would you get if you receive 1 of 1 of a whole chocolate? What part
3 2
of the whole would this be?
d Complete: 1 x 1 =
3 2
2× 4
Examples: Calculate a 2× 4 Solutions: a 2 × 4= = 8
3 5 3 5 3 × 5 15
1 1 8
Example b 2 = 2 ×1 ( multiply top and bottom by reciprocal of denominator )
1 1 8
8 8 1
8 1
= 2 = 4 = 4 We can deduce that 2 =
1 1 1 8
÷ = ×
8 1 1 2 8 2 1
8 8

Exercises

a 14
25
+ 3
5 × 52 b 5
7
÷ 15
21
c 8
11
÷ 23 d 9
14 + 1 72 × 34 e 2 14 × 1 16 ÷ 4 23 − 13
f 2 of (− 12 + 16 ) ÷ 4 23 −
1
4
3
7
g 1 × 4 34 ÷ 12 of (2 − )
5
8
11
12

Algebraic Rules
1.5.1 Adding and subtracting algebraic expressions
Terms in an algebraic expression are separated by a plus or a minus.
Example: 3x + 5 y − 7 is an expression with 3 terms: 3 x; +5y and −7
The terms in an expression consist of 3 parts, 1) the sign (+ or -), 2) the number, 3) the variable
portion. The variable portion is usually represented by a alphabetical letter such as x, y, a, β etc. In the
above example the first term ( 3 x ) does not have a sign and is taken to be a + (whenever the first term in
an expression is positive the + sign is omitted). Thus for the first term the sign is +, the number is 3 and
the variable is x . The second term has a sign of +, a number of 5 and a variable y . The last term has
no variable portion (only a sign and number) and is termed the constant term.

A coefficient is the term given to the sign and number together which sit in front of the variable part of
a term. The value of the coefficient answers the question: ‘How many do we have of this variable?’ In
− 3 x + 17 y − 4 , the coefficient of x is -3, the coefficient of y is +17 and the - 4 is the constant.

The coefficient of a variable standing on its own is 1.

Thus in: − 5 x + y −14 , the coefficient of x is -5, the coefficient of y is +1 and the - 14 is the constant.
And in: x − 5 y + 12 , the coefficient of x is +1, the coefficient of y is - 5 and the +12 is the constant.

16
When terms have the same variable component, we describe them as ‘like terms’ because they ‘look
alike’ .
Example: 3 x + 5 y − 7 − 6 x + 12 y + 3 In this expression there are: 3 kinds of terms ( x terms,
y terms and constant terms), and there are: 2 terms of each kind:
3 x and − 6 x are like terms and can therefore be simplified to one term: − 3 x by adding.
Likewise, + 5 y and + 12 y are like terms and can be simplified to: + 17 y
Lastly, the constants can be added: − 7 + 3 = − 4
This brings the expression to: 3 x + 5 y − 7 − 6 x + 12 y + 3 = − 3 x + 17 y − 4

In the examples above, all the variables were of ‘the power 1’ i.e. x 1 and y 1 . Variables can also have
1
higher, lower or fractional powers: 5x 2 , 19 x −4 , 7x 2 .

Terms that are not like terms are called unlike terms and can only be multiplied or divided. Unlike
terms cannot be added or subtracted (one cannot add x terms to x 2 terms).

Exercises: Simplify the following expressions:

1. − 5 x + 3x − x − 7 x 2. 6x − 5 y − y 3. 8a + b − 4b − 7 a
2 2
4. xy + 2 y + 3 xy 5. 2ab − 5ab − 3ab 6. m 2 − 5m − m + 12
7. p2 − 7 p + 5p − 6 8. 3x + 7 y + 5 x − 4 y 9. ab + 2b − 3ab + 8b
5 3 7 2
10. ab + bc − ab − ac + bc 11. a − 7x + a − 2x + 1
3 2 2 2 2 3
12. x − 3 xy + 4 x y − x y + xy + 2 y 13. 3x 3 − 4 x 2 − 3x + 5 x 2 − 4 x − 6

1.5.2 Multiplying and Dividing Algebraic Expressions

When we multiply (and when we divide) algebraic terms, we treat each term as 3 separate parts:
the sign, the number, and the variable part. In addition to this, the variable part is also
separated by alphabetical letter.

1. The signs are multiplied (and divided) thus:

+ ×+=+ + ÷ + = +
− ×−=+ − ÷ − = +
+ ×−=− + ÷ − = −
− ×+=− − ÷ + = −
2. The numbers are multiplied (and divided) as normal.

3. The variable part:

Here: For multiplication we ADD the EXPONENTS of letters that are the same.
And: For division we SUBTRACT the EXPONENTS of letters that are the same.

17
Exponents are the little numbers to the top right of another number or variable:
In − 35a 2 b 5 c the exponent of a is 2, the exponent of b is 5 and the exponent of c is 1.

Example: − 5ab 2 c × 7 ab 3 = (− × +)(5 × 7)(a × a )(b 2 × b 3 )c

= − 35 a 1+1 b 2+3 c1
= − 35 a2 b5 c
2 5
= − 35a b c

Exponents written outside brackets indicate the number of times the contents of the bracket should be
multiplied by itself.
Example: (− 2a bc )
2 5 3
( )(
= − 2a 2 bc 5 − 2a 2 bc 5 − 2a 2 bc 5 )( )
( )
= (− × − × − ) (2 × 2 × 2 ) a 2 × a 2 × a 2 (b × b × b ) c 5 × c 5 × c 5 ( )
= − 8 a 2+ 2+ 2 b1+1+1 c 5+5+5 = − 8a 6 b 3 c15
There is a shorter way of doing this calculation once we know what actually happens, like now!
We simply ‘raise’ each part of the term to the power indicated on the outside of the bracket:
(
Then − 2a 2 bc 5 )3
( ) (b) (c ) and
= (− ) (2 ) a 2
3 3 3 3 5 3

then we use the rule of indices that states: (a ) = a m n m×n

Therefore (− 2a bc ) = (− ) (2 ) (a ) (b ) (c ) =
5 3 2 3 5 3
2 3 3 3
- 8 a 2 × 3 b1× 3 c 5 × 3 = − 8a 6 b 3 c15

The following notes are useful to remember when doing algebra:

1. Every variable standing on its own, for example a has some invisible attributes.
+1a 1
It is important to remember that a = each time we see a variable standing on its own.
1

2. a + a = 2a but a × a = a2 also x 2 + x 2 = 2x 2 and x2 × x2 = x4

3. xy means x × y and is therefore the same as yx . Like 3× 5 is the same as 5 × 3 , both equal to 15.
(We do however follow the convention of writing these 'alphabetical' parts of a term in alphabetical order.)

4. Likewise: a + b = b + a same as 2 + 9 = 9 + 2 , both equal to 11.

5. If a ‘letter’ (variable) is not represented in a factor of a multiplication, it has an exponent of zero

in that factor and
If a ‘letter’ (variable) does not have an exponent, it has an exponent of 1
Example: k 2 p × p 2 = k 2 p1 × k 0 p 2 = k 2 + 0 p1+ 2 = k 2 p 3

18
Exercises:
1. Perform the following multiplications:
a. − 3z × 2w b. − 5a × − 3b c. x × 2 y × 7z
d. 8ab × 6c e. 4d × 3d f. 3a × 4a × a
g. (− 3y )3 h. (2x )
2 5
i. 2ab 3 × 3a
j. 5a 2 b × − 2ab k. 7 pq 2 × 3 p 2 q 2 l. 5ab × a 2 b 2
m. 4h 3 × − 2h 7 n. k 2 p × p2 o. (− 3t )
3 4

p. 7 m 6 × − 2m 5 q. 2 3 2
− 2 x × 3 x y × − 4 xy z

2. Perform the following divisions:

8a 8a 8a xy
a. b. c. d.
2 a 2a 2x
3a 2 b 2 20 x − 9x 7 2ab
e f. g. h.
6ab 15 xy 3x 4 6a 2 b 3
−8p 2 xy 2 z 3 2(a −5 ) 2 b 4
i. j. k. l. 12 p 3 ÷ 4 p 2
4 pqs 4x3 y 2 z 4a −9 (b 2 ) −1
m. − 15ab ÷ − 5b n. 14cd 2 ÷ 21c 3 d 3 o. 5a 9 b 4 c −2 ÷ 20a 5 b −3 c −1
p. − 5a 4 b 7 c ÷ 15ab 8 c −2 q. − 9(a 4 b −1 ) 3 ÷ − 18a −1b 3

1.5.3 Removing brackets

The distributive law is used to remove brackets. This means that each term inside the brackets are
multiplied by the factor outside the bracket. This factor can be written either in front of or at the back of
the bracket.

Example: a ( b + c ) = ( b + c ) a = ab + ac

When removing brackets it is important to remember the rules of BODMAS and apply them.

Example: 5 + 2 ( y + 3) = (do the multiplication first) 5 + 2 y + 6 = (now do addition) 11 + 2 y

+1a 1
Remembering that a = , we can write 7 x + (2 x − 3) as
1
7 x + (2 x − 3) = 7 x + 1(2 x − 3) = 7 x + 2 x − 3 = 9 x − 3 which apparently makes no difference to the
numbers in the bracket,
but when we simplify 7 x − (2 x − 3) where the number in front of the bracket is -1, it does make a
difference to the numbers in the bracket:

7 x − (2 x − 3) = 7 x − 1(2 x − 3) = 7 x − 2 x + 3 = 5 x + 3

19
Exercises: Remove the brackets and simplify:

1. 5(4 + 3 x − 2 y ) 2. − 3( x + 5) 3. − 2(4 y − 3)
4. − (b + 4 ) 5. − (2 z − 1 + 3w) 6. x ( x + 3)
7. 2 y (4 − y ) 8. 9a(a − 2b ) 9. 4ab(a + b 2 )
10. 3( x − 1) + 2 x 11. 4 + 2(3b − 7 ) 12. 5 x − (x − 2) − 3
13. 8 − 4(2 y + 1) + y 14. 3( x − 2 ) + 2(2 x + 1) 15. 5(m + 3) − 3(2m − 9 )
16. (a + b ) − (a − b ) 17. 2(3t − 4 ) − (t + 1) + 3 18. 4 + 3(a + 5) − (a − 7 )

To remove the brackets from a product of brackets, we simply separate the first bracket and multiply the
second bracket by each term in the first bracket.

Example: (a + 5)(a − 2) = a(a − 2) + 5(a − 2) and now we have the same procedure as above:
= a − 2a + 5a − 10 = a 2 + 3a − 10
2

Also remember that (m − 7 )2 becomes (m − 7 ) (m − 7 ) which can then be treated the same as the
example above.

Exercises: Remove the following brackets and simplify:

1. (3t − 4)(t + 1) 2. (2 y − 3)( y + 5) 3. (m − 4)(m − 2)

4. ( x + 3) 2 5. ( y − 7 )2 6. (2 x + 3)2
7. (3 y − 7 z )2 8. (x + 3)(x − 3) 9. ( y − 6)( y + 6)
10. (3a − 4)(3a + 4) 11. (2 z − 7 )(2 z + 7 ) 12. (x + 9)(x − 2 y + 2)
13. (b − 3)(2a + 2b − 1) 14. (x + 2)(x 2 − 2 x + 4) 15. (a − 3)(a 2 + 3a + 9)

1.6 Solving simple linear equations

The word equation comes from the word equal and the concept of an equation is based on the principle
that both sides of the equal sign must ALWAYS have the same value. Thus, if we change one side of the
equation, we must change the other side accordingly.

Solving an equation is very much like unwrapping a parcel – we start with the outer layer of paper, thus,
after we have removed the brackets and simplified both sides of the equal sign to have only two terms –
the variable term and the constant - we follow the procedure:

• If the terms have denominators, multiply each term by the common denominator or LCM
• Remove all brackets
Now there should only be individual terms on both sides of the equal sign. Then:
• If there is a variable term on the right hand side:
* if it is negative, we add it both sides
* if it is positive, we subtract it from both sides
Then we look at the left hand side:
• if a number is subtracted from the variable term, add it to both sides

20
• if a number is added to the variable term, subtract it from both sides
• if a number is multiplied by the variable, divide by it both sides
• if a number is divided into the variable, multiply by it both sides.
These rules will ensure that all linear equations are solved correctly. However, it is important to check
your answer by substituting the calculated value of the variable into each side of the equation separately
and if the two calculations give you the same number, you know your answer is correct. At the same
time, if the two answers are not the same, you know you have to recalculate your answer as it is wrong!!

Examples: Solve for x

1. 3x + 5 = 17 no variable on the right hand side
3 x + 5 − 5 = 17 − 5 5 was added, so we subtract 5 from both sides
3x = 12 simplified both sides
3x 12
= variable was multiplied by 3, so we divide by 3 both sides
3 3
x = 4 solution
CHECK: LHS = 3x + 5 = 3(4) + 5 = 12 + 5 = 17 = RHS
thus our answer is correct because both sides give the same answer.

2. 4y − 3 = 8 y + 21 there is a variable on the RHS

4 y − 3 − 8 y = 8 y + 21 − 8 y the variable on the RHS is positive, so we subtract it both sides
− 4 y − 3 = 21 simplified both sides
− 4 y − 3 + 3 = 21 + 3 3 was subtracted from the variable term, so we add 3 both sides
− 4y = 24 simplified both sides
− 4y 24
= variable was multiplied by -4, so we divide by -4
−4 −4
y = −6 Solution
CHECK: RHS = 4 y − 3 = 4(−6) − 3 = −24 − 3 = −27
LHS = 8 y + 21 = 8(−6) + 21 = −48 + 21 = −27 Thus: LHS = RHS and answer is correct!

2(m + 1) 3(2m − 1)
3. − = m−2
3 2
 2(m + 1)   3(2m − 1) 
 ×6 − ×6 = m×6 − 2×6 Multiply each term by LCM = 6
 3   2 
4(m + 1) − 9(2m − 1) = 6m − 12 Simplify
4m + 4 − 18m + 9 = 6m − 12 Remove brackets
4m + 4 − 18m + 9 − 6m = 6m − 12 − 6m The variable on the RHS is positive,
∴ subtract it from both sides
− 20m + 13 = −12 Simplify
− 20m + 13 − 13 = −12 − 13 13 was added to the variable term, so we
subtract 13 from both sides
− 20m = −25 Simplify
− 25 5 1
m= =1 =1 variable was multiplied by -20, so we divide
− 20 20 4
both sides by -20 and simplify.

21
Exercises: Solve:

1. 8b − 4 = −36 2. 3( x + 2) = 15 3. − 2(3a + 1) = 8
4. 7t + 4 = 3t − 12 5. x − 3 = 6x − 9 6. 2(a − 2) = 4 − 3a
7. 5b + 2 = −3(b − 1) 8. 3(t + 7) = 2(2t − 9) 9. 3.7 x + 1.2 = 5.4 x − 6.3
y+2 y −6 3( x −1)
10. 2 + 5( p − 1) = 5 p − ( p − 2) 11. 4 − 3 = 1
2
12. 2 = x − 2 − 1+2x

Mixed Exercise

1. Simplify:

a 3a 3 × 4a 4 ÷ a −1 b − 4 x 2 .3 x 3 .(−2 x 2 ) 4 (
c − 9 a 4 b −1 )
3
÷ (−18a −1b 3 ) 2

d − 2(2 x 2 − 5)(3 x 2 + 4) − (3 x 2 + 10)( x 2 − 3)

2. Solve for k :

3 − 2k 2 3(k + 2) 2(k − 6) 1 2 3
a 2(k+1) – = – (7 – 2k) b − = c =
2 3 4 3 2 3(k + 2) 2(2k − 9)

You are now ready to write GATEWAY TEST no. 2 on

sections 1.5 and 1.6

22