DISCRETE STRUCTURES AND GRAPH THEORY

Logic

1.1] Propositional Logic (Statements/Propositions)

1) Declarative sentences: e.g. The sky is blue.
2) Imperative sentences: e.g. speak truth.
3) Interrogative sentences: e.g. Are you interested in
mathematics?
4) Exclamatory sentences: e.g. What a man has made of man!
Statement ― A declarative sentences which can be classified as
either truth or false.
1.2] Simple and Compound Statement
Simple Statement ― A statement which does not contain any other
statement.
e.g., 1) It was raining on the last Sunday. – true ,2) Rama is running. –
true
Compound Statement ― A statement which contain another
statement.
1.3] Forming Compound Statement
Connective Symbol Pronunciation
Not ¬,~ curl, tilde
And ˄,. And, dot, meet
Or ˅ Or, wedge, vel, join
If….then…. =>,Ͻ Implies
….if and only if…. <=>,≡,iff If and only if, implies
and is implied by

The connective ‘not’ operator on only one statement and is called

unary operator. The other four connectives connect tow statement
and called binary operator.

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1.4] Symbolising Compound Statement
1) Negation
Definition: A negation is a compound statement obtained by
negating a simple statement.
P ~P
T F
F T

2) Conjunction
Definition: A conjunction is a compound statement obtained by
combining two simple statements by ‘and’.
p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

3) Disjunction
Definition: A disjunction is a compound statement obtained by
combining two simple statements by ‘or’.
p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

4) Implication
Definition: An Implication is a compound statement obtained by
combining two simple statement by ‘if….. then…..’.

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p q pϽq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

1.5] Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

a) Converse
Definition: If the position of the premise and conclusion of an
implication are interchanged, we get the converse of that
implication.
The converse of p Ͻ q is q Ͻ p.
p q pϽq qϽp
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T

b) Inverse
Definition: If both the premise and the conclusion of an
implication are negated, we get inverse of the implication.
The inverse of p Ͻ q is ~p Ͻ ~q.
p q ~p ~q pϽq ~p Ͻ ~q
T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T

c) Contrapositive

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Definition: If the both the premise and the conclusion of the
implication are first negated and then interchanged, we get the
contrapositive statement of that implication.
The contrapositive of p Ͻ q is ~q Ͻ ~p.
p q ~p ~q pϽq ~q Ͻ ~p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

1.6] Equivalence (Biconditional)

Definition: An equivalence or a biconditional is a compound
statement obtained by combining two simple statements by ‘if and
only if’.
p q p≡q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

1.7] Logical Equivalence

Definition 1: Two statements are said to be logically equivalent if
their equivalence is always true.
Definition 2: Two compound statement are said to be logically
equivalent if they have identical truth values for all truth values of
the compound statement.
Example: 1) (p Ͻ q) ≡ (~q Ͻ ~p) 2) (q Ͻ p) ≡ (~p Ͻ ~q)
1.8] Negation of compound statements
I. Negation of Conjunction

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~ (p ˄ q) ≡ ~p ˅ ~q
II. Negation of Disjunction
~ (p ˅ q) ≡ ~p ˄ ~q
~ (Conjunction Disjunction) ≡ (Disjunction Conjunction) ~
III. Negation of Negation
~~p ≡ p
IV. Implication as Disjunction
(p Ͻ q) ≡ ~p ˅ q
V. Biconditional in terms of Conjunction, Disjunction and
Negation
(p ≡ q) ≡ (~p ˅ q) ˄ (~q ˅ p)
VI. Biconditional in terms Implication and Conjunction
(p ≡ q) ≡ (p Ͻ q) ˄ (q Ͻ p)
VII. Negation of an Implication
~ (p Ͻ q) ≡ p ˄ ~q
VIII. Negation of a Biconditional
~ (p ≡ q) ≡ (p ˄ ~q) ˅ (q ˄ ~p)
1.9] Some More Compound Statement
a) ‘Either…or…’ and ‘Neither …nor…’
A ˅ B – Either…or…
~ (A ˅ B) ≡ ~A ˄ ~B
~A ˄ ~B – Neither…nor…
b) Unless
~H Ͻ F – Unless
~H Ͻ F ≡ H ˅ F
H ˅ F – Either…or…
c) ‘Not Both’ and ‘both not’
Not both – Negation of conjunction - ~ (A ˄ B)
Both not – Conjunction of negation - ~A ˄ ~B
1.10] Tautologies, Contradiction and Contingencies
a) Tautologies

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Definition: A statement form which is always true for all
substitution instances is called tautologies.
b) Contradiction
Definition: A statement form which is always false for all
substitution instances is called contradiction.
c) Contingencies
Definition: A statement form which is neither a tautologies nor
contradiction.
1.11] Duality
Duals
Definition: Two formulae A and A* are called duals of each other if
either can be obtained by interchanging ˄ by ˅ and ˅ by ˄. The
connectives ˄ and ˅ are also called duals each other. If contains
true(t) or false(f) then while obtaining A*, t is replaced by f and f is
replaced by t.
1.12] Laws of Logic
A. Idempotent Laws:
 p˅p≡p
 p˄p≡p
B. Commutative Laws:
 p˅q≡q˅p
 p˄q≡q˄p
C. Associative Laws:
 (p ˅ q) ˅ r ≡ p ˅ (q ˅ r)
 (p ˄ q) ˄ r ≡ p ˄ (q ˄ r)
D. Identity Laws:
 p˄t≡p
 p˅f≡p
E. Domination Laws:
 p˅t≡t
 p˅f≡f

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F. Distributive Laws:
 p ˅ (q ˄ r) ≡ (p ˅ q) ˄ (q ˅ r)
 p ˄ (q ˅ r) ≡ (p ˄ q) ˅ (q ˄ r)
G. Compliment Laws (Inverse Laws):
 p ˅ ~p ≡ t
 p ˄ ~p ≡ f
H. De Morgans Laws:
 ~ (p ˅ q) ≡ ~p ˄ ~q
 ~ (p ˄ q) ≡ ~p ˅ ~q
I. Absorption Laws:
 p ˅ (p ˄ q) ≡ p
 p ˄ (p ˅ q) ≡ p
J. Contrapositive Laws:
 p Ͻ q ≡ ~q Ͻ ~p
K. Exportation Laws:
 p Ͻ (q Ͻ r) ≡ (p ˄ q) Ͻ r
1.13] Quantifiers
A. Universal Quantifiers
Definition: The universal quantifiers tell us that all (every, each)
object possesses the property. The universal quantifiers is
denoted by Ɐ an inverted A. the symbol Ɐ is read as “for all”,
“for each”, “for every”.
B. Existential Quantifiers
Definition: The existential quantifiers tell us that some (at least
one) object possess the property. The existential quantifiers is
denoted by Ǝ, a backward E. The symbol Ǝ is read as “for some”,
“there exists a”, “for at least one”.
1.14] Negation of quantifiers
If P (x) is any property, the negation of (Ɐx) P(x) is (Ǝx) ~ P(x).
If P (x) is any property, the negation of (Ǝx) P(x) is (Ɐx) ~ P(x).

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While negating a qualified proposition, note that a (Ɐ) becomes an
(Ǝ) and (Ǝ) becomes a (Ɐ).

Statement Negation

All true (Ɐx) P(x) (Ǝx) ~ P(x) [at least false]

All true (Ɐx) [~ P(x)] (Ǝx) P(x) [at least one false]

(Ǝx) [~ P(x)] (Ɐx) P(x)

(Ǝx) [P(x)] (Ɐx) [~ P(x)]

1.15] Binary Predicates

A property P(x, y) between two variables is called a binary predicate.

For example, x and y are such that x 2+ y 2=1 is the property between
two variables x and y. If a property exists between n variables x1, x2,
x3, ..., xn, it is called n-ary predicate.

1.16] Normal Forms

Definition: The alternative procedure to determine the nature of a

compound statement is known as reduction to form. There are two
such normal form.

1) Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF)

A conjunction of a statement and / or the negation of
conjunction of statement is called a fundamental conjunction. A
statement form which is a disjunction of fundamental
conjunctions is called disjunctive normal form (dnf).
Procedure to obtain a Disjunctive Normal Form
I. Replace p Ͻ q by its equivalent ~p ˅ q and p ≡ q by its
equivalent (~ p ˅ q) ˄ (~ q ˅ p) or (~ p ˄ ~ q) ˅ (p ˄ q)

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II. Replace negation of negation before conjunction or
disjunction by using De Morgan’s laws and by using
~~p≡p.
III. Apply distributive laws and simplify the expression.
2) Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)
A disjunction of statement and / or the negation of disjunctions
of the statement is called a fundamental disjunction. A
statement form which is a conjunction of fundamental
disjunctions is called conjunctive normal form (CNF).
Procedure to obtain Conjunctive Normal Form is same as
Disjunctive Normal Form.

Relations and Functions

2.1] Basic Concept of Set Theory

• Set – It is defined as a collection of distinct, well-defined objects

forming a group.

Finite set – Finite element, Infinite set – Infinite element, Null set –
No element

• De – Morgans Laws

• Duality

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If E is an equation in a set operation, then equation obtained by
replacing ꓴ by ꓵ, ꓵ by ꓴ, U by Ф, Ф by U is called the dual of E.

• Class of Set

Collection of sets is called a class of set or family of set.

Ex., 1) A = {{a, b}, {b, c}, {c, d}, {d, e}}

• Power Set

Set of all subsets of ‘S’ is called power set of ‘S’. If ‘S’ has ‘N’ element
then P(S) = 2 N .

If S = {a, b}, then P(S) = {Ф, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

• Partition of Set

The collection {Ai} of non-empty subset of S is called partition of S if

each element of S belongs to one subset Ai and the subsets Ai are
mutually disjoint

• Cartesian Product

The Cartesian product offered two sets A and B denoted by A x B. Is

the set of all ordered pair (a, b), where a belongs to A and b belongs
to B.

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