Module 1 – Server Overview (Understanding what Server Does)

Introduction

System administration matters because computers and networks matter. Computers are a lot more important
than they were years ago. What happened?

Moreover, the widespread use of the Internet, intranets, and the move to a web centric world has redefined the
way companies depend on computers. The Internet is a 24/7 operation, and sloppy operations can no longer be tolerated.
Paper purchase orders can be processed daily, in batches, with no one the wiser. However, there is an expectation that
the web-based system that does the process will be available all the time, from anywhere. Nightly maintenance windows
have become an unheard-of luxury. That unreliable machine room power system that caused occasional but bearable
problems now prevents sales from being recorded.

In this module, we pull together the various elements from the rest of the topics to provide an overview of how
they can be used to deal with everyday situations or to answer common questions system administrators (SAs) and
managers often have.

Learning Objectives

After studying this module, the learners will be able to:

• Discuss the different Server Roles

• Explain the Comparison between Physical Servers and Virtual Servers
• Discuss the different ways in selecting Server Hardware

Topic Outline
• Introducing Server Roles
• Selecting Server Hardware
• Form Factor
• Motherboard components

Key Concepts

• Server - is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services, or programs to other computers,
known as clients, over a network. In theory, whenever computers share resources with client machines they
are considered servers.
• Drives - A hard drive is the hardware component that stores all of your digital content. Your documents,
pictures, music, videos, programs, application preferences, and operating system represent digital content
stored on a hard drive. Hard drives can be external or internal.
• Firmware - In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a tangible electronic component with
embedded software instructions, such as a BIOS. Typically, those software instructions are used to tell an
electronic device how to operate.
• Motherboard - is a computer's central communications backbone connectivity point, through which all
components and external peripherals connect.

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 Learning Activities Assignment and Assessment

Remember: With today’s computers, any computer on the network can provide services or request services
depending on how the network is set up. A server is a computer that is meant to be a dedicated service provider,
and a client is a computer that requests services.

A network that is made up of dedicated servers and clients is known as a client/server network. A server-based
network is the best network for sharing resources and data, while providing centralized network security for those
resources and data.

If you have been using Windows XP, Windows Vista, or Windows 7, Windows 8 , 10 and 11 for a significant amount
of time, you should realize that your computer is providing services and requesting services (although it is most likely
requesting services more than it is providing services). When you access a web page over the Internet, access your email,
access a data file on another computer, or access a printer that is connected to the network, you are requesting services.

While Windows servers are designed to provide a wide range of network services, Windows XP, Windows Vista,
and Windows 7, Windows 8 , 10 and 11 can provide printer and file sharing and web pages (although you are limited by
the number of concurrent connections, especially when compared to Windows servers, and are not optimized for multiuser
access). Therefore, while these versions of Windows are designed as clients, they can also be utilized to provide services.

While computers with Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2016 are designed to
provide services, they can also request services from other computers. For example, they can access a web server locally
or over the Internet, access a software repository, or print to a network printer.

Furthermore, when you are determining hardware and software needs, look at the role the computer needs to fill
and the load the computer will be placed under. You can then start researching the hardware (including the number of
computers, number of processors, amount of RAM, and amount of disk storage) and software requirements to reach those
goals. Remember that you will also need to look at disaster recovery including the steps you will need to take if a server
fails and you lose data.

Remember: Don’t forget to plan your server for growth. Most servers should be designed for three to five years of
service. Be sure to envision what your landscape may look like three to five years from deployment of the server.
This will help you avoid purchasing and reinstalling the server several months later. It should also be noted that
the bare basic server leaves little room for growth.

Introducing Server Roles

Remember: Before selecting server hardware and software components, you must first understand what your server
is supposed to do. First identify the server roles and network services that the server will need to provide. Then
examine how many people will be accessing the server at one time to help determine the load the server needs
to fulfill.

A server role is a primary duty that a server performs. You should note that a server could have multiple roles. Some of
the more common server roles include:

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 • File services
• Print services
• Web services
• Remote access
• Application servers
• Email server
• Database server
• Monitoring servers
• Threat management servers

A file server allows you to centrally locate files to be accessed by multiple people. Because the files are centrally
located, it is easier for multiple users to access and find files (assuming they are organized well) and it is easier to
back up these files. When using Microsoft Windows to provide file sharing, you will usually be using Server
Message Block (SMB) to access Microsoft Shares or shared folders. Windows Servers can also provide NFS shares
for Unix/Linux users.

Multiple users can access a centrally located printer using print services, which means that you may share an
expensive heavy-duty, or fast, printer that supports advanced options such as color. Printers can be accessed as
a network printer that is connected directly to the network or through a Microsoft Windows server (again using
SMB).

Because the Internet has become more prevalent in today’s business applications, so has the use of web services.
Using a web server to provide web services means that users can access web pages using their browsers. These
web services may be used to do research, provide leads for sales, allow customers to purchase goods and services,
and provide customer support over the Internet.

Remote access is a service that supports multiple inbound requests in connecting to the server or network. It can
provide terminal services so that multiple users can log on to a server remotely and access a desktop, start menu,
and programs as if they were sitting in front of the server. On the other hand, remote access can also provide
network access over the Internet using a virtual private network (VPN), which allows a user to be at home and yet
have full access to their internal network resources such as email and data files.

Finally, the application server role provides an integrated environment for deploying and running server-based
business applications. In other words, the server delivers networked applications. When you access a file from a
shared folder, your PC does all of the work; in this case, the server will also do some of the processing.

When talking about servers and server applications, you may hear the terms front end and back end. In
client/server applications, the client part of the program is often called the front end, and the server part is called
the back end. The front end is the interface that is provided to a user or another program. It may be accessed via
a web page or a customized application that runs on the client PC. The back end will often contain a database
that is used to store, organize, query, and retrieve data.

One commonly used application server that is essential for most corporations is the mail server. The mail server
is a server that stores and manages electronic messages (email) among users. If you are using Microsoft email
products, you will be using Microsoft Exchange to act as your mail server, and you would most likely access the
email using Microsoft Outlook or a web browser.

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 Two additional examples of application servers are sales tracking or inventory control applications. You would
access this type of server on your company network by using a customized program or using your browser. You
would then request information or input some data, which would then be retrieved from or sent to the back-end
server running a database such as Microsoft SQL server.

The last two types of servers, monitoring servers and threat management servers, are not commonly known
servers but are essential within any organization. Since many organizations have large or complex networks and
multiple servers, you will most likely need one or more monitoring servers to help you monitor servers that provide
the necessary services to your users and customers. With monitoring servers, you should use threat management
servers to monitor your network and servers for intruders or other security breaches.

Progress Assessment (Server Roles)

1. Discuss further the main advantages of the listed Server Role :File services, Print services, Web
services, Remote access, Application servers and Email server, Also Look for Disadvantages in using
the said Roles.

Answer the Progress Assessment question on the Learning

Management System.
Selecting Server Hardware

Remember: When choosing the server to use and the hardware components that make up the server, keep the
following in mind. First, the server is designed to provide network services. Since a server is designed to be used
by multiple users at the same time, the server is usually much more powerful than most client PCs.

Moreover, if the server fails or becomes inaccessible, the problem will affect multiple people. Therefore, you need
to choose hardware that is less prone to failure than a normal client PC and that has some redundancy built in.
You also need to plan so you know how to deal with these problems when they occur.

These are the primary subsystems that make up a server:

• Processor
• Memory
• Storage
• Network

If any of these fails, the entire system can fail. In addition, if any one of these is asked to do more than what it was
designed for, it can cause a bottleneck that may affect performance of the entire system.

Remember: Even if you strive for 100% uptime, it is next to impossible to get it over a long enough period of time.
However, by anticipating the type of failure that could occur; adding additional servers, components, or
technology that will make the system more fault tolerant; and developing good plans so that you can react
quickly when a failure occurs, you can alleviate much of this to reduce your chances of a failure and the impact
that failure would have when it occurs. In addition, while you need to spend money to make a system more

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 fault tolerant, just about every organization has a limit on how much money it can put toward a server or network
service.

If you've ever taken the case off of a computer, you've seen the one piece of equipment that ties everything together
witch is called a motherboard. A motherboard allows all the parts of your computer to receive power and communicate
with one another.

Motherboard
Motherboards have come a long way in the- last twenty
years. The first m other boards held very few actual components.
The first IBM PC motherboard had only a processor and card slots.
Users plugged components like floppy drive controllers and
memory into the slots.

Today, motherboards typically boast a wide variety of

built-in features, and they directly affect a computer's capabilities
and potential for upgrades.

In this article, we'll look at the general components of a motherboard. Then, we'll closely examine five points that
dramatically affect what a computer can do.

• Form Factor - The shape and layout of a motherboard is called the form factor. The form factor affects where
individual components go and the shape of the computer's case. There are several specific form factors that most
PC motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard cases.

• Sockets and CPUs - a CPU socket or CPU slot contains one or more mechanical components providing mechanical
and electrical connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows for placing
and replacing the central processing unit (CPU) without soldering.

• Chipsets - a chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit known as a "Data Flow Management
System" that manages the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals. It is usually found on the
motherboard.

Chipsets are usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls
communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining
system performance.

• Bus Speed - A bus is simply a circuit that connects one part of the motherboard to another. The more data a bus
can handle at one time, the faster it allows information to travel. The speed of the bus, measured in megahertz
(MHz), refers to how much data can move across the bus simultaneously.

• Memory and Other Features - We've established that the speed of the processor itself controls how quickly a
computer thinks. The speed of the chipset and busses controls how quickly it can communicate with other parts
of the computer. The speed of the RAM connection directly controls how fast the computer can access instructions
and data, and therefore has a big effect on system performance.

Form Factor

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The shape and layout of a motherboard is called the form factor. The form factor affects where individual components go
and the shape of the computer's case. There are several specific form factors that most PC motherboards use so that they
can all fit in standard cases.

As computers advanced, so have motherboards. Below is a listing of the various motherboard form factors and links to
additional information about each of them.

Today, the most common motherboard form factor for desktop computers is the ATX form factor.

AT (Advanced Technology)

Commonly referred to as AT and full-size AT, the Full AT is a motherboard

form factor introduced by IBM in August 1984, and was widely used in the 1980s. The
Full AT is 12" wide x 13.8" deep and only fits into a full size AT tower case. Today, this
form factor is rarely found or used and was replaced by ATX and Baby AT. Below is
an example of an early IBM AT motherboard.
Baby AT
A replacement for the Full AT motherboard and sometimes
referred to as BAT, the Baby AT is a motherboard form factor
introduced by IBM in 1985. It is used with the 286, 386, 486, and
Pentium computers up until the early 1990s.

The Baby AT is 8.57" wide x 13.04" deep, which is almost the

same as the original IBM XT motherboard but with different screw
hole positions to fit into AT-style case. The Baby AT is now considered
obsolete and was replaced by ATX.

ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended)

Short for Advanced Technology eXtended, ATX is a specification

used to outline motherboard configuration and dimensions to improve
standardization. First released in July 1995 by Intel, ATX has since had many
revisions. The first was version 2.01 in February 1997, then 2.03 in May 2000,
2.1 in June 2002, and 2.2 in February 2004.

ATX boards didn't hit the market in force until mid-1996, when they
rapidly began replacing Baby-AT boards in new systems. The original ATX
motherboard, often referred to as Standard ATX or Full-ATX, is 12" wide x
9.6" deep (305 x 244 mm). Its COM port, LPT port, PS/2, and USB are
mounted directly on the motherboard. The image below is an example of
the ATX form factor.

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microATX
Sometimes called mATX, the microATX is a motherboard that is 9.6" wide x 9.6" deep
and capable of being as small as 6.75" wide x 6.75" deep. This motherboard was first
introduced by Intel in December 1997, and is a smaller motherboard that is used in an ATX
or smaller computer case.

BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended)

BTX is a motherboard form factor first announced by Intel on September 17,

2003 as a replacement for ATX. BTX was later revised to 1.0a, which was
released in February 2004.

The BTX features a low profile, more efficient layout to facilitate cooling, a
scalable board to accommodate different system sizes, and support for high-
mass motherboard components. In September 2006, Intel announced that it
was stopping all future development of BTX.

DTX
DTX is a form factor for motherboards. It is a variation of the ATX form factor that was originally developed by AMD in
January 2007, designed for smaller computers like home theater PCs (media center computers).

With physical dimensions of 8.0-inches by 9.6-inches, a DTX motherboard

allowed for two expansion slots. A somewhat smaller version was also
developed, called the Mini-DTX, having dimensions of 8.0-inches by 6.7-
inches.

The DTX form factor provided a lower cost of manufacturing because it used
fewer layers of printed circuit board wiring. It was intended to be an industry
standard for small computers, like the Shuttle "SFF" design. DTX
motherboards are backward compatible with the ATX form factor, fitting into
the same size cases, and utilizing the same 24-pin power connector.

LPX (Low Profile eXtension)

is a motherboard form factor developed by Western Digital in 1987, that was used in
the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s. An LPX motherboard is 9" wide x 13" deep,
uses a riser card, and has different placement of the video, parallel, serial, and PS/2
ports compared to other motherboards.

As shown, this motherboard has one large brown slot for the riser card. Using a riser
card allowed the expansion cards to be installed parallel to the motherboard, which
is why the LP in LPX stands for "Low Profile." The low profile allowed computers using
this motherboard to be much slimmer than computers using a Baby-AT motherboard.

The LPX motherboard was not the only motherboard to have a riser card. The NLX motherboard also has a riser card, but
it actually plugged into the riser card versus having the riser card on the motherboard.

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ITX (Information Technology eXtended)

Is a small motherboard form factor from VIA Technologies that was first introduced in November 2001 with the
Mini-ITX. Later versions of ITX include the Nano-ITX released in March 2003, the Mobile-ITX released in March 2004, and
the Pico-ITX released in April 2007.

With the compact configuration of ITX motherboards, they are often used in low-cost small setups found in cars, network
devices, set-top boxes, and other small computers. Below is a picture and comparison of all of the ITX motherboards from
VIA.

NLX (New Low Profile Extended)

NLX is a motherboard form factor originally developed by Intel and finalized in March 1997. The NLX motherboard was
designed to replace the nonstandard LPX design and is 9" wide x 13.6" deep maximum to 8" x 10" deep minimum and
included the below features.

• The NLX form factor uses a riser board (backplane), which the
motherboard plugs into instead of being on the motherboard.
This allowed the motherboard to be removed from the computer
without removing all expansion cards. It also supported
motherboards that can be removed without using tools.
• Support for the Pentium II
• Support for AGP
• Support for USB.
• Support for DIMM.
• Easier access to internal components.

As shown in the picture, this motherboard is easy to identify by its gold

backplane connection found at the side of the motherboard. The
connector is found on the left side of the motherboard.

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 Motherboard components

A motherboard provides connectivity between the hardware components of a computer, like the processor (CPU), memory
(RAM), hard drive, and video card. There are multiple types of motherboards, designed to fit different types and sizes of
computers.

Each type of motherboard is designed to work with specific types of processors and memory, so they don't work with
every processor and type of memory. However, hard drives are mostly universal and work with the majority of
motherboards, regardless of the type or brand.

Below is a picture of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard with labels next to each of its major components. Clicking on the
image directs you to a larger and more detailed version.

List of Components

1. Expansion slots (PCI Express, 7. Northbridge. 12. 24-pin ATX power supply
PCI, and AGP). 8. Memory slot. connector.
2. 3-pin case fan connectors. 9. Super I/O. 13. Serial ATA connections.
3. Back panel connectors. 10. Floppy connection. 14. Coin cell battery (CMOS
4. Heat sink. 11. ATA / IDE disk drive primary backup battery).
5. 4-pin(P4)power connector. connection. 15. System panel connectors.
6. CPU socket. 16. FWH.

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Expansion slot

Alternatively known as a bus slot or expansion port, an expansion slot is a connection or port inside a computer on the
motherboard or riser card. It provides an installation point for a hardware expansion card to be connected.

Remember: if you wanted to install a new video card in the computer, you'd purchase a video expansion card and
install that card into the compatible expansion slot.

list of expansion slots commonly found in a motherboard and the devices associated with those slots.

• AGP - Video card.

• AMR - Modem, sound card.
• CNR - Modem, network card, sound card.
• EISA - SCSI, network card, video card.
• ISA - Network card, sound card, video card.
• PCI - Network card, SCSI, sound card, video card.
• PCI Express - Video card, modem, sound card, network card.

Many of the above expansion card slots are obsolete. You're most likely only going to encounter AGP, PCI, and PCI Express
when working with computers today.

How many expansion slots does my computer have?

Every computer motherboard is different, to determine how many expansion slots are on your computer motherboard
identify the manufacturer and model of the motherboard. Once you've identified the model of motherboard, you can find
complete information about the motherboard in its manual.

Adding additional expansion slots for older motherboards could be accomplished by using a riser board, which would add
several ISA or PCI slots. Today, riser boards are rarely used with motherboards, as there is limited need for additional
expansion slots with modern motherboards.

Why do computers have expansion slots?

Computers have expansion slots to give the user the ability to add new devices to their computer. For example,
a computer gamer may upgrade their video card to get better performance in their games. An expansion slot allows them
to remove the old video card and add a new video card without replacing the motherboard.

Progress Assessment (Expansion Slots)

How important are the expansion slots to a server type computer?
Enumerate/Discuss the importance of this slots.

Answer the Progress Assessment question on the Learning

Management System.

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AGP - accelerated graphics port

AGP is an advanced port designed for video cards

and 3D accelerators. Developed by Intel and introduced in
August 1997, AGP introduces a dedicated point-to-point
channel that allows the graphics controller direct access to
the system memory. Below is an illustration of what the AGP
slot may look like on your motherboard.

The AGP channel is 32-bits wide and runs at 66 MHz, which is a total bandwidth of 266 MBps and much greater than the
PCI bandwidth (up to 133 MBps). AGP also supports two optional faster modes, with a throughput of 533 MBps and 1.07
GBps. It also allows 3-D textures to be stored in main memory rather than video memory.

AGP is available in three different versions, the original AGP version mentioned above, AGP 2.0 that was introduced in
May 1998, and AGP 3.0 (AGP 8x) that was introduced in November 2000. AGP 2.0 added 4x signaling and was capable of
operating at 1.5V, and AGP 3.0 was capable of double the transfer speeds.

AMR - audio/modem riser

Released September 8, 1998, AMR, short for audio/modem riser, allows OEMs
to make one card with the functionality of either a Modem or audio or both as
one card. This specification allows for the motherboard to be manufactured at
a lower cost and free up industry standard expansion slots in the system for
other additional plug-in peripherals.

With modems and sound cards being integrated into the motherboard, more
people using broadband, and better technologies like PCIe, AMR never gained mass adoption. Today, AMR is no longer
found or used with any modern motherboard.

CNR - Communication and Network Rise

CNR is a specification that supports Audio, Modem, USB,
and LAN interfaces of core logic chipsets. CNR slot technology was
introduced by Intel on February 7, 2000. It was mainly developed
by leading hardware and software developers who helped release
the AMR (Audio Modem Riser) slot. The picture below is an example of a CNR slot, which is labeled as "CNR_SLOT" on this
motherboard.

Today, this slot is no longer found on motherboards and was replaced with PCI only motherboards and motherboards with
PCIe.

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EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture

EISA or Extended ISA is a standard first announced in September 1988 for IBM compatible computers that
competed with the MCA bus. The EISA bus is found on Intel 80386, 80486 and early
Pentium computers and was designed by nine competitors. These competitors were AST
Research, Compaq, Epson, Hewlett Packard, NEC, Olivetti, Tandy, WYSE, and Zenith Data
Systems.

The EISA bus provided 32-bit slots at an 8.33 MHz cycle rate for use with 386DX or higher
processors. EISA can also accommodate a 16-bit ISA card in the first row.

ISA - Industry Standard Architecture

ISA was introduced by IBM and headed by Mark
Dean. ISA was originally an 8-bit computer bus that was
later expanded to a 16-bit bus in 1984. When this bus was
originally released, it was a proprietary bus, which
allowed only IBM to create peripherals and the actual
interface. However, in the early 1980s other manufacturers were creating the bus.

In 1993, Intel and Microsoft introduced a PnP ISA bus that allowed the computer to automatically detect and setup
computer ISA peripherals, such as a modem or sound card.

PCI - peripheral component interconnect

PCI was introduced by Intel in 1992. The PCI bus came in
both 32-bit (133 MBps) and 64-bit versions and was used to
attach hardware to a computer. Although commonly used in
computers from the late 1990s to the early 2000s, PCI has since
been replaced with PCI Express.

Revisions came in 1993 to version 2.0, and in 1995 to PCI 2.1, as

an expansion to the ISA bus. Unlike ISA and other earlier
expansion cards, PCI follows the PnP specification and therefore
did not require any jumpers or dip switches.

How many PCI slots are on a motherboard?

The number of PCI slots depend on the manufacturer and model of the motherboard. Today, very few
motherboards come with any PCI with the introduction of PCI-E. Those few motherboards that do come with PCI
slots have between one and three PCI slots.

PCI Express
Originally known as 3rd Generation I/O (3GIO), PCI Express, or PCIe, was
approved in July 2002 as a serial computer expansion bus standard. PCI Express
was designed as a high-speed replacement for the aging PCI and AGP standards
and is available in different formats.

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Back panel Connectors
The back panel is the portion of the motherboard that
allows you to connect external devices, such as your monitor,
speakers, keyboard, and mouse. As seen in the picture below, the
back panel is on the edge of the motherboard. When installing
the motherboard, the back panel is on the back side of the case
and is inserted into the cases I/O plate.

Heat sink
A heat sink is a device that incorporates a fan or another mechanism to reduce the
temperature of a hardware component (e.g., processor). There are two heat sink types:
active and passive. The picture is an example of a heat sink that has both active and
passive cooling mechanisms.

Active heat sink

Active heat sinks utilize the computer's power supply and may include a fan. Sometimes these types of heat sinks
are referred to as an HSF, which is short for heat sink and fan. There are also liquid cooling systems, which have
become popular in recent years.

Passive heat sink

Passive heat sinks are those that have no mechanical components. Consequently, they are 100% reliable. Passive
heat sinks are made of an aluminum finned radiator that dissipates heat through convection. For passive heat
sinks to work to their full capacity, there should be a steady airflow moving across the fins.

Heat spreaders
Heat spreaders are another type of passive heat sink used to help dissipate the
heat produced by RAM modules.

P4 connector
The P4 connector is a 12V power supply cable used with motherboards that have
an Intel Pentium 4 or later processor. Today, the connector is a standard power connector
and is used with both Intel and AMD motherboards. As seen in the picture, the P4 cable
has two black wires that serve as a ground, and two yellow ones that are +12VDC. All of
these wires attach to a four pin connection on the motherboard.

If you purchase a new power supply with an 8-pin connector and your
motherboard only needs a P4 connector, you can separate the 8-pin into two
4-pin sections.

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CPU Socket
CPU socket or processor socket is a connection that allows a computer processor to
connect to a motherboard. The picture shows an example of what a socket may look like on a
motherboard. Although there were computers that used the slot processor, most computers
today and in the past have used socket processors.

Why would I need to know the socket on my motherboard?

The processor socket helps determine what computer processors your computer
motherboard is capable of accepting. For example, a socket 1 processor is not
compatible with a Socket 370 because of the pin layout and the technology differences
used in each socket.

Northbridge
Alternatively referred to as the PAC (PCI/AGP Controller) and nb, the Northbridge is
an integrated circuit responsible for communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and the
memory. Unlike the southbridge, the northbridge is directly connected to these components. It
acts as a "bridge" for the southbridge chip to communicate with the CPU, RAM, and graphics
controller.
Today, the northbridge is a single-chip that is north of the PCI bus, however, early
computers may have had up to three separate chips that made up the northbridge.

When the CPU needs data from RAM, a request is sent to the northbridge memory controller. After the request is received,
the northbridge responds with how long the processor needs to wait to read memory over the front-side bus. Some newer
motherboards have replaced the northbridge and the southbridge with IHA.

Memory slot

A memory slot, memory socket, or RAM slot allows RAM (computer memory) to be inserted into the computer. Most
motherboards have two to four memory slots, which determine the type of RAM used with the computer. The most
common RAM types are SDRAM and DDR for desktop
computers and SODIMM for laptop computers, each having
various types and speeds. The picture below is an example
of what memory slots may look like inside a desktop
computer. In this picture, there are three open and available
slots for three memory sticks.

Remember: When buying a new computer or

motherboard, pay close attention to the types of RAM the memory slots can accept. Make sure you know
exactly the type of RAM to buy for your computer. It is also important to note how many available memory
slots are available in your computer. It is not uncommon for computers to have all memory slots occupied.
If all slots are full and you want to upgrade the computer memory, you need to remove some or all of the
existing memory.

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 Progress Assessment (Memory Slot)
Why are the memory slots have different colors? And why is it important?

Answer the Progress Assessment question on the Learning

Management System.
SIO - super input/output
SIO is an integrated circuit on a computer motherboard that handles the slower and less
prominent input/output devices shown below. When the super input/output was first introduced
in the late 1980s, it was found on an expansion card. Later, this chip was embedded into the
motherboard and communicated over the ISA bus. As ISA began to no longer be used with
computers, SIO communicated over the PCI bus. Today, super I/O communicates through the
Southbridge and is still used with computers to support older legacy devices.

Computer devices handled by the super I/O

• Floppy disk controller

• Game port
• Infrared
• Intrusion detection
• Keyboard and mouse (non-USB)
• Parallel port
• RTC (Real-time clock)
• Serial port UART
• Temperature sensor and fan speed.

Some newer chipsets are combining the Southbridge and super I/O chips into a single chip and referring
to this chip as the Super Southbridge chip. Some manufacturers, such as NVIDIA and SiS, have even
combined the Northbridge, Southbridge, and super I/O into a single chip.

Floppy Channel
The floppy channel, FDD header, or floppy connection is where the floppy drive connects to the computer
motherboard. In the picture below, is an example of a motherboard with two IDE connections and a floppy channel
connector.

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IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics
IDE is more commonly known as ATA or PATA (parallel ATA). It is a
standard interface for IBM computers that was first developed by Western Digital
and Compaq in 1986 for compatible hard drives and CD or DVD drives. IDE is
different than SCSI and ESDI (Enhanced Small Disk Interface) because its
controllers are on each drive, meaning the drive can connect directly to the
motherboard or controller. IDE and its updated successor, EIDE (Enhanced IDE),
are common drive interfaces found in IBM compatible computers. Below is a
picture of the IDE connector on a hard drive, IDE cable, and the IDE channels on
the motherboard.

ATX style connector

An ATX style connector is a replacement for the older P8 and P9 AT style connector. It is one of the largest
connectors inside a computer. It connects a power supply to an ATX style
motherboard. As shown in the picture, the 20-pin cable is a multi-color cable and
may be labeled as P1.

With the introduction of ATX-2, this cable is now a 24-pin cable and
no longer a 20-pin cable.

SATA - serial AT attachment

SATA 1.0 was first released in August 2001 and is a replacement for the parallel ATA interface used in IBM compatible
computers. SerialATA is capable of delivering 1.5 Gbps (approximately 187 MBps) of performance to each drive within a
disk array. It is backward-compatible with ATA and ATAPI devices, and offers a thin, small cable solution, as seen in the
"SATA Data Cable" picture. This cable helps makes cable routing easier and offers better airflow in the computer compared
to the earlier ribbon cables used with ATA drives.

eSATA connection
SATA also supports external drives through External
SATA more commonly known as eSATA. eSATA offers
many more advantages compared to other solutions.
For example, it is hot-swappable, supports faster transfer
speeds with no bottleneck issues like USB and FireWire,
and supports disk drive technologies (e.g., S.M.A.R.T.).

Progress Assessment (eSATA)

Site some disadvantage of eSATA?

Answer the Progress Assessment question on the Learning

Management System.

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 CMOS - complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
Alternatively referred to as a RTC (real-time clock), NVRAM (non-volatile RAM) or CMOS
RAM, CMOS is short for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. CMOS is an
onboard, battery powered semiconductor chip inside computers that stores information.
This information ranges from the system time and date to system hardware settings for
your computer.

How long does the CMOS battery last?

The standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 Years. However, this can vary depending on the use and
environment where the computer resides.

System panel connector

Alternatively referred to as the fpanel or front panel connector, the system panel connector or system panel
header controls a computer power button, reset button, and LED's. The System panel cables, as
shown in the picture are two wire cables that are color-coded to help identify where they connect
to the motherboard system panel connector. The black or white wire is the GND (ground) wire
and the colored wire is the powered wire. The cables, colors, and connections vary depending
on the computer case and motherboard you have, however, generally include the cables
mentioned below.

Types of system panel cables

• HDD LED (IDE LED) - The LED activity light for the hard drive. This indicator is
the light that flashes as information is being written to and read from the hard
drive.
• PLED (Power LED) - The LED power light, which indicates when the computer
is on, off, or in Standby.
• PWRSW (Power SW) - Controls the power button that allows you to turn on
and off the computer.
• Reset SW - Handles the reset button to restart the computer.
• Speaker - The internal speaker used to sound the beep noises you hear from
your computer when it is booting.
‘
The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, is the electronic circuitry
within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer program. The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic,
controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the program. The computer industry used
the term "central processing unit" as early as 1955. Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to
its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such
as main memory and I/O circuitry.

The CPU is often called the "brain" of a computer, thanks to its direct plug connection to the motherboard, and
communication with all of the computer’s other components.

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Random-access memory
Random-access memory is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to
store working data and machine code.

Random-access memory, or RAM, is an essential component in all devices, from

PCs to smartphones to game consoles. Without RAM, doing just about anything
on any system would be much, much slower. On the flip side, not having enough
for the application or game you’re trying to run can bring things to a crawl or
even prevent them from running at all.

But what is RAM exactly? In a nutshell, it’s a high-speed

component that temporarily stores all the information a device
needs both right now and imminently. Accessing data in RAM
is insanely fast, unlike hard drives that are slower but provide
long-term storage.

If this is all semantics and you just need to know how to install some RAM
or want to find out how much RAM you need, we have guides for that,
too.

Short-term memory

RAM is essentially a device’s short-term memory. It temporarily stores (remembers) everything currently running on a
device, like all OS-specific services and any web browser, image editor, or game you’re playing.

RAM prevents the CPU from digging through the device’s slower storage —
like a hard drive or even a solid-state drive (SSD) — every time you request
a new browser tab or load a new enemy to shoot. As fast as storage is when
compared to drives of years gone by, they’re still far slower than RAM.

Data that resides in RAM is readable from any capable component at almost
the same speed. Because it has a hard-wired connection to the device,
there’s no real latency in cabling or connection.

RAM doesn’t remember everything forever, however. It’s a “volatile”

technology, meaning that once it loses power, it forgets everything. That
makes it perfect for handling the multitude of high-speed tasks that your device throws at it each day.

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Hard drive
A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-volatile data storage device. It is usually
installed internally in a computer, attached directly to the disk controller of the computer's motherboard. It contains one
or more platters, housed inside of an air-sealed casing. Data is written to the platters using a magnetic head, which moves
rapidly over them as they spin.

Why does a computer need a hard drive?

A computer requires an operating system to allow users to interact with and
use it. The operating system interprets keyboard and mouse movements and allows for
the use of software, like an Internet browser, word processor, and video games. To
install a computer operating system, a hard drive (or another storage device) is
required. The storage device provides the storage medium where the operating system
is installed and stored.

A hard drive is also required for the installation of any programs or other files you want
to keep on your computer. When downloading files to your computer, they are
permanently stored on your hard drive or another storage medium until they are
moved or uninstalled.

Hard drives in modern computers

Modern computers often use an SSD (solid-state drive) as the
primary storage device, instead of an HDD. HDDs are slower than
SSDs when reading and writing data, but offer greater storage
capacity for the price.

Although an HDD may still be used as a computer's primary storage,

it's common for it to be installed as a secondary disk drive. For
example, the primary SSD may contain the operating system and
installed software, and a secondary HDD may be used to store documents, downloads, and audio or video files.

Remenber: New computer users may confuse RAM

(memory) with their disk drive. Unlike an HDD or SSD,
RAM is a "volatile" data storage device, meaning it can
store data only when the computer is powered on. See our
memory definition for a comparison between memory and
disk storage.

Progress Assessment (HDD)

1. Can a computer work without a hard drive? Discuss your answer.
2. Enumerate the different storage sizes of hard drives? From smallest to largest.

Answer the Progress Assessment question on the Learning

Management System.

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Although most hard drives are internal, there are also stand-alone devices called external hard drives or portable
hard drives that backup data on computers and expand the available space. External drives are often stored in an
enclosure that helps protect the drive and allows it to interface with the computer, usually over USB, eSATA, or
FireWire. An excellent example of an external backup device that supports multiple hard drives is the Drobo.

Remember: HDD being replaced by SSD

SSDs (solid-state drives) have started to replace HDDs (hard disk drives) because of the distinct
performance advantages they have over HDD, including faster access times and lower latency.
While SSDs are becoming popular, HDDs continue to be used in many desktop computers
largely due to the value per dollar that HDDs offer over SSDs. However, more and more laptops
are beginning to utilize SSD over HDD, helping to improve the reliability and stability of laptops.

Chassis
Alternatively referred to as the case and sometimes referred to as the
system unit or base unit. The chassis is the housing that helps protect and
organize all the components that make up a desktop computer. The picture is
an empty computer chassis.

Why do we need a computer case?

Most people overlook the computer case as only a box, but it does provide the
below important features.

• Structure - The case is what holds

everything together in a compact and organized fashion.
• Protection - Without the case, each of the sensitive components in
the computer would be vulnerable to dirt, foreign objects, kids,
animals, and electrical interference (EMI / RFI).
• Cooling - The case helps keep the air properly flowing over all
components, which keeps everything cool and running properly.
• Noise - Many computers and components have fans that generate
noise. Having those components in a confined case reduces the
overall noise.
• Aesthetics - Although some may disagree, most people would
rather look at the case instead of all the circuit boards, wires, and
the computer components.

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Types of computer cases
There are many different motherboard form factors used for
computers today. Below is a list of the most popular type of cases.
If you're building a computer, make sure you get a case that is
compatible with your motherboard.

• Desktop
• Full-sized tower
• Slimline
• Mini-sized tower and tower

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