Pure

Further Mathematics 2

H
x3
N
2H
jP
VH
g/
.g
rd
co
is
//d
s:

Revision Notes
ttp
:h
nk
Li
rd
co
is
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October 2016
2
D
is
co
rd
Li
nk
:h
ttp
s:
//d
is
co
rd
.g
g/
VH
jP
2H
N
x3
H

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Further Pure 2
1 Inequalities ...................................................................................................... 3
Algebraic solutions ................................................................................................................. 3
Graphical solutions ................................................................................................................. 4

2 Series  Method of Differences ....................................................................... 5

3 Complex Numbers ........................................................................................... 7
Modulus and Argument .......................................................................................................... 7
Properties............................................................................................................................ 7
Euler’s Relation ei ........................................................................................................... 7
Multiplying and dividing in mod-arg form .......................................................................... 7

H
De Moivre’s Theorem............................................................................................................. 8

x3
N
Applications of De Moivre’s Theorem ................................................................................ 8

2H
2 cos n and 2 i sin n ................................................................. 8

jP
VH
nth roots of a complex number ................................................................................................. 9
g/
.g

Roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients ............................................................ 10

rd

Loci on an Argand Diagram .................................................................................................. 10

co
is

Transformations of the Complex Plane ................................................................................. 12

//d

Loci and geometry ................................................................................................................ 13

s:
ttp

4 First Order Differential Equations ................................................................. 14

:h
nk

Separating the variables, families of curves ........................................................................... 14

Li

Exact Equations .................................................................................................................... 14

rd
co

Integrating Factors ................................................................................................................ 15

is

Using substitutions ............................................................................................................... 15

D

5 Second Order Differential Equations ............................................................. 17

Linear with constant coefficients .......................................................................................... 17
(1) when f (x) = 0......................................................................................................... 17
(2) when f (x) ≠ 0, Particular Integrals ......................................................................... 18

D.E.s of the form ........................................................................ 21

6 Maclaurin and Taylor Series .......................................................................... 22

1) Maclaurin series ...................................................................................................... 22
2) Taylor series ........................................................................................................... 22
3) Taylor series – as a power series in (x  a) ............................................................. 22
 4) Solving differential equations using Taylor series .................................................... 22
Standard series ...................................................................................................................... 23
Series expansions of compound functions ............................................................................. 25
7 Polar Coordinates .......................................................................................... 26
Polar and Cartesian coordinates ............................................................................................. 26
Sketching curves ................................................................................................................... 26
Some common curves ........................................................................................................... 26
Areas using polar coordinates ................................................................................................ 29
Tangents parallel and perpendicular to the initial line ............................................................ 30
Appendix ............................................................................................................. 32
nth roots of 1 .......................................................................................................................... 32

H
Short method ..................................................................................................................... 32

x3
N
Sum of nth roots of 1 .......................................................................................................... 33

2H
1st order differential equations ............................................................................................... 34

jP
VH
Justification of the Integrating Factor method. ................................................................... 34
g/
Linear 2nd order differential equations ................................................................................... 35
.g
rd

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for unequal roots ............................................... 35

co

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for equal roots ................................................... 36

is
//d

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for complex roots .............................................. 37

s:
ttp

Justification that G.S. = C.F. + P.I. .................................................................................... 38

:h

Maclaurin’s Series ................................................................................................................. 39

nk

Proof of Maclaurin’s series ................................................................................................ 39

Li
rd

Proof of Taylor’s series ..................................................................................................... 39

co
is
D

2 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

1 Inequalities
Algebraic solutions
Remember that if you multiply both sides of an inequality by a negative number, you must turn
the inequality sign round: 2x > 3  2x < 3.

A difficulty occurs when multiplying both sides by, for example, (x  2); this expression is
sometimes positive (x > 2), sometimes negative (x < 2) and sometimes zero (x = 2). In this case
we multiply both sides by (x  2)2, which is always positive (provided that x ≠ 2).

Example 1: Solve the inequality

Solution: Multiply both sides by (x  2)2 we can do this since (x  2) ≠ 0

H
DO NOT MULTIPLY OUT

x3
 y

N
14

2H
12


jP
10 y=(x+2)(x−2)(x−3)
VH 8

g/
6
.g

4
 , below x-axis
rd

2
co

x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
is

−2
//d

Note – care is needed when the inequality is ≤ or ≥.

s:
ttp

x ≠ 1, x ≠ 3
:h

Example 2: Solve the inequality ,

nk
Li

Solution: Multiply both sides by (x + 1)2(x + 3)2 which cannot be zero

rd


co

DO NOT MULTIPLY OUT

is
D

 8
y

6

y=(x+3)(x+2)(x+1)(x−1)
4
2
 x
−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1
−2
from sketch it looks as though the solution is −4
−6
−8

BUT since x ≠ 1, x ≠ 3,

the solution is , above the x-axis

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 3

Graphical solutions
Example 1: On the same diagram sketch the graphs of .
Use your sketch to solve the inequality ≥ x2

Solution: First find the points of intersection of the two graphs

10 y
 = x2
8
y=2x/(x+3)
 6
y=x−2
4

2
x
 −36 −34 −32 −30 −28 −26 −24 −22 −20 −18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2
From the sketch we see that

H
−4

x3
. Note that x  –3 −6

N
2H
jP
VH
g/
.g

For inequalities involving 2x  5 etc., it is often essential to sketch the graphs first.
rd
co

Example 2: Solve the inequality x2  19 < 5(x  1).

is
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Solution: It is essential to sketch the curves first in order to see which solutions are needed.
s:
ttp

To find the point A, we need to solve

:h

y

nk

40
Li

  B+
rd

y=|x²−19|
co

20
is
D

From the sketch x ≠ 8  x=3 A +

x
−30 −25 −20 −15 −10 −5 5 10

To find the point B, we need to solve y=5(x−1)

−20


 

From the sketch x ≠ 2  x=7

 the solution of x2  19 < 5(x  1) is 3<x<7

4 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

2 Series  Method of Differences
The trick here is to write each line out in full and see what cancels when you add.

Do not be tempted to work each term out – you will lose the pattern which lets you cancel when
adding.

Example 1: Write in partial fractions, and then use the method of differences to find

the sum = .

Solution:

H
x3
put r = 1 

N
2H
put r = 2 

jP
VH
put r = 3 
g/
.g
rd

etc.
co
is
//d

put r = n 
s:
ttp
:h
nk


Li
rd
co
is
D

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 5

Example 2: Write in partial fractions, and then use the method of differences to

find the sum = .

Solution:

put r = 1 

put r = 2 

put r = 3 

put r = 4 

H
x3
N
2H
etc.

jP
VH
g/

put r = n 1 
.g
rd


co

put r = n
is
//d
s:
ttp


:h
nk
Li

=
rd
co
is

=
D

6 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

3 Complex Numbers
Modulus and Argument
y
The modulus of z = x + iy is the length of z

 r = z = z

r
and the argument of z is the angle made by z y
with the positive x-axis, –π < arg z ≤ π. 
x x
N.B. arg z is not always equal to

Properties

H
z = r cos  + i r sin 

x3
N
 zw  =  z   w ,

2H
and

jP
arg (zw) = arg z + arg w, and arg
VH
= arg z – arg w
g/
.g
rd

Euler’s Relation ei

co
is

z = e i = cos  + i sin 
//d
s:

= e –i = cos  – i sin 

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Example: Express in the form x + iy.

Li
rd

Solution: =
co
is
D

Multiplying and dividing in mod-arg form

and

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 7

De Moivre’s Theorem

Applications of De Moivre’s Theorem

Example: Express sin 5 in terms of sin  only.

Solution: From De Moivre’s Theorem we know that

cos 5 + i sin 5 = (cos  + i sin  )5

= cos5 + 5i cos4 sin + 10i2 cos3 sin2 + 10i3 cos2 sin3 + 5i4 cos sin4 + i5 sin5

Equating imaginary parts

 sin 5 = 5cos4 sin – 10 cos2 sin3 + sin5

H
= 5(1 – sin2 )2 sin – 10(1 – sin2) sin3 + sin5 

x3
N
= 16 sin5 – 20 sin3 + 5 sin

2H
jP
2 cos n and 2 i sin n VH
g/

z = cos + i sin
.g
rd


co
is
//d

and
s:
ttp

from which we can show that

:h
nk

and
Li
rd

2 cos n and 2i sin n

co
is
D

Example: Express sin5 in terms of sin 5 , sin 3 and sin .

Solution: Here we are dealing with sin , so we use

= – 10

 =

 = 2i sin 5 – 5 × 2i sin 3 + 10 × 2i sin

 sin5 =

8 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

nth roots of a complex number
The technique is the same for finding nth roots of any complex number.

Example: Find the 4th roots of 8 +8 i, and show the roots on an Argand Diagram.

Solution: We need to solve the equation z4 = 8 +8 i

1. Let z = r cos + i r sin

 z4 = r 4 (cos 4 + i sin 4)
2.  8 +8 i= = and arg (8 +8 i) =
 8 +8 i = 16 (cos + i sin )
3. Then z4 = 8 +8 i
becomes r 4
(cos 4 + i sin 4) = 16 (cos + i sin )

H
= 16(cos + i sin ) adding 2π

x3
N
= 16 (cos + i sin ) adding 2π

2H
= 16 (cos + i sin ) adding 2π

jP
VH
and 4 =
g/
4.  r 4 = 16 , , ,
.g

 r and  =  < arg z ≤ 

rd

= 2 , , , ;
co
is
//d

5.  roots are z1 = 2 (cos + i sin ) = 1962 + 0390 i

s:

z2 = 2 (cos ) –0390 + 1962 i

ttp

+ i sin =
:h

z3 = 2 (cos + i sin ) = –1962 – 0390 i

nk

z4 = 2 (cos + i sin ) = 0390 – 1962 i

Li
rd
co
is

y
D

Z2 + 2

Notice that the roots are symmetrically placed around 1

the origin, and the angle between roots is + Z1

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2
The angle between the nth roots will always be . Z3+

−1

+ Z4
−2

For sixth roots the angle between roots will be , and so on.

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 9

Roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients
1. Any polynomial equation with real coefficients,
, …….. (I)
where all ai are real, has a complex solution
2.  any complex nth degree polynomial can be factorised into n linear factors over the
complex numbers
3. If z = a + ib is a root of (I), then its conjugate, a – ib is also a root  see FP1.
4. By pairing factors with conjugate pairs we can say that any polynomial with real
coefficients can be factorised into a combination of linear and quadratic factors over the
real numbers.

Example: Given that 3  2i is a root of z3  5z2 + 7z + 13 = 0

(a) Factorise over the real numbers
(b) Find all three real roots

H
x3
Solution:

N
(a) 3  2i is a root  3 + 2i is also a root

2H
 (z  (3  2i))(z  (3 + 2i)) = (z2  6z + 13) is a factor

jP
 z3  5z2 + 7z + 13 = (z2  6z + 13)(z + 1) VH by inspection
g/
(b)  roots are z = 3  2i, 3 + 2i and 1
.g
rd
co
is
//d

Loci on an Argand Diagram

s:
ttp

Two basic ideas

:h
nk

1. z – w is the distance from w to z .

Li

2. arg (z – (1 + i)) is the angle made by the half line joining (1+i) to z, with the x-axis.
rd
co

Example 1:
is
D

z – 2 – i = 3 is a circle with centre (2 + i) and radius 3

Example 2:
y

z + 3 – i = z – 2 + i 2

A
 z – (–3 + i) = z – (2 – i) * 1

x
is the locus of all points which
−10 −9are −8
equidistant
−7 −6 from
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2

the points −1
*
B
A (– 3, 1) and B (2, –1), and so is the perpendicular −2
bisector of AB.

10 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Example 3:
y
arg (z – 4) = is a half line, from (4, 0), 4

3
making an angle of with the x-axis.
2

1
x
Example 4: −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

z – 3 = 2 z + 2i is a circle
(Apollonius’s circle).

To find its equation, put z = x + iy

 (x – 3) + iy = 2x + i(y + 2) square both sides

H
 (x – 3)2 + y2 = 4(x2 + (y + 2)2) leading to

x3
N
 3x2 + 6x + 3y2 + 16y + 7 = 0

2H
jP
 (x + 1)2 + = VH
g/
.g

which is a circle with centre (–1, ), and radius .

rd
co
is
//d

Example 5:
s:
ttp

y
arg
:h
nk


Li
rd

  =
co



is

x
D

which gives the arc of the circle as shown. –5 2

N.B. y

The corresponding arc below the x-axis –5 2

would have equation  x


arg

as  –  would be negative in this picture.

( is a ‘larger negative number’ than .)

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 11

Transformations of the Complex Plane
Always start from the z-plane and transform to the w-plane, z = x + iy and w = u + iv.

Example 1: Find the image of the circle z  5 = 3

under the transformation .

Solution: First rearrange to find z

 z2=  z=

Second substitute in equation of circle

 

 1  3w = 3w  3

H


x3
N
2H
which is the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining 0 to ,

jP
 the image is the line u = VH
g/
Always consider the ‘modulus technique’ (above) first;
.g
rd

if this does not work then use the u + iv method shown below.
co
is

Example 2: Show that the image of the line x + 4y = 4 under the transformation
//d
s:

is a circle, and find its centre and radius.

ttp
:h

Solution: First rearrange to find z  z =

nk
Li

The ‘modulus technique’ is not suitable here.

rd

z = x + iy and w = u + iv
co
is

 z =
D

 x + iy =

Equating real and imaginary parts x = and y =

 x + 4y = 4 becomes  = 4

 u2  u + v2 + 4v = 0

which is a circle with centre and radius .

There are many more examples in the book, but these are the two important techniques.

12 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Loci and geometry
It is always important to think of diagrams.

Example: z lies on the circle z  2i = 1.

Find the greatest and least values of arg z.

Solution: Draw a picture!

The greatest and least values of arg z

will occur at B and A.

Trigonometry tells us that 2

1 1
= B A

and so greatest and least values of 

H
x3
arg z are and

N
2H
jP
VH
g/
.g
rd
co
is
//d
s:
ttp
:h
nk
Li
rd
co
is
D

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 13

 4 First Order Differential Equations
Separating the variables, families of curves
Example: Find the general solution of

, for x > 0,

and sketch some of the family of solution curves.

Solution: 

 2ln y = ln x  ln (x + 1) + ln A

 y2 =

H
x3
Thus for varying values of A and for x > 0, we have

N
2H
y

jP
y²=7x/(x+1)
2 VH
y²=3x/(x+1)
g/
.g

1 y²=x/(x+1)
rd
co

x
is

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
//d
s:

−1
ttp
:h

−2
nk
Li
rd

Exact Equations
co
is

In an exact equation the L.H.S. is an exact derivative (really a preparation for Integrating
D

Factors).

Example: Solve sin x + y cos x = 3x2

Solution: Notice that the L.H.S. is an exact derivative

sin x + y cos x =

 = 3x2

 y sin x =  3x2 dx = x3 + c

 y =

14 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Integrating Factors
+ Py = Q where P and Q are functions of x only.

In this case, multiply both sides by an Integrating Factor, .

The L.H.S. will now be an exact derivative, .
Proceed as in the above example.
Example: Solve x + 2y = 1
Solution: First divide through by x
 + now in the correct form

Integrating Factor, I.F., is = = = x2

 x2 + 2xy = x multiplying by x2

H
 = x, check that it is an exact derivative

x3
N
 x2 y =

2H
jP
 y =
VH
g/
.g

Using substitutions
rd
co

Example 1: Use the substitution y = vx (where v is a function of x) to solve the equation

is
//d

.
s:


ttp

Solution: y = vx = v + x
:h

  v + x = =
nk
Li

and we can now separate the variables

rd


co

x = =
is
D

 + dv =

 = ln x + c

But v = ,  = ln x + c
 2x2 ln y + y2 = 6x2 ln x + c x2 c is new arbitrary constant

and I would not like to find y‼!

If told to use the substitution , rewrite as y = vx and proceed as in the above example.

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 15

Example 2: Use the substitution to solve the differential equation
.

Solution: 

 +

Integrating factor is R = =

 check that it is an exact derivative

H
x3
 z sin x = cos x + c

N
2H
 z = but

jP
VH

g/
.g
rd
co
is

Example 3: Use the substitution z = x + y to solve the differential equation

//d
s:
ttp
:h

Solution: z=x+y 
nk
Li


rd
co

 separating the variables

is
D

 1 + cos z = 1 + 2 cos2 1= 2 cos2

 tan =

But z = x + y 

16 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

5 Second Order Differential Equations
Linear with constant coefficients

where a, b and c are constants.

(1) when f (x) = 0

First write down the Auxiliary Equation, A.E

A.E.

and solve to find the roots

(i) If are both real numbers, and if

H
then the Complimentary Function, C.F., is

x3
N
, where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration

2H
jP
(ii) If are both real numbers, and if
VH
then the Complimentary Function, C.F., is
g/
, where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration
.g
rd
co

(iii) If are both complex numbers, and if

is

then the Complimentary Function, C.F.,

//d

,
s:

where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration

ttp
:h

Example 1: Solve
nk
Li

Solution: A.E. is
rd


co
is

 m = 1 or 3
D

 when f (x) = 0, the C.F. is the solution

Example 2: Solve

Solution: A.E. is
 (m + 3)2 = 0
 m = 3 (and 3) repeated root
 when f (x) = 0, the C.F. is the solution

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 17

Example 3: Solve

Solution: A.E. is
 (m + 2)2 = –9 = (3i)2
 (m + 2) =  3i
 m = 2  3i or 2 + 3i
 when f (x) = 0, the C.F. is the solution

(2) when f (x) ≠ 0, Particular Integrals

First proceed as in (1) to find the Complimentary Function, then use the rules below to
find a Particular Integral, P.I.

Second the General Solution, G.S. , is found by adding the C.F. and the P.I.

H
x3
 G.S. = C.F. + P.I.

N
2H
Note that it does not matter what P.I. you use, so you might as well find the easiest,

jP
which is what these rules do. VH
g/
.g
rd

(1) f (x) = ekx.

co

Try y = Aekx
is
//d

unless ekx appears, on its own, in the C.F., in which case try y = Cxekx
s:

unless xekx appears, on its own, in the C.F., in which case try y = Cx2ekx.
ttp
:h

(2) or
nk

Try
Li
rd

unless sin kx or cos kx appear in the C.F., on their own, in which case
co

try
is
D

(3) f (x) = a polynomial of degree n.

Try f (x) =
unless a number, on its own, appears in the C.F., in which case
try f (x) =
i.e. try f (x) = a polynomial of degree n.

(4) In general
to find a P.I., try something like f (x), unless this appears in the C.F. (or if there is
a problem), then try something like x f (x).

18 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Example 1: Solve

Solution: A.E. is m2 + 6m + 5 = 0
 (m + 5)(m + 1) = 0  m = 5 or 1
 C.F. is

For the P.I., try y = Cx + D



Substituting in the differential equation gives

0 + 6C + 5(Cx + D) = 2x
 5C = 2 comparing coefficients of x

 C =

H
and 6C + 5D = 0 comparing constant terms

x3


N
D =

2H
 P.I. is

jP
 G.S. is
VH
g/
.g
rd
co

Example 2: Solve
is
//d

A.E. is is m2 – 6m + 9 = 0
s:

Solution:
ttp

 (m  3)2 = 0
:h

 m = 3 repeated root
nk

 C.F. is
Li
rd

In this case, both and x appear, on their own, in the C.F.,

co
is

so for a P.I. we try

D

and

Substituting in the differential equation gives

+9


 P.I. is
 G.S. is

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 19

Example 3: Solve
given that x = 0 and when t = 0.

Solution: A.E. is m2 – 3m + 2 = 0
 m = 1 or 2
 C.F. is

For the P.I. try BOTH sin 2t AND cos 2t are needed


and

Substituting in the differential equation gives

H
 3(

x3
) + 2( = 4 cos 2t
 2C + 6D = 0   C + 3D = 0

N
comparing coefficients of sin 2t

2H
and 6C  2D = 4  3C + D =  2 comparing coefficients of cos 2t

jP
 C= and VH

g/
P.I. is
.g

 G.S. is
rd
co


is
//d

x = 0 and when t = 0  0= A+B

s:

 1 = A + 2B –
ttp

and when t = 0
:h

 A= and B = 2
nk


Li

solution is
rd
co
is
D

20 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

D.E.s of the form

Substitute x = eu

 = eu = x 

and

  I

 chain rule

H
 II

x3
N
2H
Thus we have and from I and II

jP
VH
substituting these in the original equation leads to a second order D.E. with constant
g/
.g

coefficients.
rd
co

Example: Solve the differential equation .

is
//d
s:

Solution: Using the substitution x = eu, and proceeding as above

ttp
:h
nk

and
Li


rd
co


is
D

 A.E. is m2 – 4m + 3 = 0
 (m  3)(m 1) = 0  m = 3 or 1
 C.F. is y = Ae3u + Beu

For the P.I. try y = Ce2u

 and

 C=2
 G.S. is y = Ae3u + Beu + 2e2u

But x = eu  G.S. is y = Ax3 + Bx + 2x2

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 21

6 Maclaurin and Taylor Series

1) Maclaurin series

2) Taylor series

3) Taylor series – as a power series in (x  a)

replacing x by (x  a) in 2) we get

H
x3
N
4) Solving differential equations using Taylor series

2H
jP
(a) If we are given the value of y when x = 0, then we use the Maclaurin series with
VH
g/
the value of y when x = 0
.g
rd

the value of when x = 0

co
is
//d

etc. to give
s:
ttp
:h
nk
Li

(b) If we are given the value of y when x = a, then we use the Taylor power series
rd
co

with
is
D

the value of y when x = a

the value of when x = a

etc. to give

NOTE THAT 4 (a) and 4 (b) are not in the formula book, but can easily be found
using the results in 1) and 3).

22 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Standard series

converges for all real x

converges for all real x

converges for all real x

converges for 1 < x ≤ 1

converges for 1 < x < 1

H
x3
Example 1: Find the Maclaurin series for , up to and including the term in x3

N
2H
Solution: 

jP

VH 
g/
.g

 
rd
co

 
is
//d

and
s:
ttp
:h

 up to the term in x3
nk
Li


rd
co
is
D

Example 2: Using the Maclaurin series for ex to find an expansion of , up to and

including the term in x3.

Solution:

 up to the term in x3

up to the term in x3

 up to the term in x3

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 23

Example 3: Find a Taylor series for , up to and including the term in x2.

Solution: and we are looking for

 

 

 up to the term in x2

 2x2 up to the term in x2

H
x3
N
Example 4: Use a Taylor series to solve the differential equation,

2H
jP
equation I
VH
up to and including the term in x3, given that y = 1 and
g/
when x = 0.
.g
rd

In this case the initial value of x is 0, so we shall use

co
is
//d
s:

 .
ttp
:h

We already know that y0 = 1 and values when x = 0

nk
Li

 = 5
rd

values when x = 0
co
is

equation I =0
D

Differentiating 

Substituting y0 = 1, and = 5 values when x = 0

 solution is

24 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Series expansions of compound functions
Example: Find a polynomial expansion for

, up to and including the term in x3.

Solution: Using the standard series

cos 2x = up to and including the term in x3

and

= up to and including the term in x3

 =

H
x3
= up to and including the term in x3

N
2H
 = up to and including the term in x3

jP
VH
g/
.g
rd
co
is
//d
s:
ttp
:h
nk
Li
rd
co
is
D

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 25

 7 Polar Coordinates
The polar coordinates of P are (r,  )
P (r,  )
r = OP, the distance from the origin or pole,
r
and  is the angle made anti-clockwise with the 
O
initial line. pole initial line

In the Edexcel syllabus r is always taken as positive or 0, and 0   < 2

(But in most books r can be negative, thus is the same point as )

Polar and Cartesian coordinates
y
From the diagram

H
x3
r=

N
P (x, y )

2H
and (use sketch to find  ).

jP
r
VH y

x = r cos  and y = r sin  .
g/
x
x
.g
rd

Sketching curves
co

In practice, if you are asked to sketch a curve, it will probably be best to plot a few points. The
is

important values of  are those for which r = 0.

//d
s:
ttp

The sketches in these notes will show when r is negative by plotting a dotted line; these sections
:h

should be ignored as far as Edexcel A-level is concerned.

nk

Some common curves

Li
rd
co
is

Cardiod Limacon without dimple Limacon with a dimple

D

a=b a  2b, b  a < 2b

4 y 4 y 4 y
r=3+3cosθ r=3+2cosθ
r=3+1.4cosθ
2 2 2

x x x
6 −4 −14 −2 −12 −10 2 −8 4 −6 6 −4 −12
−2 −10 2−8 4−6 6−4 −2 2 4 6

−2 −2 −2

−4 −4 −4

26 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

 Limacon with a loop Circle Half line

a<b
r negative in the loop

4 y 4 y
r=2+3cosθ 4 y

r=3 θ=π/6
2 2 2

r<0 x x x
−6 −4 −16−2 −14 −12 2 −10 4 −8 6 −6 −4 −12 −2 −10 −8 2 −6 4 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2 −2
−2

−4 −4
−4

H
x3
Line (x = 3) Line (y = 3) Circle

N
2H
jP
4 y 4 y VH 4 y
r=3cosecθ r=6cosθ
g/
r=3secθ
.g

2 2 2
rd
co

x x x
is

−8 −6 −16 −4 −14 −2 −12 −10 2 −8 4 −6 −4−12 −2−10 −8 2−6 4−4 −2 2 4 6

//d
s:

−2 −2 −2
ttp
:h

−4 −4 −4
nk
Li

With Cartesian coordinates the graph of y = f (x  a) is the graph of y = f (x) translated through a
rd
co

in the x-direction.
is
D

In a similar way the graph of r = 3 sec(  ), or r = 3 sec(  ), is a rotation of the graph of
r = sec through  , anti-clockwise.

Line (x = 3 rotated through ) Line (y = 3 rotated through )

x=3 r =3cosec(θ−π/6)

r =3sec(θ−π/6)
3
B y=3
B'
A'
3
3 π/6

π/6 A initial line initial line

−6 −3 3

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 27

 Rose Curves

r = 4 cos 3 r = 4 cos 3 r = 4 cos 3

0<    < 2 0   < 2

4 y 4 y 4 y

r=4cos3θ r=4cos3θ
2 2 2
r=4cos3θ
r<0
x x x
−8 −6 −4
−14 −2
−12 −10 2
−8 4 −14 −4 −12 −2 −10
−6 −8 2 −6 4 −4 −2 2 4
r<0

−2 −2 −2

−4 −4 −4

H
below x-axis, r negative above x-axis, r negative whole curve for r  0

x3
N
The rose curve will always have n petals when n is odd, for 0   < 2.

2H
jP
r = 3 cos 4 VH 4 y
g/
r=3cos4θ
.g
rd

When n is even there will be n petals for r ≥ 0 and 2

co

0 ≤  < 2 .
is

r>0
x
//d

−14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4

s:
ttp

Thus, whether n is odd or even, the rose curve

:h

r = a cos always has n petals, when only the −2 r<0

nk

positive (or 0) values of r are taken.

Li
rd

Edexcel only allow positive or 0 values of r. −4

co
is
D

Leminiscate of Bernoulli Spiral r = 2 Spiral r = e

40 y
r=2θ
y r>0 10 y
2 r²=16cos2θ r=e^θ
20

x x x
−6 −4 −2 −140 −120 −100
2 −80
4 −60 −40 −20 20 40
−40 −30 −20 −10

−20
−2
−10
−40

−4

28 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Circle r = 10 cos 
y
5 P
Notice that in the circle on OA as diameter,
θ the angle P is
o
90 (angle in a semi-circle) and trigonometry gives us that r
r = 10 cos  .
θ A x
−20 −10 O 10

−5 r=10cosθ

y
Circle r = 10 sin  A
r=10sinθ 10
θ
In the same way r = 10 sin  gives a circle on the y-axis. P

H
x3
r

N
2H
θ x

jP
−30 −25 −20 −15 −10 VH −5 O 5
g/
.g
rd
co

Areas using polar coordinates

is
//d

Remember: area of a sector is

s:

B
ttp
:h

Q
nk

Area of OPQ = A 
Li

A
rd

P
 Area OAB 
co
is

r

D

as   0 A

O
 Area OAB = initial line

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 29

 Example: Find the area between the
curve r = 1 + tan  y
r=1+tanθ
and the half lines  = 0 and
2
Solution: Area =

=
1

=
x
−6 = −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2

O
=

H
x3
= ln 2 +

N
2H
jP
VH
g/

Tangents parallel and perpendicular to the initial line

.g
rd

and
co
is
//d
s:
ttp

1) Tangents will be parallel to the initial line (  = 0), or horizontal, when

:h
nk


Li
rd


co
is

2) Tangents will be perpendicular to the initial line ( = 0), or vertical, when is infinite
D

Note that if both and , then is not defined, and you should look at a sketch
to help (or use l'Hôpital's rule).

30 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Example: Find the coordinates of the points on where the tangents are
(a) parallel to the initial line,
(b) perpendicular to the initial line.

Solution: is shown in the diagram.

(a) Tangents parallel to  = 0 (horizontal)

 

 

 = 0  = 0

 

H
Tangents perpendicular to  = 0 (vertical)

x3
(b)

N
 

2H
jP
  VH
 
g/
= 0 = 0
.g


rd
co


is

,π
//d

y
s:

From the above we can see that B

ttp

r=1+cosθ

the tangent is parallel to  = 0

:h

1
(a)
nk

C
at B , and E ,
Li

x
rd

A
also at−6 , the origin – see below (c)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
co

D
is
D

(b) the tangent is perpendicular to  = 0 −1

at A ( = 0), C
E
and D

(c) we also have both and when !!!

From the graph it looks as if the tangent is parallel to  = 0 at the origin, when  =  ,
and from l'Hôpital's rule it can be shown that this is true.

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 31

Appendix
nth roots of 1
Short method

Example: Find the 5th roots of  4 + 4i =

Solution: First find the root with the

smallest argument Im

Then sketch the symmetrical ‘spider’

diagram where the angle between
successive roots is Re

H
x3
N
then find all five roots by

2H
successively adding to the

jP
argument of each root
VH
to give
g/
.g
rd

, , ,
co
is

= , and .
//d
s:
ttp
:h

This can be generalized to find the nth roots of any complex number, adding successively
nk

to the argument of each root.

Li
rd

Warning: You must make sure that your method is very clear in an examination.
co
is
D

32 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Sum of nth roots of 1 Im
10
Consider the solutions of z = 1, the
2
complex 10th roots of 1.  3

Suppose that  is the complex 10th root of 1 

with the smallest argument. The ‘spider’
4
diagram shows that the roots are
,  2,  3,  4, … ,  9 and 1. Re
1
Symmetry indicates that the sum of all these
roots is a real number, but to prove that this 6
sum is 0 requires algebra.
9

7
8

H
x3
 ≠ 1, and  10 = 1

N
2H
 1   10 = 0

jP
VH
 (1  )(1 +  +  2 +  3 +  4 + … +  9) = 0 factorising
g/
.g

 1 +  +  2 +  3 +  4 + … +  9 = 0, since 1   ≠ 0
rd
co

 the sum of the complex 10th roots of 1 is 0.

is
//d
s:
ttp

This can be generalized to show that the sum of the nth roots of 1 is 0, for any n.
:h
nk
Li
rd
co
is
D

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 33

1st order differential equations
Justification of the Integrating Factor method.

+ Py = Q where P and Q are functions of x only.

We are looking for an Integrating Factor, R (a function of x), so that multiplication by R
of the L.H.S. of the differential equation gives an exact derivative.

Multiplying the L.H.S. by R gives

If this is to be an exact derivative we can see, by looking at the first term, that we should
try

H
x3
N
2H
jP

VH
g/
.g


rd
co
is
//d


s:
ttp


:h
nk

Thus is the required I.F., Integrating Factor.

Li
rd
co
is
D

34 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Linear 2nd order differential equations

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for unequal roots

Let the roots of the A.E. be  and  ( ≠  ), then the A.E. can be written as

(m  )(m  ) = 0  m2  ( + ) m +  = 0

So the differential equation can be written

H
x3
N
2H
We can ‘sort of factorise’ this to give

jP
VH
g/
.g
rd
co
is
//d

 
s:
ttp
:h


nk
Li

The Integrating Factor is e  x

rd
co
is

 
D

which is the C.F., for unequal roots of the A.E.

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 35

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for equal roots

Let the roots of the A.E. be  and , (equal roots) then the A.E. can be written as

(m  )(m   ) = 0  m2  2 m +  2 = 0

So the differential equation can be written

We can ‘sort of factorise’ this to give

H
x3
N
2H
jP
VH
g/
.g
rd

 
co
is
//d


s:
ttp

The Integrating Factor is e  x

:h
nk

 
Li
rd
co


is
D

which is the C.F., for equal roots of the A.E.

36 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Justification of the A.E. – C.F. technique for complex roots
Suppose that  and  are complex roots of the A.E., then they must occur as a conjugate pair
(see FP1),

  = a + ib and  = a  ib

 C.F. is y = A e (a + ib)x + B e (a  ib)x assuming that calculus works for complex nos. which it does

 y = e ax (A e ibx + B e ibx) = e ax (A(cos x + i sin x) + B(cos x  i sin x))

 C.F. is y = e ax (C cos x + D sin x), where C and D are arbitrary constants.

We now have the rules for finding the C.F. as before

where a, b and c are constants.

H
First write down the Auxiliary Equation, A.E

x3
N
A.E.

2H
jP
and solve to find the roots VH

g/
If are both real numbers, and if
.g

then the Complimentary Function, C.F., is

rd

 , where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration

co
is
//d

 If are both real numbers, and if

s:

then the Complimentary Function, C.F., is

ttp

 , where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration

:h
nk

 If are both complex numbers, and if

Li

then the Complimentary Function, C.F.,

rd
co

 ,
is

where A and B are arbitrary constants of integration

D

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 37

Justification that G.S. = C.F. + P.I.
Consider the differential equation ay'' + by' + cy = f (x)

Suppose that u (a function of x) is any member of the Complimentary Function,

and that v (a function of x) is a Particular Integral of the above D.E.

 au'' + bu' + cu = 0

and av'' + bv' + cv = f (x)

Let w = u + v

then aw'' + bw' + cw = a(u + v)'' + b(u + v)' + c(u + v)

= (au'' + bu' + cu) + (av'' + bv' + cv) = 0 + f (x) = f (x)

 w is a solution of ay'' + by' + cy = f (x)

H
x3
 all possible solutions y = u + v are part of the General Solution. I

N
2H
We now have to show that any member of the G.S. can be written in the form u + v, where u is

jP
some member of the C.F., and v is the P.I. used above. VH
g/
Let z be any member of the G.S, then az'' + bz' + cz = f (x).
.g
rd

Consider z  v
co
is

a(z  v)'' + b(z  v)' + c(z  v) = (az'' + bz' + cz)  (av'' + bv' + cv) = f (x)  f (x) = 0
//d
s:

 (z  v) is some member of the C.F. – call it u

ttp
:h

 zv=u  z=u+v
nk
Li

thus any member, z, of the G.S. can be written in the form u + v, where u is some member of the
rd

C.F., and v is the P.I. used above. II

co
is

I and II  the Complementary Function + a Particular Integral forms the complete General
D

Solution.

38 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB

Maclaurin’s Series
Proof of Maclaurin’s series
To express any function as a power series in x

Let f (x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 + fx5 + … I

put x = 0  f (0) = a

 f '(x) = b + 2cx + 3dx2 + 4ex3 + 5fx4 + …

put x = 0  f '(0) = b

 f ''(x) = 2  1c + 3  2dx + 4  3ex2 + 5  4fx3 + …

put x = 0  f ''(0) = 2  1c 

H
x3
 f '''(x) = 3  2  1d + 4  3  2ex + 5  4  3fx2 + …

N
2H
jP
put x = 0  f '''(0) = 3  2  1d  VH
g/
continuing in this way we see that the coefficient of xn in I is
.g
rd
co

 f (x) = f (0) + x f '(0) + + +…+ +…

is
//d

The range of x for which this series converges depends on f (x), and is beyond the scope
s:

of this course.
ttp
:h
nk
Li

Proof of Taylor’s series

rd
co

If we put f (x) = g(x + a) then

is

f (0) = g(a), f '(0) = g'(a), f ''(0) = g''(a), … , f n(0) = gn(a), …

D

and Maclaurin’s series becomes

g (x + a) = g (a) + x g'(a) + g''(a) + g'''(a) + … + gn(a)+ …

which is Taylor’s series for g(x + a) as a power series in x

Replace x by (x  a) and we get

g (x) = g (a) + (x  a) g'(a) + g''(a) + g'''(a) + … + gn(a)+ …

which is Taylor’s series for g(x) as a power series in (x  a)

FP2 OCT 2016 SDB 39

Index

complex numbers, 7 Maclaurin and Taylor series, 22

applications of De Moivre’s theorem, 8 expanding compound functions, 25
argument, 7 proofs, 39
De Moivre’s theorem, 8 standard series, 23
Euler’s relation, 7 worked examples, 23
loci, 10 method of differences, 5
loci and geometry, 13 polar coordinates, 26
modulus, 7 area, 29
nth roots, 9 cardiod, 26
nth roots of 1, 32 circle, 29
roots of polynomial equations, 10 leminiscate, 28
transformations, 12 polar and cartesian, 26
first order differential equations, 14 r = a cos n, 28

H
exact equations, 14 spiral, 28

x3
families of curves, 14 tangent, 30

N
integrating factors, 15

2H
second order differential equations, 17
integrating factors – proof of method, 34 auxiliary equation, 17, 37

jP
separating the variables, 14 complimentary function, 17, 37
VH
using substitutions, 15 general solution, 18
g/
inequalities, 3 justification of technique, 35
.g

algebraic solutions, 3 linear with constant coefficients, 17

rd

graphical solutions, 4 particular integral, 18

co

using substitutions, 21
is
//d
s:
ttp
:h
nk
Li
rd
co
is
D

40 FP2 OCT 2016 SDB