Big Bang Theory – The most always been there and will

accepted theory about the always be present.

origin of the universe; It also conveys that the universe
postulates always looks the same in any
that 13.8 billion years ago, the time or space but continuously
universe expanded from a tiny, expands while simultaneously
dense and hot mass to its creating matter, maintaining the
present size and much cooler density of the universe, hence,
state. the name Steady State.
Georges Lemaitre – considered
as the Solar System - is located in the
first proponent of the Big Bang Milky Way galaxy a huge disc
Theory in 1927. and spiral-shaped aggregation
Edwin Hubble – confirmed of about at least 100 billion
Lemaitre’s theory that the stars and other bodies; Its spiral
universe is arms rotate around a globular
expanding; He also cluster or bulge of many, many
stars, at the center of which lies
demonstrated a super massive black hole; The
that the universe was much solar system revolves around
larger the galactic center once in
than previously thought. about 240 million years. 
The Milky Way is part of the so-
Pulsating/Oscillating Universe called Local Group of galaxies,
Theory – discusses that the which in turn is part of the Virgo
universe is expanding and will super cluster of galaxies.
contract once all the energy Much of the mass of the Solar
after the Big Bang is used up; System is concentrated at the
This theory, proposed by center (Sun) while angular
Richard Tolman (1934), can be momentum is held by the outer
described as the combination of planets.
the Big Bang and the Big Orbits of the planets elliptical
Crunch. and are on the same plane.
The Big Crunch occurs when the All planets revolve around the
universe expands and sun.
eventually reverse, then The periods of revolution of the
collapses causing a singularity planets increase with increasing
or the formation of another Big distance from the Sun; the
Bang. innermost planet moves fastest,
The Oscillating Universe Theory the outermost, the slowest.
suggests that once the universe All planets are located at
reverses and attains the point of regular intervals from the Sun
singularity, another universe will
be born. Theories of Solar System:
1. Encounter Hypothesis - In this
Steady State Theory – proposed scenario, a rogue star passes
by Fred Hoyle,Thomas Gold, close to the Sun about 5 billion
Herman Bondi in 1948; it years ago.
suggests that the universe has
2. Nebular Hypothesis - the
whole Solar System starts as a Structure of the Earth 
large cloud of gas that contracts
under self-gravity. Crust – is the layer that you live
3. Protoplanet Hypothesis - It on so it is the most widely
incorporates many of the studied and understood. It is
components of the nebular made up of the lightest matter.
hypothesis, but adds some new Mantle – the largest layer of the
aspects from modern Earth. It is made up of hot,
knowledge of fluids and states dense rock. The rock in the
of matter. mantle flows like asphalt
4. Condensation Theory – Once because of the temperature
the solar nebula has formed and differences found in the
begun to cool, dust acts as mantle.
condensation nuclei around Outer Core – is liquid; it is made
which matter starts together. up of iron and is very dense.
Inner Core – has temperatures
Uniqueness of Earth, Being the and pressures so great that the
only planet in the Solar System metals are squeezed together
With Properties to Support Life and are not able to move. It is
Atmosphere, Temperature, solid.
Water, Sunlight and Lithosphere – it is the solid,
Photosynthesis, The right moon, outer part of the Earth. It
The right sun, The right core, includes the brittle upper
The right neighbors portion of the mantle and crust,
the outermost layers of Earth’s
Earth is the third planet from structure.
the sun and the only planet in Astenosphere – it is a layer of
the solar system that can solid rock that has so much
sustain life. Pictures taken from pressure at heat the rocks can
space describe Earth as “The flow like a liquid.
Blue Marble” since what we
mostly see is the vast oceans of Igneous Rock – most abundant;
Earth that has a far larger area primary rocks; soure is magma
than the land. or lava.

1. Hydrosphere – the water Sedimentary Rock – thin veener

portion of Earth. in Oceanic and Continental
2. Atmosphere – the gaseous Crusts; secondary rocks.
envelope of the Earth. Metamorphic Rock – proportion
3. Geosphere/Lithosphere – the is similar to that of Igneous
solid component of the Earth. Rock; change of forms of
4. Biosphere – the living Igneous and Sedimentary due to
component of Earth. Temperature, Pressure and
Chemical Fluids.
Layers of Atmosphere – Magma – molten rock below the
Exosphere, Earth’s surface.
Thermosphere,Mesosphere,Strat
osphere, and Troposphere.
 Lava – molten rock that erupts history; slow cooling first,
onto the Earth’s surface through followed by a period of
a volcano or crack (fissure). somewhat faster cooling.
Vesicular – contains tiny holes
called vesicles which formed
How are rocks melted? Heating, due to gas bubbles in the lava
Depressurization, Increased or magma. Very porous. May
water content, Increased silica resemble a sponge. Commonly
content low density; may float on
water.
Where do rocks melt? Pyroclastic or Fragmental –
Subduction zones, Felsic and pieces of rock and ash come out
Intermediate, Mantle plumes of a volcano and get welded
(hot spots). together by heat.
Tuff – made of volcanic ash
Cooling Rates of Magma  Volcanic breccia - contains
fragments of fine-grained
Quick cooling – fine grains igneous rocks that are larger
Slow cooling – coarse grains than ash

Different magmas have different Volcanic Rocks (Extrusive

viscosities. Viscosity is the Rocks) – lava or magma flows;
property of a substance to pyroclastic flows; form at the
internally resist flow. earth's surface as lava cools.
The higher the viscosity, the Intermediate Rocks (Hypabyssal
more resistance to flow. Rocks)
Plutonic Rocks ( Intrusive Rocks)
Igneous Textures – dykes, sills, batholiths,
laccoliths, etc; form deep
Glassy – instantaneous cooling. underground where magma
Example: Obsidian cools slowly. 
Aphanitic – fine grain size; result Felsic – Granite; Poor in Iron,
of quick cooling. Magnesium and Calcium but
Example: Basalt, Rhyolite, Rich in Silica
Andesite Mafic – Hot, Non-viscous, Dry;
Phaneritic – coarse grain size; Mafic Rocks - Usually Extrusive,
visible grains; result of slow Fine-grained, Mafic (Basalt) rock
cooling. forms oceanic crust, Shield
Felsic Intermedi Mafic Volcanoes and Basalt Floods. If
ate Intrusive, course-grained mafic
rocks are formed Gabbro. If
Intrusi Granit Diorite Gabba intrusive, Dikes and Sills more
ve e ro common.
Extrus Rhyolit Andesite Basalt
ve e
Example: Granite, Diorite,
Gabbro Sedimentary Rocks – usually
Porphyritic – mixture of grain originate in water environments,
sizes caused by mixed cooling
either oceans, lakes, or river Examples: shale, slate, gneiss
beds Nonfoliated – do not display
layers. Examples: quartzite,
.1. Clastic/Detrital Sedimentary marble, anthracite coal
Rocks – mechanical rock
weathering by products are Sediments – are loose materials
transported to new location, such as rock fragments, mineral
cement together. grains, and bits of shell that
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks have been moved by wind,
– soluble material, dissolved by water, ice, or gravity.
chemical weathering, Sedimentary Rock – forms when
precipitates by organic or sediments are pressed and
inorganic processes. cemented together.
3. Biochemical/Organic Clastic – Conglomerate,
Sedimentary Rocks – these Sandstone, Shale.
rocks form as a result of once Organic – Coal, Fossiliferous
living organisms accumulating Limestone.
to form solid rock. Chemical – Limestone,
Salt.
Some examples of chemical Sedimentary Rocks – are made
sedimentary rocks include; from already existing rocks that
Limestone (Calcite) - (form by are weathered and eroded. It
precipitation). forms when sediments are
Rock Gypsum - (form by pressed and cemented
precipitation and evaporation). together, or when minerals form
Rock salt (Halite) – (from by from solutions. 
evaporation). Detrital – made from broken
Coquina - (form by biochemical fragments of other rocks. These
processes). are created by weathering and
then moved by erosion. If
Metamorphic Rock - The term sediments have small pieces
“metamorphic” means “to then compaction occurs. If
change form.” Any rock can sediments have large pieces
become a metamorphic rock. If then cementation occurs.
rocks are buried deep in the Chemical – formed from
Earth at high temperatures and dissolved minerals come out of
pressures, they form new solutions.
minerals and textures all Example: Halite, Limestone
without melting. If melting Organic – made of the remains
occurs, magma is formed, of once living things
starting the rock cycle all over .Example: chalk, coal
again.

Metamorphic Rocks – are

formed when other rocks are Mineral – natural, inorganic,
exposed to high heat and solid, unique chemical
pressure. composition, crystalline shape.
Foliated – flattened and pushed
into parallel layers.
Physical Properties of Mineral – Temperature changes – when a
Color/Appearance, Luster, rock gets hot it expands a little,
Streak, Hardness, and when a rock gets cold it
Cleavage/Fracture,  contracts a little.
Wind, rain and waves – the wind
Luster – refers to the way a can blow tiny grains of sand
mineral reflects light from its against a rock. These wear the
surface. rock away and weather it. Rain
Streak – the color of the and waves can also wear away
powdered form of the mineral. rock over long periods of time.
Hardness – how easily a mineral Freeze-thaw – water expands
scratches materials. slightly when it freezes into ice.
Mohs Scale of Hardness This is why water pipes
Cleavage – minerals break along sometimes burst in the winter.
smooth, flat surfaces. Chemical Weathering – the
Fracture – minerals that break weathering of rocks by
at random with rough or jagged chemicals is called chemical
edges. weathering. Rainwater is
naturally slightly acidic because
Special Properties of Some carbon dioxide from the air
Minerals – Fluorenscence, dissolves in it. Minerals in rocks
Chemical Reaction, Optical may react with the rainwater,
Properties, Taste, Magnetism, causing the rock to be
Radioactivity. weathered.
Acid rain – when fossil fuels
Exogenic Process – originate such as coal, oil and natural gas
externally about the Earth. The are burned, carbon dioxide and
source of energy of this sulfur dioxide escape into the
processes is not the Earth itself air. These dissolve in the water
but outside of the Earth. Sun is in the clouds and make the
the main source of energy for rainwater more acidic than
exogenous processes. The Sun’s normal. 
energy is. carried by wind, Dissolution – dissociation of
water, etc. Living organisms and molecules into ions; common
gravity are also another sources example includes dissolution of
of energy. calcite and salt.
Weathering – the breakdown or Oxidation – reaction between
disintegration of rocks and their minerals and oxygen dissolved
minerals into smaller fragments in water.
and/or decay and Hydrolysis – change in the
transformation into other composition of minerals when
substances.  they react with water.
Physical Weathering – is caused Biological Weathering – animals
by physical changes such as and plants can wear away
changes in temperature, rocks.Erosion – the movement
freezing and thawing, and the of the broken pieces away from
effects of wind, rain and the site of weathering.
waves.
Factors affecting erosion – source of energy arises
running water, strong wind, internally from the Earth itself.
gravity It shapes the planet’s surface
from within.
Transport – rivers and streams Sources of Internal Heat –
can move pieces of rock. primordial heat, radiogenic
Deposition – settling down of heat.
the transported materials. Primordial Heat – left over heat
Mass wasting – refers to the from the formation of the planet
process that bring about the earth about 4.5 billion years
transport of materials along a ago.
slope due mainly to the action
of the gravity. Magma formation – When
volatiles mix with hot, dry rock,
Types of Mass Wasting – the volatile decreases the rock’s
landslide, avalanche, rock fall, melting point and they help
creep break the chemical bonds in the
rock to allow melting. A rising
Landslide – mass-wasting magma from the mantle brings
events where large amounts of heat with it that can melt the
weathered rock material slide surrounding rocks at the
down a hillslope or mountain shallower depths.
side primarily by gravity related
erosion. Volcanism – volcano is one of
Avalanche – an event that the means of internal heat ofthe
occurs when a cohesive slab of Earth gets to the surface of the
snow lying upon a weaker layer planet. Usually occur at plate
of snow fractures and slides boundaries
down a steep slope.
Rock fall – occur when rocks
become dislodged. As a result
the rocks fall, roll, or bounce
downhill.
Creep – the slowest mass-
wasting process and involves a
very gradual downhill
movement of soil, bedrock, and
weathered rock fragments.

Effects of Exogenous Processes

– levelling of land, weathering of
rocks, formation of soil, erosion
of rock fragments and/or soil,
deposition of fragments and/or
soil, formation of sedimentary
rocks.

Endogenic Process – originates

from within the Earth itself. The