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Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Holding two blades to form a single slit. A bulb filament

viewed through this shows clear diffraction bands.

Cosistency with Principle of Conservation of Energy.

In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in
one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another region,
producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is
consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.

Polarisation
A wave propagating in x direction in a horizontally string ,with
displacement in y direction can be represented as
y (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
It is referred to as a y-polarised wave.
Since each point on the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also
referred to as a linearly polarised wave.
As the string always remains confined to the x-y plane , it is also referred to
as a plane polarised wave.
Polarisation of Light
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light to one
plane is called polarisation.
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Unpolarised Light
For an unpolarised light the vibrations of electric vector takes all possible
directions in the transverse plane. Natural light, e.g., from the sun is
unpolarised.

Plane Polarised Light

For a plane polarised light the vibrations of electric field vector are
restricted in one direction .

Polaroids
Polaroids are thin plastic like sheets, which consists of long chain molecules
aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors along the direction of
the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an unpolarised light wave is
incident on a polaroid ,it transmits only one component of electric field
vectors which are parallel to its pass axis and the resulting light is c linearly
polarised or plane polarised.
Polaroids are used in sunglasses, wind screens in trains and aeroplanes, in
3D cameras.

Malus’ Law
When an unpolarised light is passed through two polaroids P1 and P2 and if
the angle between the polaroids is varied from 0º to 90º, the intensity of the
transmitted light will vary as:
I = 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉
where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P1 . This
is known as Malus’ law.
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Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Introduction
▪ It was found that at low pressure ,when an electric field is applied
to the gas in the discharge tube, a fluorescent glow appeared on the
glass opposite to cathode. These cathode rays were discovered, in
1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these rays
consisted of streams of fast moving negatively charged particles.
▪ By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields
across the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson determined experimentally
the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (e/m)] of the
cathode ray.
▪ In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by
ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having small
speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature were
found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these
particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray particles.

These observations thus established that all these particles, although

produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson,
in 1897, named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were
fundamental, universal constituents of matter.In 1913, the American
physicist R. A. Millikan performed oil-drop experiment and measured the
charge of electron as 1.602 × 10–19 C. Millikan’s experiment established that
electric charge is quantised.
Electron emission
If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a
positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The electron can
come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to overcome
the attractive pull.

Work Function
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal
surface is called work function. The work function is denoted by ϕ0 .
▪ Work function is measured in electron volt (eV).
▪ ϕ0 depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.
▪ One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been
accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.
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The work function of platinum is the highest (ϕ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is the
lowest (ϕ0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, the free electrons will get sufficient thermal energy to
escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Field Emission
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a metal,
electrons will get sufficient energy to escape from the metal, as in a spark
plug.
(iii) Photo-electric emission
When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric Effect
Hertz’s observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
He observed that when light falls on a metal surface, the electrons escaped
from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.

Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations

Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were
allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit.
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Hallwachs, in 1888, connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope and found that negatively charged particles were emitted from
the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
It was found that zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to
ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission from
the surface.
However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium
and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light.
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons when photosensitive substances
are illuminated by light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

Experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube

having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic
light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the
window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent
quartz window permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate
the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are
collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator.
When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the
electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of
electric current in the circuit. The photoelectric current can be increased or
decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the
emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can also be
varied.
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1.Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

When intensity of incident radiation is increased( keeping the frequency

of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixe), the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence the photoelectric
current also increases.
i.e., the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light.

2.Effect of potential on photoelectric current

When the positive potential of collector (A) is increased the photoelectric

current increases until all the electrons are collected by the collector(A).
Then the photocurrent becomes maximum and is called saturation current.

Now the collector is made negative with respect to emitter C. Then the
photocurrent decreases with increases in negative potential and finally
becomes zero. The minimum negative potential of emitter plate A for which
the photocurrent stops or bocomes zero is called the cut off potential or
stopping potential (V0)
At stopping potential,
Kmax = e V0
𝟏
mvmax2 = e V0
𝟐
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3.Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated with incident radiation of the same frequency

but different intensities I1, I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1).When the intensity of
incident radiation is increased ,number of photo electrons emitted per
second increases and hence the the saturation current increases. But as the
kinetic energy of photoelectrons remains constant and the stopping
potential also remains constant.

i.e., for a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is

independent of intensity of radiation.

4.Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated at same intensity of light radiation but differenr

frequencies 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 such that 𝑣1 > 𝑣2 > 𝑣3 . When the frequency of
incident radiation increases, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases
and hence the stopping potential also increases. But as the intensity does not
change , the saturation current will be the same for different frequencies.

i.e., the stopping potential increases with increase in frequency of incident

radiation.
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Laws of Photoelectric Effect

i.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
ii.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity .
iii.For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-
off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency(𝑣0 )
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how
intense the incident light is. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping
potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity
iv.The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag.

Threshold Frequency
Threshold frequency is the minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation, below which photo emission is not possible, no matter how
intense the incident light is.
Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were explained
by the wave picture of light. But the wave picture is unable to explain the
most basic features of photoelectric emission.
▪ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the
surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy continuously. The
greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy
absorbed by each electron. This is contradictory to the observations of
photoelectric effect.
▪ As large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed
per electron per unit time turns out to be small. It can take hours or
more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the
work function and come out of the metal. This is contrast to
observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
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Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation

Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation. When a photon incident on a metal surface, a part of its energy is
used as work function and the remaining part is used to give kinetic energy
to emitted photoelectrons.
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(1)
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

At stopping potential V0
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(2)

At threshold frequency , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , KE = 0 , 𝜙0 = h𝑣0

Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝒉𝒗𝟎 -------------(3)

Since Kmax is must be non negative, the photo emission is possible

only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0 , ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 , 𝑣 > 𝑣0
𝜙
where, 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
Greater the work function ,greater the threshold frequency.
Below threshold frequency ,photoemission is not possible.
1
but Kmax = 𝑚ν𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉(𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎 ) ------------(4)
𝟐

𝑐 𝑐
c= 𝑣 λ then 𝑣= , 𝑣0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = hc ( − ) ----------(5)
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀𝟎
where 𝜆0 is called threshold wavelength.

Variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiation

At stopping potential V0 Einstein’s photoelectric equation ,
eV0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
𝒉 𝝓𝟎
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒗−
𝒆 𝒆
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This equation shows that the graph between stopping potential 𝑉0 and
ℎ
frequency 𝑣 is a straight line with slope which is a constant independent of
𝑒
nature of material.

𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope
𝒗
= 𝒆

The x- intercept of this graph gives work function.

The graph shows that

(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for which the
stopping potential is zero

For two metals A and B these graphs metal A metal B will be parallel straight
lines
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Particle Nature of Light –The Photon

1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and speed c= 3x
108 m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the
same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

Example
Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The
power emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W.
(a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam?
(b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the
source?
(a) Each photon has an energy E = h ν = 6.63 ×10–34x6.0 ×1014 Hz
= 3.98 × 10–19 J
𝑃 2𝑥10−3
(b) N= = = 5 x1015photons per second
𝐸 3.98𝑥10−19

Example
The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4 eV
strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.
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Example
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝜙
a) 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
𝜙0 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
𝑣0 = =5.16 x1014 Hz
6.63 𝑥10−34

b) e V0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
ℎ𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
ℎ = e V0−𝜙0
𝜆
hc
λ=
eV0 −ϕ0
6.63 x10−34 x3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19 x0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
Wave Nature of Matter
▪ The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and
momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles –
the photons.
▪ The gathering and focussing mechanism of light by the eye-lens is
well described in the wave picture. But its absorption by the rods and
cones (of the retina) requires the photon picture of light.
A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature,
might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons, etc.) also exhibit
wave-like character?
Louis Victor de Broglie argued that moving particles of matter should
display wave-like properties under suitable conditions.
As nature is symmetrical , the two basic physical entities of nature – matter
and energy, must have symmetrical character. If radiation shows dual
aspects, matter should also exhibit dual nature.
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de Broglie Relation -Wavelenth of matter wave

De Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of
momentum p is given as
𝒉 𝒉
λ = 𝒑= 𝒎𝒗
where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed.
λ is called de Broglie wavelength.
The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. Here λ is a
wave attribute while the momentum p is a particle attribute. Planck’s
constant h relates the two attributes.

Why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like properties?
The de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed of
20 m s–1 is ,
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 2.76x10-34 nm
𝑚𝑣 0.12 𝑥20
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement. This is the
reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties. But in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character of particles is
significant and measurable.
Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with
a speed of 5.4×106 m/s?
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 0.135 nm
𝑚𝑣 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 5.4 𝑥106

This wavelength is measurable. i.e., in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.