‭5.

Wells and Caisson‬

‭ aissons and wells: Well and caissons Foundations: Box, Pneumatic, Open Caissons, Forces,‬
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‭Grip Length, Well Sinking, Practical Difficulties and Remedial Measures.‬

a‭ .‬ W ‭ hat is a pier foundation? What are the Advantages of a pier or group of piles?‬
‭b.‬ ‭Explain the slurry method of drilled pier construction.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Explain in detail about well sinking, practical difficulties and remedial measures.‬

T‭ he terms caisson , pier, drilled shaft, and drilled pier are often used interchangeably in‬
‭foundation engineering; all refer to a cast-in-place pile generally having a diameter of about‬
‭2.5 ft (≈750 mm) or more, with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an‬
‭enlarged bottom.‬
‭• To avoid confusion, we use the term drilled shaft for a hole drilled or excavated to the‬
‭bottom of a structure’s foundation and then filled with concrete.‬
‭Depending on the soil conditions, casings or leggings (boards or sheet piles) may be used to‬
‭prevent the soil around the hole from caving in during construction.‬
‭The diameter of the shaft is usually large enough for a person to enter for inspection‬

‭ hat is‬‭pier foundation‬‭:‬

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‭A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large Diameter to support and transfer‬
‭large super imposed load to the firm strata below.‬
‭A pier is substitute to a group of pile‬
‭ dvantages of pier or group of pile‬
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‭• Following are the advantages of pier over the group of piles.‬
‭1.‬ ‭Fewer piers are needed as the load carrying capacity of the pier is much greater than‬
‭Piles.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Pile cap may not be needed for a pier because the size of the pier itself is so big that‬
‭it can accommodate columns on it.‬
‭3.‬ ‭One can inspect the bottom of an excavated pier for soil inspection.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Drilled pier can be designed to bear large lateral load and bending stresses.‬
‭5.‬ ‭The construction of the drilled pier is virtually vibration free and minimum nose.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Drilled pier can be constructed in relatively difficult soil like boulders where pile‬
‭installation may be rather more difficult.‬

‭Types of Pier‬
‭A)‬ ‭Hand Excavated‬
‭a)‬ ‭Gow’s method‬
‭b)‬ ‭Chicago Method‬
‭c)‬ ‭Honkong method‬

‭B)‬ ‭Drilled Pier‬

‭a)‬ ‭Dry method‬
‭b)‬ ‭Casing method‬
‭c)‬ ‭Slurry method‬

‭Hand excavated piers‬

‭ .‬ ‭Gow’s Method:‬
1
‭➔‬ ‭In the Gow method of construction (figure 9. 2b), the hole is excavated by hand.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Telescopic metal shells are used to maintain the shaft.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The shells can be removed one section at a time as concreting progresses.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The minimum diameter of a Gow drilled Shaft is about 4 ft (1.22 m)‬
‭2.Chicago method‬
‭➔‬ ‭In this method, circular holes with diameters of 1 m or more are excavated by hand‬
‭for depths of 2-6 ft (0.6-1.8 m) at a time.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The sides of the excavated hole are then lined with vertical boards, referred to as‬
‭leggings. They are held tightly in place by two circular steel rings.‬
‭➔‬ ‭After placement of the rings, the excavation is continued for another 0.6m-1.8 m.‬
‭➔‬ ‭When the desired depth of excavation is reached‬

‭ . Hongkong method‬
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‭In the Hongkong method, a hole of 1m to 3m diameter about 0.6m to 1m in depth, is first‬
‭excavated and supported by a P.C.C ring cast-in-situ with formwork.‬
‭Next length is further excavated and an additional support section Is cast.‬

‭3‬
‭ rilled piers‬
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‭Drilled piers, also known as drilled shafts or caissons, are deep foundation elements‬
‭constructed by drilling a hole into the ground and filling it with concrete.‬

‭ . Dry Method‬
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‭Description:‬
‭The dry method is used when the soil is cohesive and stable enough to support an open‬
‭excavation without the need for additional support.‬
‭This method is typically suitable for soils that do not collapse or flow into the drilled hole.‬

‭Procedure:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Drilling: A hole is drilled to the required depth using an auger or rotary drill.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Inspection: The hole is inspected for any loose material, which is removed if‬
‭necessary.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is lowered into the hole if‬
‭required for the structural design.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Concrete Placement: Concrete is poured into the hole, filling it from the bottom to‬
‭the top to avoid segregation and ensure uniform filling. The concrete can be placed‬
‭directly if the water table is below the bottom of the pier and no groundwater‬
‭infiltration occurs.‬

‭Applications:‬
‭●‬ ‭Used in stable, cohesive soils.‬
‭●‬ ‭Suitable for areas where groundwater is not a concern.‬

‭Advantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭Simple and cost-effective.‬
‭●‬ ‭No need for additional materials such as casing or slurry.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭Limited to stable, dry soil conditions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Not suitable for loose or sandy soils, or areas with high groundwater levels.‬
‭ . Casing Method‬
2
‭Description:‬
‭The casing method involves using a temporary or permanent casing to support the sides of‬
‭the drilled hole.‬
‭This method is employed when the soil is unstable and prone to caving in or when‬
‭groundwater is present.‬

‭Procedure:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Drilling: A hole is drilled to the desired depth using an auger or rotary drill.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Installation of Casing: A steel casing is inserted into the hole to support the‬
‭excavation walls. The casing can be advanced simultaneously with drilling in unstable‬
‭soils.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Drilling to Final Depth: The hole is drilled to the final depth inside the casing.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is placed inside the casing.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Concrete Placement: Concrete is poured into the casing. As the concrete fills the‬
‭casing, the casing is gradually extracted if it is temporary, ensuring the concrete fills‬
‭the void left by the casing.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Casing Removal: If the casing is temporary, it is removed as the concrete is placed. If‬
‭the casing is permanent, it remains in place.‬

‭Applications:‬
‭●‬ ‭Suitable for unstable soils that are prone to collapse.‬
‭●‬ ‭Effective in areas with high groundwater levels.‬

‭Advantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭Provides excellent support for the excavation in unstable conditions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Can be used in a wide range of soil types and conditions.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭More expensive due to the need for casing materials and additional handling.‬
‭●‬ ‭Requires careful coordination during casing extraction and concrete placement.‬

‭5‬
‭ . Slurry Method‬
3
‭Description:‬
‭The slurry method, also known as the wet method, uses a drilling fluid or slurry (typically‬
‭bentonite or polymer-based) to stabilize the sides of the hole during drilling.‬
‭This method is suitable for loose or granular soils and areas with high groundwater levels.‬

‭Procedure:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Drilling: A hole is drilled to the required depth, and drilling slurry is introduced to‬
‭maintain hydrostatic pressure and stabilize the hole.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Maintenance of Slurry: The slurry level is maintained above the groundwater level to‬
‭prevent the collapse of the hole. The slurry must be kept clean and in good condition‬
‭throughout the drilling process.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Cleaning the Hole: The hole is cleaned of any loose material and drilling cuttings‬
‭using a clean-out bucket or air lift system.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is placed into the hole filled‬
‭with slurry.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Concrete Placement: Concrete is placed using a tremie pipe, which ensures that the‬
‭concrete displaces the slurry from the bottom of the hole to the top. The slurry is‬
‭pumped out as the concrete is placed to ensure no contamination of the concrete.‬

‭Applications:‬
‭●‬ ‭Ideal for loose, granular soils and areas with high groundwater levels.‬
‭●‬ ‭Used where the soil is too unstable for the dry or casing methods.‬

‭Advantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭Effective in maintaining the stability of the excavation in challenging soil conditions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Can be used in a wide range of soil types and groundwater conditions.‬

‭Disadvantages:‬
‭●‬ ‭Requires careful management of the slurry to ensure proper stabilization and‬
‭cleanliness.‬
‭●‬ ‭More complex and expensive due to the need for slurry management and handling‬
‭systems.‬
‭ aisson‬
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‭The term ‘Caisson’ is derived from the French word, caisse, meaning a chest or box. Caisson‬
‭has come to mean a boxlike structure, round or rectangular, which is sunk from the surface‬
‭of either land or water to some desired depth.‬

‭ onstruction of Well Foundation :‬

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‭Well foundations can be constructed on dry bed or after making a sand island.‬
‭At locations where the depth of water is greater than 5m to 6m and the velocity of water is‬
‭high, wells can be fabricated at the river bank and then floated to the final position and‬
‭grounded.‬
‭Great care is to be exercised while grounding a well to ensure that its position is correct.‬
‭Once the well has touched the bed, sand bags are deposited around it to prevent scour.‬
‭The well may sink into the river bed by 30 to 100m under its own weight.‬
‭The well is sunk into the ground to the desired level by extracting soil through the dredge‬
‭holes.‬
‭A strong cutting edge is provided to facilitate sinking.‬
‭The tapered portion of the well above the cutting edge is known as curb.‬
‭The walls of the well are known as steining.‬

‭ fter the well has been sunk to the final position, the bottom plug is formed by concreting.‬
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‭The bottom plug serves as the base of the well.‬
‭The well is filled with sand partly or completely.‬
‭At the top of the well, a top plug is formed by concreting & R.C.C well cap is provided at the‬
‭top to transmit both vertical and lateral loads.‬

T‭ ype of Caissons:‬
‭The various types of caissons used in constructing caisson foundations under water are given‬
‭below:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Box caissons,‬
‭2.‬ ‭Open caissons,‬
‭3.‬ ‭Pneumatic caissons.‬

‭7‬
‭1. Box caissons‬
‭➔‬ ‭A box caisson is open at top and closed at the bottom and is made of timber,‬
‭reinforced concrete or steel.‬
‭➔‬ ‭This caisson is built on land, then launched and floated to the pier site where it is‬
‭sunk in position.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Such a type of caisson is used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth,‬
‭and where loads are not very heavy.‬

‭2. Open caissons‬

‭➔‬ ‭An open caisson is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete or masonry‬
‭which is open both at the top and at the bottom, and is used for building and‬
‭bridge foundations.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Open caissons are called wells.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Well foundations form the most common type of deep foundations for‬
‭bridges in India.‬
 ‭3.Pneumatic caissons‬
‭➔‬ ‭A pneumatic caisson has its lower end designed as a working chamber in‬
‭which compressed air is forced to prevent the entry of water and thus permit‬
‭excavation in dry conditions.‬

‭Advantages and Disadvantages of Caissons:‬

‭ dvantages of Caissons:‬
A
‭1.‬ ‭Economics‬
‭2.‬ ‭Minimizes pile cap needs‬
‭3.‬ ‭Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations‬
‭4.‬ ‭Easily adaptable to varying site conditions‬
‭5.‬ ‭High axial and lateral loading capacity‬

‭ isadvantages of Caissons:‬
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‭1.‬ ‭Extremely sensitive to construction procedures‬
‭2.‬ ‭Not good for contaminated sites‬
‭3.‬ ‭Lack of construction expertise‬
‭4.‬ ‭Lack of Qualified Inspectors‬

‭Problem in Sinking of Well the Foundation:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Tilt‬
‭2.‬ ‭Shift‬
‭3.‬ ‭Sloping rock‬
‭4.‬ ‭Obstacle‬
‭5.‬ ‭Hanging up‬
‭6.‬ ‭Sand blow‬

‭ .‬ T‭ ilt‬‭is the deviation of the vertical alignment of the well.‬

1
‭2.‬ ‭Shift‬‭is the deviation from the horizontal alignment.‬

‭9‬
‭ easures to Rectify Tilting and Shifting of Wells‬‭:The precautions to avoid tilts and shifts are‬
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‭as follows:‬
‭1.‬ ‭The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be as regular and smooth as‬
‭possible.‬
‭2.‬ ‭The radius of the curb should be kept 2 to 4 cm larger than the outside radius of well‬
‭steining.‬
‭3.‬ ‭The cutting edge of the curb should be of uniform thickness and sharpness since the‬
‭sharper edge has a greater tendency of sinking than a blunt edge.‬
‭4.‬ ‭The dredging should be done uniformly on all sides in a circular well and in both‬
‭pockets of a twin well.‬
‭5.‬ ‭The tilts and shifts of well, if any, must be carefully checked and recorded.‬
‭6.‬ ‭The correct measurement of the tilts at any stage is perhaps one of the most‬
‭important field observations required during well sinking.‬

‭ s soon as tilt exceeds 1 in 200, the sinking‬‭should be supervised with special care and‬
A
‭rectifying measures should be immediately taken.‬
‭Any of the following measures can usefully be employed to counteract the tilts in the well‬
‭during sinking operations:‬

‭Regulation of grabbing:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Unequal dredging causes tilts and hence if the higher side is grabbed more by‬
‭regulating the dredging, the tilt can be rectified [Fig. 27.12. (a)].‬
‭➔‬ ‭This method is not very effective when the well has been sunk to a great depth.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In that case, a hole in the steining of the well is made on the higher side, and by‬
‭hooks, the rope of the grab is pulled towards the higher side to the maximum‬
‭possible extent [Fig. 27.12 (b)].‬
‭➔‬ ‭The hole is made near the ground level.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well may be dewatered if possible and open excavation on the higher side is‬
‭carried out.‬

‭Eccentric loading.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well normally is given kentledge in order to provide necessary sinking effort.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In order to provide greater sinking effort on the higher side of the well, eccentric‬
‭loading is necessary by providing a suitable platform.‬
‭➔‬ ‭As the sinking progresses, heavier Kentledge with greater eccentricity is required in‬
‭order to rectify the tilt.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In larger size wells to be sunk to great depths, eccentric loading may be as much as‬
‭400 to 600‬
‭➔‬ ‭Tonnes with an eccentricity of 3 to 4 m. In such a case a welded frame bracket is used‬
‭as shown in [Fig. 27.12 (c)].‬
‭Water jetting or digging pit outside the higher side of the well.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In this method, water jet is forced on the outer faces of the well, towards the higher‬
‭side so that skin friction is reduced towards the higher side.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The method if used alone is not very effective but provides a contributory effect if‬
‭used with other methods.‬

‭Excavation under the cutting edge.‬

‭➔‬ ‭A filled well generally, refuses to straighten on account of unbroken stiff strata on the‬
‭higher side of the well.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In such a case, the well is dewatered, if possible and safe, an open excavation is done‬
‭below the cutting edge of the higher side.‬
‭➔‬ ‭If dewatering is unsafe, divers should be sent to loosen the strata.‬

‭Providing temporary obstacles below the cutting edge.‬

‭➔‬ ‭In some cases wooden sleeper pieces are put temporarily below the cutting edge of‬
‭the well on the lower side to avoid further tilt of the Well while various expedients‬
‭are being tempted to rectify the tilt [Fig. 27.12 (d)].‬
‭➔‬ ‭Hooking the Cutting edge on the lower side of the well with the help of the steel wire‬
‭rope, pulled, and kept Strained by steam which also has a similar effect [Fig. 27.12‬
‭(c)].‬

‭Pulling the well.‬

‭➔‬ ‭This method is effective only in early stages of sinking.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well is pulled towards the higher side by placing one or more steel ropes round‬
‭the well with vertical sleepers packed in between to distribute the pressure over‬
‭larger areas of well steining.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The pulling of ropes may be carried out by winches [Fig. 27.12 (1)].‬

‭Strutting the well.‬

‭➔‬ ‭This method is used to avoid any further increase in the tilt of the well rather than‬
‭rectifying it.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well is strutted on its tilted side with suitable logs of wood.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well steining is given a covering plate to distribute pressure.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The other ends of the logs rest against a firm and non-yielding base by driving piles‬
‭etc. Wood pieces are kept ready to be inserted and fixed in the gaps caused by the‬
‭tilts of the well being rectified.‬

‭Pushing by jacks.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The well may be pushed by force applied by hydraulic or mechanical jack on the‬
‭tilted side of the wells.‬

‭11‬
‭Caisson Disease‬
‭➔‬ ‭Caisson Disease or Decompression Sickness (DCS) is a condition in which rapid‬
‭changes of pressure in an environment causes gases to form bubbles of gas,mainly‬
‭nitrogen.‬
‭➔‬ ‭While working in compressed air, nitrogen is breathed in and is dissolved in the blood‬
‭and tissues.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Subsequently, nitrogen leaves the blood and tissues and forms into air bubbles when‬
‭they come back to normal pressure.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many‬
‭symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death‬

‭Following are the signs and symptoms of Caisson Disease .‬

‭1.‬ ‭Pain in the joints‬
‭2.‬ ‭Tingling, numbness or paralysis‬
‭3.‬ ‭Fatigue‬
‭4.‬ ‭Itchy skin or a blotchy skin rash‬
‭5.‬ ‭Vertigo or dizziness‬
‭6.‬ ‭Confusion and personality changes‬
‭7.‬ ‭Amnesia‬
‭8.‬ ‭Unconsciousness‬