aissons and wells: Well and caissons Foundations: Box, Pneumatic, Open Caissons, Forces, C Grip Length, Well Sinking, Practical Difficulties and Remedial Measures.
a . W hat is a pier foundation? What are the Advantages of a pier or group of piles? b. Explain the slurry method of drilled pier construction. c. Explain in detail about well sinking, practical difficulties and remedial measures.
T he terms caisson , pier, drilled shaft, and drilled pier are often used interchangeably in foundation engineering; all refer to a cast-in-place pile generally having a diameter of about 2.5 ft (≈750 mm) or more, with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an enlarged bottom. • To avoid confusion, we use the term drilled shaft for a hole drilled or excavated to the bottom of a structure’s foundation and then filled with concrete. Depending on the soil conditions, casings or leggings (boards or sheet piles) may be used to prevent the soil around the hole from caving in during construction. The diameter of the shaft is usually large enough for a person to enter for inspection
hat ispier foundation:
W A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large Diameter to support and transfer large super imposed load to the firm strata below. A pier is substitute to a group of pile dvantages of pier or group of pile A • Following are the advantages of pier over the group of piles. 1. Fewer piers are needed as the load carrying capacity of the pier is much greater than Piles. 2. Pile cap may not be needed for a pier because the size of the pier itself is so big that it can accommodate columns on it. 3. One can inspect the bottom of an excavated pier for soil inspection. 4. Drilled pier can be designed to bear large lateral load and bending stresses. 5. The construction of the drilled pier is virtually vibration free and minimum nose. 6. Drilled pier can be constructed in relatively difficult soil like boulders where pile installation may be rather more difficult.
. Gow’s Method: 1 ➔ In the Gow method of construction (figure 9. 2b), the hole is excavated by hand. ➔ Telescopic metal shells are used to maintain the shaft. ➔ The shells can be removed one section at a time as concreting progresses. ➔ The minimum diameter of a Gow drilled Shaft is about 4 ft (1.22 m) 2.Chicago method ➔ In this method, circular holes with diameters of 1 m or more are excavated by hand for depths of 2-6 ft (0.6-1.8 m) at a time. ➔ The sides of the excavated hole are then lined with vertical boards, referred to as leggings. They are held tightly in place by two circular steel rings. ➔ After placement of the rings, the excavation is continued for another 0.6m-1.8 m. ➔ When the desired depth of excavation is reached
. Hongkong method 3 In the Hongkong method, a hole of 1m to 3m diameter about 0.6m to 1m in depth, is first excavated and supported by a P.C.C ring cast-in-situ with formwork. Next length is further excavated and an additional support section Is cast.
3 rilled piers D Drilled piers, also known as drilled shafts or caissons, are deep foundation elements constructed by drilling a hole into the ground and filling it with concrete.
. Dry Method 1 Description: The dry method is used when the soil is cohesive and stable enough to support an open excavation without the need for additional support. This method is typically suitable for soils that do not collapse or flow into the drilled hole.
Procedure: 1. Drilling: A hole is drilled to the required depth using an auger or rotary drill. 2. Inspection: The hole is inspected for any loose material, which is removed if necessary. 3. Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is lowered into the hole if required for the structural design. 4. Concrete Placement: Concrete is poured into the hole, filling it from the bottom to the top to avoid segregation and ensure uniform filling. The concrete can be placed directly if the water table is below the bottom of the pier and no groundwater infiltration occurs.
Applications: ● Used in stable, cohesive soils. ● Suitable for areas where groundwater is not a concern.
Advantages: ● Simple and cost-effective. ● No need for additional materials such as casing or slurry.
Disadvantages: ● Limited to stable, dry soil conditions. ● Not suitable for loose or sandy soils, or areas with high groundwater levels. . Casing Method 2 Description: The casing method involves using a temporary or permanent casing to support the sides of the drilled hole. This method is employed when the soil is unstable and prone to caving in or when groundwater is present.
Procedure: 1. Drilling: A hole is drilled to the desired depth using an auger or rotary drill. 2. Installation of Casing: A steel casing is inserted into the hole to support the excavation walls. The casing can be advanced simultaneously with drilling in unstable soils. 3. Drilling to Final Depth: The hole is drilled to the final depth inside the casing. 4. Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is placed inside the casing. 5. Concrete Placement: Concrete is poured into the casing. As the concrete fills the casing, the casing is gradually extracted if it is temporary, ensuring the concrete fills the void left by the casing. 6. Casing Removal: If the casing is temporary, it is removed as the concrete is placed. If the casing is permanent, it remains in place.
Applications: ● Suitable for unstable soils that are prone to collapse. ● Effective in areas with high groundwater levels.
Advantages: ● Provides excellent support for the excavation in unstable conditions. ● Can be used in a wide range of soil types and conditions.
Disadvantages: ● More expensive due to the need for casing materials and additional handling. ● Requires careful coordination during casing extraction and concrete placement.
5 . Slurry Method 3 Description: The slurry method, also known as the wet method, uses a drilling fluid or slurry (typically bentonite or polymer-based) to stabilize the sides of the hole during drilling. This method is suitable for loose or granular soils and areas with high groundwater levels.
Procedure: 1. Drilling: A hole is drilled to the required depth, and drilling slurry is introduced to maintain hydrostatic pressure and stabilize the hole. 2. Maintenance of Slurry: The slurry level is maintained above the groundwater level to prevent the collapse of the hole. The slurry must be kept clean and in good condition throughout the drilling process. 3. Cleaning the Hole: The hole is cleaned of any loose material and drilling cuttings using a clean-out bucket or air lift system. 4. Placement of Reinforcement: A steel reinforcement cage is placed into the hole filled with slurry. 5. Concrete Placement: Concrete is placed using a tremie pipe, which ensures that the concrete displaces the slurry from the bottom of the hole to the top. The slurry is pumped out as the concrete is placed to ensure no contamination of the concrete.
Applications: ● Ideal for loose, granular soils and areas with high groundwater levels. ● Used where the soil is too unstable for the dry or casing methods.
Advantages: ● Effective in maintaining the stability of the excavation in challenging soil conditions. ● Can be used in a wide range of soil types and groundwater conditions.
Disadvantages: ● Requires careful management of the slurry to ensure proper stabilization and cleanliness. ● More complex and expensive due to the need for slurry management and handling systems. aisson C The term ‘Caisson’ is derived from the French word, caisse, meaning a chest or box. Caisson has come to mean a boxlike structure, round or rectangular, which is sunk from the surface of either land or water to some desired depth.
onstruction of Well Foundation :
C Well foundations can be constructed on dry bed or after making a sand island. At locations where the depth of water is greater than 5m to 6m and the velocity of water is high, wells can be fabricated at the river bank and then floated to the final position and grounded. Great care is to be exercised while grounding a well to ensure that its position is correct. Once the well has touched the bed, sand bags are deposited around it to prevent scour. The well may sink into the river bed by 30 to 100m under its own weight. The well is sunk into the ground to the desired level by extracting soil through the dredge holes. A strong cutting edge is provided to facilitate sinking. The tapered portion of the well above the cutting edge is known as curb. The walls of the well are known as steining.
fter the well has been sunk to the final position, the bottom plug is formed by concreting. A The bottom plug serves as the base of the well. The well is filled with sand partly or completely. At the top of the well, a top plug is formed by concreting & R.C.C well cap is provided at the top to transmit both vertical and lateral loads.
T ype of Caissons: The various types of caissons used in constructing caisson foundations under water are given below: 1. Box caissons, 2. Open caissons, 3. Pneumatic caissons.
7 1. Box caissons ➔ A box caisson is open at top and closed at the bottom and is made of timber, reinforced concrete or steel. ➔ This caisson is built on land, then launched and floated to the pier site where it is sunk in position. ➔ Such a type of caisson is used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth, and where loads are not very heavy.
2. Open caissons
➔ An open caisson is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete or masonry which is open both at the top and at the bottom, and is used for building and bridge foundations. ➔ Open caissons are called wells. ➔ Well foundations form the most common type of deep foundations for bridges in India. 3.Pneumatic caissons ➔ A pneumatic caisson has its lower end designed as a working chamber in which compressed air is forced to prevent the entry of water and thus permit excavation in dry conditions.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Caissons:
dvantages of Caissons: A 1. Economics 2. Minimizes pile cap needs 3. Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations 4. Easily adaptable to varying site conditions 5. High axial and lateral loading capacity
isadvantages of Caissons: D 1. Extremely sensitive to construction procedures 2. Not good for contaminated sites 3. Lack of construction expertise 4. Lack of Qualified Inspectors
. T iltis the deviation of the vertical alignment of the well.
1 2. Shiftis the deviation from the horizontal alignment.
9 easures to Rectify Tilting and Shifting of Wells:The precautions to avoid tilts and shifts are M as follows: 1. The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be as regular and smooth as possible. 2. The radius of the curb should be kept 2 to 4 cm larger than the outside radius of well steining. 3. The cutting edge of the curb should be of uniform thickness and sharpness since the sharper edge has a greater tendency of sinking than a blunt edge. 4. The dredging should be done uniformly on all sides in a circular well and in both pockets of a twin well. 5. The tilts and shifts of well, if any, must be carefully checked and recorded. 6. The correct measurement of the tilts at any stage is perhaps one of the most important field observations required during well sinking.
s soon as tilt exceeds 1 in 200, the sinkingshould be supervised with special care and A rectifying measures should be immediately taken. Any of the following measures can usefully be employed to counteract the tilts in the well during sinking operations:
Regulation of grabbing: ➔ Unequal dredging causes tilts and hence if the higher side is grabbed more by regulating the dredging, the tilt can be rectified [Fig. 27.12. (a)]. ➔ This method is not very effective when the well has been sunk to a great depth. ➔ In that case, a hole in the steining of the well is made on the higher side, and by hooks, the rope of the grab is pulled towards the higher side to the maximum possible extent [Fig. 27.12 (b)]. ➔ The hole is made near the ground level. ➔ The well may be dewatered if possible and open excavation on the higher side is carried out.
Eccentric loading. ➔ The well normally is given kentledge in order to provide necessary sinking effort. ➔ In order to provide greater sinking effort on the higher side of the well, eccentric loading is necessary by providing a suitable platform. ➔ As the sinking progresses, heavier Kentledge with greater eccentricity is required in order to rectify the tilt. ➔ In larger size wells to be sunk to great depths, eccentric loading may be as much as 400 to 600 ➔ Tonnes with an eccentricity of 3 to 4 m. In such a case a welded frame bracket is used as shown in [Fig. 27.12 (c)]. Water jetting or digging pit outside the higher side of the well. ➔ In this method, water jet is forced on the outer faces of the well, towards the higher side so that skin friction is reduced towards the higher side. ➔ The method if used alone is not very effective but provides a contributory effect if used with other methods.
Excavation under the cutting edge.
➔ A filled well generally, refuses to straighten on account of unbroken stiff strata on the higher side of the well. ➔ In such a case, the well is dewatered, if possible and safe, an open excavation is done below the cutting edge of the higher side. ➔ If dewatering is unsafe, divers should be sent to loosen the strata.
Providing temporary obstacles below the cutting edge.
➔ In some cases wooden sleeper pieces are put temporarily below the cutting edge of the well on the lower side to avoid further tilt of the Well while various expedients are being tempted to rectify the tilt [Fig. 27.12 (d)]. ➔ Hooking the Cutting edge on the lower side of the well with the help of the steel wire rope, pulled, and kept Strained by steam which also has a similar effect [Fig. 27.12 (c)].
Pulling the well.
➔ This method is effective only in early stages of sinking. ➔ The well is pulled towards the higher side by placing one or more steel ropes round the well with vertical sleepers packed in between to distribute the pressure over larger areas of well steining. ➔ The pulling of ropes may be carried out by winches [Fig. 27.12 (1)].
Strutting the well.
➔ This method is used to avoid any further increase in the tilt of the well rather than rectifying it. ➔ The well is strutted on its tilted side with suitable logs of wood. ➔ The well steining is given a covering plate to distribute pressure. ➔ The other ends of the logs rest against a firm and non-yielding base by driving piles etc. Wood pieces are kept ready to be inserted and fixed in the gaps caused by the tilts of the well being rectified.
Pushing by jacks. ➔ The well may be pushed by force applied by hydraulic or mechanical jack on the tilted side of the wells.
11 Caisson Disease ➔ Caisson Disease or Decompression Sickness (DCS) is a condition in which rapid changes of pressure in an environment causes gases to form bubbles of gas,mainly nitrogen. ➔ While working in compressed air, nitrogen is breathed in and is dissolved in the blood and tissues. ➔ Subsequently, nitrogen leaves the blood and tissues and forms into air bubbles when they come back to normal pressure. ➔ Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death
Following are the signs and symptoms of Caisson Disease .
1. Pain in the joints 2. Tingling, numbness or paralysis 3. Fatigue 4. Itchy skin or a blotchy skin rash 5. Vertigo or dizziness 6. Confusion and personality changes 7. Amnesia 8. Unconsciousness
