Limit of real valued functions

re
Sanket Tikare
Deaprtment of Mathematics,

ika
Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College (Autonomous),
Mumbai, Maharashtra 400 086, INDIA.

1 Limit of a Function
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Definition 1.1. Let J ⊂ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function. We
say that lim f (x) exists if there exists ℓ ∈ R such that for any given ε > 0, there exists δ > 0
x→a
for all x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ < ε.
ke
If lim f (x) exists, then we say that the limit of a function f as x tends to a exists.
x→a
In terms of quantifiers, we can express as follows:

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J with 0 < |x − a| < J, f (x) − ℓ < ε

n

In symbol, we write lim f (x) = ℓ.

x→a

Proposition 1.1. Let f : J \ {a} → R be given and a ∈ J. Then if lim f (x) exists, it is unique.
Sa

x→a

Proof. If possible, suppose lim f (x) = ℓ and lim f (x) = m and further ℓ ̸= m.
x→a x→a
Let ε > 0 be arbitrary. Since lim f (x) = ℓ, there exists δ1 > 0 such that for all x ∈ J satisfying
x→a
0 < |x − a| < δ1 ,
ε
f (x) − ℓ < . (1)
2
Since lim f (x) = m, there exists δ2 > 0 such that for all x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ2 ,
x→a

ε
f (x) − m < . (2)
2
1
Now choose δ := min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then both (1) and (2) holds and thus for all x ∈ J satisfying
0 < |x − a| < δ,
ε ε
f (x) − ℓ < and f (x) − m < .
2 2
Subsequently,

re
|ℓ − m| = ℓ − f (x) + f (x) − m

≤ f (x) − ℓ + f (x) − m

< ε.

ika
Since ε > 0 is arbitrary, we have ℓ = m and conclude that the limit is unique.

Definition 1.2. (Sequential definition) Suppose f : J \ {a} ⊂ R → R and a ∈ R. A real

{ }
number ℓ is called the limit of f at a point a if limit of sequence f (xn ) exists and equals ℓ
for any sequence {xn } converging to a such that xn ̸= a for all n ∈ N and xn ∈ J.
tT
Proposition 1.2. lim f (x) = ℓ if and only if lim f (xn ) = ℓ for every sequence {xn } con-
x→a n→∞
verging to a (xn ̸= a).

Proof. Suppose lim f (x) = ℓ and {xn } is a sequence in the domain of f with xn → a and
x→a
ke
xn ̸= a for all n ∈ N.
Let ε > 0 be given. Then there exists δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ dom(f ) satisfying 0 <
|x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ < ε.
Since xn → a and xn ̸= a for all n ∈ N, there is an element n0 ∈ N such that 0 < |xn − a| < δ,
n

for all n ≥ n0 .
Thus, for all n ≥ n0 , f (xn ) − ℓ < ε.
Sa

Hence lim f (xn ) = ℓ.

n→∞
To prove the converse, assume lim f (x) ̸= ℓ. Then there is an ε > 0 such that for each δ > 0,
x→a
there is an x ∈ dom(f ) satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ ≥ ε.
1
Now for each n ∈ N, choose xn in the dom(f ) such that 0 < |xn −a| < and f (xn )−ℓ ≥ ε.
n
1
Then for each n ∈ N, we get 0 < |xn − a| < and f (xn ) − ℓ ≥ ε.
n
This shows that xn → a but f (xn ) does not tend to ℓ. This contradiction shows that lim f (x) =
x→a
ℓ.

2
Proposition 1.3. If lim f (x) = ℓ, then f is bounded on some deleted neighborhood of a.
x→a

Proof. Let lim f (x) = ℓ. Then there exists δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ dom(f ) satisfying
x→a
0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ < 1 (since 0 < ε < 1).
But 0 < |x − a| < δ is a deleted neighborhood of a. Thus,

re
f (x) = f (x) − ℓ + ℓ

≤ f (x) − ℓ + |ℓ|

< 1 + |ℓ|.

ika
Therefore for all x ∈ dom(f ) satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) < 1 + |ℓ| := M .
Hence f is bounded on 0 < |x − a| < δ.

Proposition 1.4. If lim f (x) = ℓ and ℓ > 0, then there exists a δ > 0 such that f (x) > 0 for
tT
x→a
0 < |x − a| < δ.

Proof. Suppose lim f (x) = ℓ and ℓ > 0. Then, by definition, for any ε > 0 there exists δ > 0
x→a
such that for all x ∈ dom(f ) satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ < ε.
ℓ ℓ ℓ ℓ
ke
Set ε := . Then we obtain f (x) − ℓ < . But this implies ℓ − < f (x) < ℓ + .
2 2 2 2
ℓ 3ℓ ℓ
That is, < f (x) < . Thus we have f (x) > .
2 2 2
Since ℓ > 0, we get f (x) > 0 for 0 < |x − a| < δ.
n

Proposition 1.5. If f (x) > 0 and lim f (x) = ℓ, then ℓ ≥ 0.

x→a

−ℓ
Sa

Proof. If possible, let ℓ < 0. Then we have > 0.

2
Since lim f (x) = ℓ, by definition, for any ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ dom(f )
x→a
satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) − ℓ < ε. ( )
−ℓ −ℓ ℓ −ℓ
Set ε := . Then we obtain f (x) − ℓ < . But this implies ℓ + < f (x) < ℓ + .
2 2 2 2
3ℓ ℓ
That is, < f (x) < . Which implies that f (x) < 0, a contradiction.
2 2
Hence we must have ℓ ≥ 0.

3
Algebra of limit of functions

Proposition 1.6. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈

/ J. Let f, g : J \ {a} → R be given
functions. Let α ∈ R. Assume that lim f (x) = ℓ and lim g(x) = m. Then
x→a x→a

1. lim αf (x) = αℓ;

x→a

re
[ ]
2. lim f (x) ± g(x) = ℓ ± m;
x→a

3. lim f (x)g(x) = ℓm;

x→a

ika
1 1
4. lim = , if g(x) ̸= 0 for all x ∈ dom(g) satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, for some
x→a g(x) m
δ > 0 and m ̸= 0;
f (x) ℓ
5. lim = , if g(x) ̸= 0 for all x ∈ dom(g) satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, for some
x→a g(x) m
δ > 0 and m ̸= 0
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Proof. Let ε > 0 be given.
ε
1. Since lim f (x) = ℓ, ∃ δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x−a| < δ, |f (x)−ℓ| < .
x→a |α|
That is, |α||f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
ke
That is, |αf (x) − αℓ| < ε.
Hence lim αf (x) = αℓ.
x→a

2. Since lim f (x) = ℓ, ∃ δ1 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , |f (x) − ℓ| <
x→a
n

ε/2.
Since lim g(x) = m, ∃ δ2 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ2 , |g(x) − m| <
x→a
Sa

ε/2.
Select δ := min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have both
|f (x) − ℓ| < ε/2 and |g(x) − m| < ε/2.
Now, ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, consider
( ) ( )
f (x) + g(x) − (ℓ + m) = f (x) − ℓ + g(x) − m

≤ |f (x) − ℓ| + |g(x) − m|

< ε/2 + ε/2.

4
 ( )
Thus, ∃ δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x−a| < δ, f (x)+g(x) −(ℓ+m) < ε.
[ ]
Hence lim f (x) + g(x) = ℓ + m.
x→a
[ ]
Similarly, we can show lim f (x) − g(x) = ℓ − m.
x→a

3. Since lim g(x) = m, ∃ δ1 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , g(x) is
x→a

re
bounded. That is, ∃ k ∈ R such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , |g(x)| < k.
Since lim f (x) = ℓ, ∃ δ2 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ2 , |f (x) − ℓ| <
x→a
ε
.
2|k|

ika
Since lim g(x) = m, ∃ δ3 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ3 , |g(x) − m| <
x→a
ε
[ ].
2 |ℓ| + 1
ε
Let us choose δ := min{δ1 , δ2 , δ3 }. Then for this δ we have |g(x)| < k, |f (x)−ℓ| < ,
2|k|
ε
and |g(x) − m| < [ ].
2 |ℓ| + 1
tT
Hence for 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have

f (x)g(x) − ℓm = f (x)g(x) − ℓg(x) + ℓg(x) − ℓm

≤ f (x)g(x) − ℓg(x) + ℓg(x) − ℓm

ke
= g(x) f (x) − ℓ + ℓ g(x) − m
ε ε
≤ |k| + ℓ [ ]
2|k| 2 |ℓ| + 1
ε ε
< +
2 2
n

= ε.
Sa

Thus, ∀ε > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x)g(x) − ℓm < ε.
Hence lim f (x)g(x) = ℓm.
x→a

4. Since lim g(x) = m ̸= 0, ∃ δ1 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 ,

x→a
|m|
|g(x) − m| < ε. We take ε < .
2
Now,
|m|
g(x) − |m| ≤ |g(x) − m| < ε < .
2

5
 |m|
This gives < g(x) .
2
|m|2
Further, ∃ δ2 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , |g(x) − m| < ε .
2
Select δ := min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then for this δ and ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ,

|m| |m|2
|g(x) − m| < and |g(x) − m| < ε .

re
2 2

Hence

1 1 g(x) − m
− =

ika
g(x) m g(x) m
g(x) − m
=
|m| g(x)
1 2
< g(x) − m
|m| |m|
2 |m|2
tT
< ε
|m|2 2
= ε.

1 1
Thus, ∀ε > 0, ∃ δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, − < ε.
g(x) m
ke
1 1
Hence lim = , if m ̸= 0 and g(x) ̸= 0 for all x ∈ dom(g) satisfying 0 < |x−a| <
x→a g(x) m
δ, for some δ > 0.

5. Since, lim g(x) = m ̸= 0 if m ̸= 0 and g(x) ̸= 0 for all x ∈ dom(g) satisfying

n

x→a
1 1
0 < |x − a| < δ, for some δ > 0, we have lim = .
x→a g(x) m
1 1
Sa

Since lim f (x) = ℓ and lim = , we can write

x→a x→a g(x) m

f (x) 1
lim = lim f (x) lim
x→a g(x) x→a x→a g(x)

1 ℓ
=ℓ = .
m m
f (x) ℓ
That is, lim = .
x→a g(x) m

6
Corollary 1.1. If f (x) < g(x) ∀x ∈ dom(f ) ∩ dom(g), and lim f (x) = ℓ and lim g(x) = m,
x→a x→a
then ℓ ≤ m.

Proof. Let us take h(x) = g(x) − f (x). Since f (x) < g(x) ∀x ∈ dom(f ) ∩ dom(g), we have
h(x) > 0. But
[ ]

re
lim h(x) = lim g(x) − f (x)
x→a x→a

= lim g(x) − lim f (x)

x→a x→a

= m − ℓ.

ika
That is, lim h(x) = m − ℓ.
x→a
Now since h(x) > 0, lim h(x) > 0, and hence we have m − ℓ > 0. That is, ℓ ≤ m.
x→a

Limit of Composite Functions

tT
Proposition 1.7. Let lim f (y) = ℓ and lim g(x) = b. Suppose for some open interval I
y→b x→a
containing a, it is true that g(x) ̸= b for any x ∈ I, except possibly x = a. Then we have
( )
lim f g(x) = ℓ.
x→a
ke

Proof. Let ε > 0 be given.

Since lim f (y) = ℓ, ∃ δ1 > 0 such that ∀y ∈ R satisfying 0 < |y − b| < δ1 , |f (y) − ℓ| < ε.
y→b
We write y = g(x), so we obtain ∀ g(x) ∈ R satisfying 0 < g(x) − b < δ1 ,
( )
f g(x) − ℓ < ε.
n

But, since lim f (x) = b, ∃ δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, |g(x) − b| < δ1 .
x→a
By assumption, g(x) ̸= b for any x ∈ I, except possibly x = a, for some open interval I
Sa

containing a.
So we can replace the condition |g(x) − b| < δ1 by the condition 0 < |g(x) − b| < δ1 , ∀x ∈ R
satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ.
Therefore we have ∀x ∈ R, 0 < |x − a| < δ, 0 < |g(x) − b| < δ1 and ∀ g(x) ∈ R satisfying
( )
0 < g(x) − b < δ1 , f g(x) − ℓ < ε.
( )
That is, ∀x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f g(x) − ℓ < ε.
( )
Hence lim f g(x) = ℓ.
x→a

7
Squeeze or Sandwich Theorem

Proposition 1.8. (The first Squeeze principle) Let f, g, h : J → R, where J is an interval and
a ∈
/ J. Assume that ∀x ∈ J, f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x) and lim f (y) = ℓ = lim g(x). Then
x→a x→a
lim h(x) = ℓ.
x→a

re
Proof. Let ε > 0 be given.
Since lim f (x) = ℓ, ∃δ1 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
x→a
That is, ℓ − ε < f (x) < ℓ + ε.

ika
Since lim g(x) = ℓ, ∃δ2 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ2 , |g(x) − ℓ| < ε.
x→a
That is, ℓ − ε < g(x) < ℓ + ε.
Let us select δ := min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then with this δ and by assumption, we have ∀x ∈ J satisfying
0 < |x − a| < δ, ℓ − ε < f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x) < ℓ + ε.
tT
That is, ℓ − ε < h(x) < ℓ + ε.
That is, |h(x) − ℓ| < ε.
Thus ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, |h(x) − ℓ| < ε.
Hence lim h(x) = ℓ.
x→a
ke

Proposition 1.9. (The second Squeeze principle) Let f, g, h : J → R, where J is an interval

and a ∈
/ J. Assume that lim g(x) = 0 and ∀x ∈ J, |f (x) − ℓ| ≤ g(x). Then lim f (x) = ℓ.
x→a x→a

Proof. Le as an exercise.

n

One sided limits

Sa

Definition 1.3. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function. We

say that lim+ f (x) exists if there exists ℓ ∈ R such that for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such
x→a
that ∀x ∈ J satisfying x > a and 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
In other words, ∀x ∈ J satisfying a < x < a + δ, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
If lim+ f (x) exists and is equal to ℓ, then we say that the right hand limit of f at a exists.
x→a

Note 1.1. Note that for the existence of the right hand limit, f (x) should be defined in (a, a+δ).

8
Definition 1.4. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function. We
say that lim− f (x) exists if there exists ℓ ∈ R such that for any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such
x→a
that ∀x ∈ J satisfying x < a and 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
In other words, ∀x ∈ J satisfying a − δ < x < a, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
If lim− f (x) exists and is equal to ℓ, then we say that the le hand limit of f at a exists.

re
x→a

Note 1.2. Note that for the existence of the le hand limit, f (x) should be defined in (a, a + δ).

Remark 1.1. The limits lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) are called one-sided limits of f at a. It is

ika
x→a x→a
possible that neither one-sided limit may exist. Also, one of them may exist without the other
existing. Also, both one-sided limit may exist and be different.

Example 1.1. 1. Let f (x) := sgn x. Then we find that lim− f (x) = −1 and lim+ f (x) = 1.
x→0 x→0
√
tT
2. Let g(x) := x. the we find that lim− g(x) does not exist but lim+ f (x) = 0.
x→0 x→0

3. Let h(x) := sin x1 . Then we find that both lim− h(x) and lim+ h(x) does not exist. (Hint:-
x→0 x→0
1 2
Use sequential criterion, take xn = nπ
and yn = (4n+1)π
.)

Proposition 1.10. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function.

ke

Then lim f (x) exists iff the one-sided limits lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) exist and equal.
x→a x→a x→a

Proof. Suppose lim f (x) exists and equals ℓ. Then for a given ε > 0 we can find a δ > 0
x→a
such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
n

Now, we know 0 < |x − a| < δ means a − δ < x < a + δ. Therefore, if x > a, x ∈ J and
0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f (x) − ℓ| ≤ ε. Thus, lim+ f (x) exists and equals ℓ.
Sa

x→a
Also, if x < a, x ∈ J and 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f (x) − ℓ| ≤ ε.
Thus, lim− f (x) exists and equals ℓ.
x→a
Conversely, assume that both the one-sided limits exist and their common value is ℓ. That is,
lim f (x) = ℓ and lim− f (x) = ℓ.
x→a+ x→a
Then ∀ε > 0, there exist δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying x > a and 0 <
|x − a| < δ1 , we have |f (x) − ℓ| ≤ ε and ∀x ∈ J satisfying x < a and 0 < |x − a| < δ1 , we
have |f (x) − ℓ| ≤ ε.

9
Let δ := min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then clearly, we have 0 < |x − a| < δ, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
Thus, lim f (x) exists and equals ℓ.
x→a

Infinite Limits

re
Definition 1.5. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function. We
say that lim f (x) = +∞, if for given M > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying
x→a
0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) > M .

ika
Definition 1.6. (Sequential definition) Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R
be a function. We say that lim f (x) = +∞, if for every sequence {xn } in J \ {a} converging
x→a
to a, the sequence {f (xn )} diverges to +∞.

Definition 1.7. Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R be a function. We

tT
say that lim f (x) = −∞, if for given m < 0 there exists δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J satisfying
x→a
0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) < m.

Definition 1.8. (Sequential definition) Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R

ke
be a function. We say that lim f (x) = −∞, if for every sequence {xn } in J \ {a} converging
x→a
to a, the sequence {f (xn )} diverges to −∞.
1
Example 1.2. If lim = +∞, then
x→3 (x − 3)2
n

(i) find δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 3| < δ implies 1

(x−3)2
> 1000
(ii) for arbitrary M > 0, find δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 3| < δ implies 1
(x−3)2
> M.
Sa

Solution: (i) We want to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 3| < δ implies (x−3)
1
2 > 1000.
√
Equivalently, (x − 3)2 < 1000
1
= 0.001. Thus, we want |x − 3| < 0.001 = 0.031632 . . .. So,
we take δ = 0.031632, or even δ = 0.03.
(ii) We want to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − 3| < δ implies 1
> M . We want
√ √ (x−3)2

(x − 3) > M . Equivalently, (x − 3) < M . We take δ = M1 .

2 1 2 1

Proposition 1.11. Suppose f (x) > 0 for all x in some deleted neighbourhood of a. Then
1
lim f (x) = +∞ if and only if lim = 0.
x→a x→a f (x)

10
 3x − 5
Example 1.3. Prove that lim = +∞.
x→2 (x − 2)2
3x − 5 0
Solution: By the algebra of limits, we have lim = = 0. Moreover, as x →
(x − 2)
x→2 2 1
2, 3x − 5 → 1, so for x sufficiently close to 2, (x−2)
3x−5
2 > 0. Thus by previous theorem
3x − 5
lim = +∞.
x→2 (x − 2)2

re
Proposition 1.12. (Algebra of infinite limits) Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let
f, g, h, k : J \ {a} → R be given functions. Then

ika
(i) lim (f (x) + g(x)) = +∞;
x→a

(ii) lim (h(x) + k(x)) = −∞;

x→a

(iii) lim (f (x)g(x)) = +∞;

x→a
tT
(iv) lim (h(x)k(x)) = +∞;
x→a

(v) lim (f (x)h(x)) = −∞;

x→a

Proposition 1.13. (Comparison test) Let J ⊆ R be an interval and a ∈ J. Let f : J \ {a} → R

ke
and g : J \ {a} → R be two functions. Suppose f (x) ≤ g(x) ∀x ∈ J \ {a}.

(i) If lim f (x) = +∞, then lim g(x) = +∞.

x→a x→a

(ii) If lim g(x) = −∞, then lim f (x) = −∞.

n

x→a x→a

Proof. (i) Suppose lim f (x) = +∞. Then, by definition, for given M > 0 ∃δ > 0 such that
x→a
Sa

∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) > M . But since f (x) ≤ g(x) ∀x ∈ J \ {a}, it follows
that ∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, g(x) > M . Thus, lim g(x) = +∞.
x→a
(ii) Suppose lim g(x) = −∞. Then, by definition, for given m < 0 ∃δ > 0 such that ∀x ∈ J
x→a
satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, g(x) < m. But since f (x) ≤ g(x) ∀x ∈ J \ {a}, it follows that
∀x ∈ J satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, f (x) < m. Thus, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a

Exercise 1.1. Investigate each of the following (use the similar algebraic properties of cos x
and sin x):

11
 1
(i) lim cos
x→a x
1
(ii) lim x cos
x→a x
1
(iii) lim cos x
x→a x

re
1 1
(iv) lim cos
x→a x x

1.1 Limits at infinity

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We now consider limits as x → +∞ or −∞. There are six definitions as follows.

Definition 1.9. Let a ∈ R and f : (a, +∞) → R be a function. We say that lim f (x) = ℓ if
x→+∞
for a given ε > 0 there exists X > 0 such that for x > X, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
tT
Definition 1.10. Let a ∈ R and f : (−∞, a) → R be a function. We say that lim f (x) = ℓ if
x→−∞
for a given ε > 0 there exists X > 0 such that for x < −X, |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.

Definition 1.11. Let f : R → R be a given function. We say that lim f (x) = +∞ if for given
x→+∞
ke
M > 0 there exists X > 0 such that for all x > X, f (x) > M .

Definition 1.12. Let f : R → R be a given function. We say that lim f (x) = +∞ if for given
x→−∞
M > 0 there exists X > 0 such that for all x < −X, f (x) > M .
n

Definition 1.13. Let f : R → R be a given function. We say that lim f (x) = −∞ if for given
x→+∞
m < 0 there exists X > 0 such that for all x > X, f (x) < m.
Sa

Definition 1.14. Let f : R → R be a given function. We say that lim f (x) = −∞ if for given
x→−∞
m < 0 there exists X > 0 such that for all x < −X, f (x) < m.

Definition 1.15. (Sequential definition) Let a ∈ R and f : (a, +∞) → R be a function. We say
that lim f (x) = ℓ if for every sequence {xn } in (a, +∞) diverging to +∞, the sequence
x→+∞
{f (xn )} converges to ℓ.

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Example 1.4. Prove that lim (5 − 4x) = −∞.
x→+∞
M +5
Solution: Let M > 0. Choose N = 4
. Then
M +5
x > N =⇒ x >
4
=⇒ 4x > M + 5

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=⇒ 4x − 5 > M

=⇒ 5 − 4x < −M.

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Thus, by definition, lim (5 − 4x) = −∞.
x→+∞

Proposition 1.14. (Fundamental limits)

(i) ∀n ∈ N, lim xn = +∞;

x→+∞
tT
(ii) ∀n ∈ N, if n is even, then lim xn = +∞;
x→−∞

(ii) ∀n ∈ N, if n is odd, then lim xn = −∞;

x→−∞

Proof. (i) Let n ∈ N be fixed, and M > 0. Choose N + M + 1. Then

ke

x > N =⇒ x > 1 and x > M

=⇒ xn > x and x > M

=⇒ xn > M.
n

Thus, by definition, lim xn = +∞.

x→+∞
(ii) Let n ∈ N be even and fixed, and M > 0. Then ∃k ∈ N such that n = 2k. Choose
Sa

N + M + 1. Then

x < −N =⇒ −x > N

=⇒ |x| = −x > N > 1 and |x| = −x > M

=⇒ x2k = |x|2k > |x| > M

=⇒ x2k > M

=⇒ xn > M.

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Thus, by definition, lim xn = +∞.
x→−∞
(iii) Exercise.
( )
1
Proposition 1.15. (i) lim+ f (x) = ℓ (finite) if and only if lim f = ℓ;
x→0 x→+∞ x
( )
1

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(ii) lim− f (x) = ℓ (finite) if and only if lim f = ℓ.
x→0 x→−∞ x
Proof. (i) Suppose lim+ f (x) = ℓ. Let ε > 0. Then ∃ > 0 such that 0 < x < δ implies
x→0
1
|f (x) − ℓ| < ε. Let M = . Then

ika
δ
( )
1 1 1
x > M =⇒ 0 < < = δ =⇒ f − ℓ < ε.
x M x
( )
1
Thus, lim f = ℓ.
x→+∞ x ( )
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1
Conversely, Suppose lim f = ℓ. Then ∃M > 0 such that x > M implies
x→+∞ x
( )
1
f − ℓ < ε.
x
1
ke
Let δ = . Then δ > 0 and
M
1 1
0 < x < δ =⇒ x < =⇒ > M =⇒ |f (x) − ℓ| < ε.
M x
n

Thus, lim+ f (x) = ℓ.

x→0
(ii) Exercise.
Sa

Proposition 1.16. Let a ∈ R and f : (a, +∞) → R be a function.

(i) Suppose f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, +∞). Then

1
lim f (x) = +∞ if and only if lim = 0.
x→+∞ x→+∞ f (x)

(ii) Suppose f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, +∞). Then

1
lim f (x) = −∞ if and only if lim = 0.
x→+∞ x→+∞ f (x)

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Proposition 1.17. Let a ∈ R and f : (−∞, a) → R be a function.

(i) Suppose f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, a). Then

1
lim f (x) = +∞ if and only if lim = 0.
x→−∞ x→−∞ f (x)

re
(ii) Suppose f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, a). Then

1
lim f (x) = −∞ if and only if lim = 0.
x→−∞ x→−∞ f (x)

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Proposition 1.18. (Squeeze principle) Let a ∈ R and f, g, h : (a, +∞) → R be given functions.
If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ℓ and f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x), then lim h(x) = ℓ.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞

Proposition 1.19. (Limit preserve inequality) Let a ∈ R and f, g : (a, +∞) → R be two func-
tions such that lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist and f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ (a, +∞), then
tT
x→+∞ x→+∞
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→+∞ x→+∞

Proposition 1.20. (Cacuhy criterion for limits of functions at infinity) Let a ∈ R and f : (a, +∞) →
R be given function. Then lim f (x) if and only if ∀ε > 0, ∃N > 0 such that x, y ∈ (a, +∞),
ke
x→+∞
x, y > N implies |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ ε.

Proposition 1.21. Let a ∈ R and f : (a, +∞) → R be a monotone increasing function.

(i) If f is bounded above on (a, +∞), then lim f (x) = sup

n

f (x).
x→+∞ x∈(a,+∞)

(ii) If f is bounded below on (a, +∞), then lim+ f (x) = inf f (x).
Sa

x→a x∈(a,+∞)

(iii) If f is unbounded above on (a, +∞), then lim f (x) = +∞.

x→+∞

(iv) If f is unbounded below on (a, +∞), then lim+ f (x) = −∞.

x→a

Note 1.3. Similiar proposition can be formulated for a monotone decreasing function f .

Remark 1.2. The above propositions remain true if +∞ is replaced by −∞.

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