(CLASS XII) TUITION - PHYSICS

CHAPTER - 03
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current
Current is the flow of charges. The strength of current passing through a given cross-sectional area
of the conductor is the amount of charge flowing per unit time through that area.

Thus if a net charge Q flows in time t, the current, I  Q / t .

If the rate of flow of charge is constant and dose not varies with time, the current is said to be steady.
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, current is not steady. ie it is variable.

Q dQ
If current is variable, then current at any instant is given by I  
t dt
Current Density (J)

1
Current flowing per unit area is called current density J. Thus J  ; A= cross sectional area.
A
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
i.e., V  I or V  IR

V
R ; where R is called resistance.
I


V

I

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Resistance and Resistivity

“The electrical resistance of a conductor is the obstruction posed by the conductor to the flow of
electric current through it.” It depends on length and area of cross section as :

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R  ;  = resistivity of the material.
A

SI unit of resistance is ohm   

Note: If a wire is stretches, length increases but area decreases because volume remains constant.
It conductor is stretched or compressed to n times the original length then,

l   nl  R   n 2 R
Resistivity
It is defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit length and of unit area of cross section.

RA

l

SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre   m  .

It depends on nature of material and physical conditions like pressure, temperature etc.
Conductance

1
Reciprocal of resistance, G 
R
SI unit : ohm–1 or mho or siemen (S).
Conductivity

1
It is the reciprocal of resistivity,  


SI unit of conductivity is ohm–1m–1 or Sm–1.

j  E
Where j = current density and E = electric field
Electric Current and Conductors
When no electric field is present :
The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion. During motion electrons collide with the fixed
ions. The direction of its velocity after the collision is completely random. The average velocity of
electrons will be zero. So, there will be no net electric current.
When an electric field is present:-

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The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus move to neutralise the
charges and constitute an electric current. Hence there will be a current for a very short while and no
current thereafter.
To maintain a steady electric field in the body of the conductor we use cells or batteries.
Drift Velocity
In a metallic conductor, there are a large number of free electrons. They wander freely through
the conductor with very high velocity of the order of 106 m/s since their mass is very small. These
electrons collide with +ve metal ions and change their directions. The velocity of electrons are randomly
distributed in all directions so that the net flow of electrons through the wire in one-way or the other is
zero.
When the conductor is connected to a battery, an electric field is set up along the length of
conductor from +ve to –ve terminal. Due to this field, the electrons flows continuously from –ve to
+ve terminal. During motion, they collide with metallic atoms. During a short time interval between
collisions, each electron accelerates and gains an extra velocity towards +ve terminal. But this extra
velocity is destroyed at each collision. The net result is that, the electrons in addition to their random
motion, in all possible direction with very high speed, acquire a small speed called drift speed towards
+ve terminal ie opposite to field direction.
Thus drift velocity may be defined as the average velocity acquired by a free electron under
an external electric field.
Now, consider a metallic wire of cross-sectional area A in which a current I is flowing. Let the
number of electrons/unit volume (number density) be n. Consider a cylinder XY in the conductor.
When pd is applied, all those electrons which are in the cylinder of length XY will pass through the
section X in one second with a drift velocity vd.

 XY  vd
Now, volume of cylinder XY = Avd.
Number of electrons in this volume = nAvd.
All there electrons pass through the section X. Now as each electron carries a charge e, the
total charge flowing per second through an area A is neavd.
But rate of flow of charge is current.
Therefore, I=neavd.

I
Or drift velocity, v d  neA

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Note: The force F acting on an electron moving in an electric field, E, F= -eE

eE
i.e, ma = -e E. or a   . m = mass of electron
m

Now drift velocity, vd  a  ; where  is the relaxation i.e. the average time between two successive
collisions.

e e V
Therefore v d  E .......(1) i.e. vd 
m m   

Therefore v d  E .

e
Here   is called mobility of electrons.
m

V
Therefore, v d  E     ; where V is the pd between the ends of conductor of length  .

Derivation of Ohm’s law

We know, Current, I  neAvd ....................(1)

e V
Also drift velocity, v d  ..................(2)
m   

e V  ne 2  A
Substuting (2) in (1); I  neA
m   
i.e. I   V  Or I  V ; which is Ohm’s law.
m 

V m   m
But R  R    ; where  = resistivity.
.   2
I ne 2  A A ne 

ne2 
Conductivity,   So conductivity depends on number of charge carriers n.
m
Limitations of Ohm’s law
1. Certain materials do not obey Ohm’s law. The deviations of Ohm’s law are of the following types
V stops to be proportional to I .

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 (CLASS XII) TUITION - PHYSICS

2. The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. If I is the current for a certain V, the
reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce current of the same
magnitude as I in the opposite direction.

3. The relation between V and I is not unique ie. there is more than one value of V for the same
current I.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature. The resistivity of a
metallic conductor is approximately given by,

T  0 1    T  T0  

Where 0 is the resistivity at a reference temperature T0.

T is the resistivity at a temperature T

 is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity

T
 1    T  T0 
0 

T
 1    T  T0 
0

T  0
   T  T0 
0

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T  0

0  T  T0 

The dimension of  is [Temperature]–1 and unit is K–1.

When temp increases, if the resistivity increases, then  is positive
When temp increases, if the resistivity decreases, then  is negative
For metals
For metals,  is positive ie, when temp increases, the resistivity also increases

1 m 1
  2 
 ne  
When temperature increases, the collisions of free electrons increases, relaxation time
decreases and hence the resistivity increases.

For insulators and semiconductors,

For insulators and semiconductors,  is negative ie., when temp increases, the resistivity
decreases.

1 m 1
  2 
 ne  n
When temp increases, the number n of free electrons per unit volume increases, and hence the
resistivity decreases.

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For Nichrome, Manganin and constantan

Nichrome (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium), Manganin and constantan exhibit a
very weak dependence of resistivity with temperature. These materials are this widely used in wire
bound standard resistors since their resistance values would change very little with temperatures.

Resistors
Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of two major types:
wire bound resistors and carbon resistors.
 Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz., manganin, constantan, nichrome
or similar ones.
 Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon resistors are compact,
inexpensive and thus find extensive use in electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and
hence their values are given using a colour code.
Colour Code of Resistors

Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance % 

0
Black 0 10 or 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 101 5
2
Silver 10 10
Nocolour 20

 The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant figures of the resistance in ohms.
 The third band indicates the decimal multiplier..

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 The last band stands for tolerance. Sometimes, this last band is absent and that indicates a tolerance
of 20%.

Combination of resistors
Resistors in series

In series connection same current pass through all resistors. The potential drop is different for each
resistor.

V1  IR1
V  V1  V2  V3 V2  IR 2
V  IR1  IR 2  IR 3 .................................(1) V3  IR 3

If all the resistors are replaced with a single effective resistance R, with same potential V and current I.
V= IR ................................(2)
From (1) and (2)

IR  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3

R  R1  R 2  R 3
 For n of resistors, the equivalent resistance is, R= R1 + R2 + ..........+ Rn
 If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is,

R   nR
Resistors in parallel

In parallel connection the potential drop across all resistors are same, but the currents through each

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resistor are different.

I1  V / R1
I  I1  I 2  I3
I2  V / R 2
V V V ........................(1)
I   I3  V / R 3
R1 R 2 R 3
If three resistors are replaced by a single resistor of effective resistance R with same potential V
and current I

V
I .....................................(2)
R

V V V V
From equations (1) and (2) R  R  R  R
1 2 3

1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1
 For 2 of resistors, the equivalent resistance is, R  R  R
1 2

R 1R 2
R
R1  R 2

 For n of resistors, the equivalent resistance is

1 1 1 1
   ... ... ... ... 
R R1 R 2 Rn

R
 If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is, R  
n
Internal resistance of a cell.
When a cell is connected to an external circuit, a current will flow from the +ve terminal to the –
ve terminal through the resistance. Since current flows in closed path, the same current will flow
through the cell from –ve terminal to +ve terminal.

The medium of cell (electrolyte) offers a resistance to the flow of current through it. This is
known as the internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance is in series with external resistance.
The internal resistance depends on (1) the distance between electrodes of the cell (2) surface area
of electrodes (3) the nature of electrolyte (4) the amount of current drawn from the cell.
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NB e.m.f and Terminal Potential Difference of a cell.

It is clear that the p.d between the terminals of a cell, when it is sending and not sending a
current, are different.
The p.d between the terminals of a cell, when it is not sending a current, is called electromotive
force (e.m.f). Here it is ‘E’.
The p.d between the terminals of a cell, when it is sending a current, is called terminal p.d or
voltage (V)
Let an external resistance R connected in series to a cell of emf R and internal resistance r. Now
total resistance of the circuit = (R + r).
If I is the current drawn from the cell, then emf of cell, E = I (R+r) .............(1)
From (1), E= IR + Ir = V+Ir ; Where V= IR is known as the terminal pd or the external voltage.
V  E  Ir ...............(2)

E
Also I  ............(3) Therefore terminal pd is always less than the emf by an amount equal
Rr
to the potential drop across the internal resistance of the cell. This internal potential drop is lost volt.

emf EV
Now current  total resistance I If I  0 : E  V .
r
Thus emf of a cell is the terminal pd when no current is drawn from it. OR emf of a cell is equal to
open circuit terminal pd of the cell.
Note: For a cell, E = V + Ir. If internal resistance is zero, E = V. ie the external voltage is same and
independent of resistance R. Now the cell is called a constant voltage source.
If the internal resistance is very large, ie r >>>R, then and the current drawn from the cell is
constant and independent of external resistance R. A cell of very large internal resistance is called
constant current source.
NB Kirchoff’s Laws:
a) First law: (Junction rule)
“The algebraic sum of currents meeting at any junction in a closed circuit is zero. ie the total
current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the junction”.

Let currents I1 and I2 enter the junction O and currents I3, I4 and I5 leave the junction as in figure. Taking
the current flowing towards the junction as positive and flowing away from the junction as negative.

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 (CLASS XII) TUITION - PHYSICS

I1  I 2  I3  I 4  I5  0 Or I1  I 2  I3  I 4  I5  0
Thus total current reaching the junction is equal to total current leaving the junction.
b) Second law or loop rule.
“In any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the product of the current and resistance in each part of
the circuit is equal to the net emf in the circuit. OR Around any closed path in a circuit, the algebraic
sum of all changes of potential is zero”.

Consider the given figure. Applying Kirchoff’s second law to closed circuit ABCDE1A, I1R 1  I3 R 3  E1

For closed circuit ABCDE2A; I2 R 2  I3 R 3  E 2

For closed circuit AE2DE1A; I1R1  I2 R 2  E1  E 2

Note : Kirchoff’s laws prove the conservation of charge and energy.

NB The Wheatstone Bridge – C. F. Wheatstone – 1833
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances P, Q, R, and S connected in the manner
as shown in fig. A cell is connected between the points A and C and a galvanometer is connected
between the points B and D through a key K. The currents through various branches are indicated in
figure.

Let the current drawn from battery splits at A into I1and I2. Now if one resistance (say R) is so
adjusted that no current flows through the galvanometer G, then the currents and reach the point C
where they recombine to form current .

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When no current flows through the galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced. ie Ig = 0
Applying Kirchoff’s loop rule in ABDA and BCDB;

I1P  I g G  I 2 R  0 i.e. I1P  0  I 2 R  0

Or I1P  I 2 R .............(1)

I1Q  I 2S  I g G  0 Or I1Q  I 2S  0  0

i.e. I1Q  I2S ............(2)

1  P  R
 2 Q S
This is the condition for balance for a Wheatstone bridge.
If we know any three resistances, we can find the fourth resistance from the above equation
Meter Bridge
It is an electrical device used to determine the resistance and hence resistivity of a given wire/conductor.

Principle : Wheatsone’s Bridge.

Theory and working : The 1 meter long wire acts as (R+S) of Wheatsone bridge and P(X) and Q(R)
fill the left and right gaps respectively. At balanced condition :

Q R R l R 100  l 
   ie., S 
P S S 100  l l
Where l is the balancing length.
Uses : Metre bridge is used to find the value of unknown resistance, resistivity etc.
Note: A meter bridge is most sensitive when all four resistances and almost equal (balance point at
the middle).

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Potentiometer

Potentiometer is a device used for, measuring potential difference accurately, comparing emfs of
two cells and measuring internal resistance of a cell etc.
Principle : When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform cross section, the potential drop
across any length of the wire is directly proportional to that length.

V  l  V  kl
Potential gradient (k) : It is the potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
Applications of potentiometer
Comparison of emfs of two primary cells
Let key a be closed then, E1 = kl1
Let key b be closed then, E2 = kl2

E1 l1
 
E 2 l2
Note: To get a null point, emf of the driver cell should be greater than the emf of each of the cells
being measured. Also the positive terminals of all cells should be connected to end A.

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Internal resistance of a primary cell

Let K1 be closed and K2 kept open then we balance the emf of the cell, E  kl1

Let K1 and K2 be closed then we get the terminal potential difference of the cell V  kl2

E l1 E
= ; We know r =   1 R
V l2 V 

 l1 
Therefore, internal resistance, r =  - 1 R
 l2 
Note: Potentiometer uses null deflection method. At balance point it does not draw any current from
the cell and thus measure the accurate emf of the cell. But a voltmeter draws small current and
therefore cannot give accurate value of emf.
Sensitivity of potentiometer
It is the measure of ability of the potentiometer to measure very small potential differences and exhibit
change in balancing length even for very small change in potential difference.

1
Sensitivity 
Potential gradient
Sensitivity of a potentiometer can be increased by :
 Increasing length of potentiometer wire
 Reducing the current in the circuit using a rheostat

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 (CLASS XII) TUITION - PHYSICS

Objective Type Questions

1. Ampere second could be the unit of

A) Power B) Conductance C) Energy D) Charge

2. Which of the following is not me same as watt ?

A) Joule/sec B) Ampere/volt

C) Ampere ×volt D) (Ampere)2 × ohm

3. A circuit contains two unequal resistance in parallel

A) Current is same in both

B) Large current flows in larger resistor

C) Potential difference across each is same

D) Smaller resistance has smaller conductance

4. Three resistance each of 3 ohm are first connected in series and then in parallel. Ratio of equivalent
resistance in both case will be

A) 1 : 9 B) 3 : 1 C) 1 : 3 D) 9 : 1

5. The resistance of 100 W, 200 V lamp is

A) 100 ohm B) 200 ohm C) 400 ohm D) 1600 ohm

6. We have three resistances each of 1 ohm. How many different values of resistance can be obtained
by different series-parallel combinations. If all the three resistances to remain in the circuit ?

A) Three B) Four C) Five D) Six

7. Two wires of the same dimensions but resistivities 1 and  2 are connected in series. The equivalent
resistivity of the combination is :

A) 2  1  2  B) 1 . 2 C)
 1  2  D) 1   2
2
8. Two wires of same material have length L & 2L and cross sectional areas 4A & A respectively. The
ratio of their specific resistance would be :

A) 1 : 2 B) 8 : 1 C) 1 : 8 D) 1 : 1

9. The colour sequence in a carbon resistor is Red, Brown & Orange. The resistance of resistor is

A) 21 103 ohm B) 23  105 ohm

C) 21 105 ohm D) 25  103 ohm

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10. The potential difference between points A & B of given figure

3V 9 3V 4V
A) B) V C) D)
2 8 4 3
11. A copper wire is so stretched that it doubles in length. How many times its resistance will change ?

A) Four times B) Two times

C) Eight time D) No change

12. Kirchhoff’s current law is based on conservation of

A) Energy B) Current C) Charge D) Voltage

13. 5 A of current is passed through a conductor. The charge flowing in one minute is :

A) SC B) 300 C C) 12 C D) 112 C

14. If the temperature of the current carrying conductor increases then the relaxation time of electrons in
the current carrying conductor :

A) Increases B) Decreases C) Remains same D) Can't say

15. If the value of electric current passing through a conductor of constant resistance is doubled, then the
power dissipation will be increased by :

A) Two times B) Half times C) Four times D) 1 4 times

16. The resistance of a wire is 10 ohm. What will be the new resistance, if it is stretched uniformly 8
times its original length.

A) 640 ohm B) 64 ohm C) 10 ohm D) 6400 ohm

17. When potential difference across a given copper wire is increased, drift velocity of free electrons :

A) Decreases B) Increases C) Remains same D) Reduce to zero

18. Which of the following has negative temperature coefficient of resistivity

A) metal B) metal & semi-conductor

C) semi conductor D) metal and alloy

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19. In the following figure, it shows current in a part of electrical circuit. Then the value of current ‘I’ is given
by ?

A) 0.3 A B) 0.5 A C) 1.3 A D) None of these

20. For insulators & semi-conductors, when temperature increases, the resistivity will :
A) Increases B) Decreases C) No change D) Either A or B

Descriptive Type Questions

1. The charge flowing through the conductor is given by :

q  t   2t 2  2t  6

A) Find the expression for current

B) What is the initial value of current

C) What is the value of current when t:1 sec

D) When does current becomes zero

2. Draw the I-V characteristics for non ohmic conductors

3. An electric current is passed through a current containing two wires of same material, connected in
parallel. If the lengths and radii of the wires are in ratio of 3:2 & 2:3, then the ratio of the current
passing through the wire will be ?
4. Derive the equation for drift velocity ?

5. Write any two limitations for ohm’s law ?

6. Explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule and loop rule

7. Arrive of the expression for balanced condition of a Wheatstone Bridge

8. Explain the working principle of a Potentiometer.

9. What are the factors in which internal resistance depends on ?

10. Explain the term current density and write the expression for finding the same

11. What is meant by sensitivity of potentiometer ?

How can we increase the sensitivity of a potentiometer

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