1 s2.0 S0141813024056642 Main

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 278 (2024) 134859
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac
Review
Chitosan-based sustainable packaging and coating technologies for

strawberry preservation: A review
Ruchir Priyadarshi a , Abir El-Araby b , Jong-Whan Rhim a, *
a
BioNanocomposite Research Center, Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, South Korea
b
Functional Ecology and Environment Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Imouzzer Street, B.P. 2202,
Fez 30050, Morocco
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Strawberry fruits are popular all over the world due to their rich organoleptic properties and enormous health
Chitosan benefits. However, it is highly susceptible to postharvest spoilage due to various factors, including moisture loss,
Active packaging films nutrient oxidation, and microbial spoilage. Recently, various researchers have studied the effect of chitosan-
Coatings
based flexible films and surface coatings on the shelf life of strawberries. Despite various reviews providing
Strawberries
general information on the effects of chitosan-based films and coatings on various food products, no review has
Shelf life extension
Sustainable food technology focused solely on their effects on postharvest preservation and the shelf life of strawberries. The purpose of this
review is to summarize the current research on chitosan-based formulations for extending the shelf life of
strawberries. Chitosan, a cationic carbohydrate polymer, possesses excellent properties such as film formation,
mechanical strength, non-toxicity, biodegradability, edibility, UV-blocking ability, antioxidant activity, and
antibacterial functionality, justifying its potential as packaging/coating material for fresh agricultural products,
including strawberries. This review covers the various factors responsible for strawberry spoilage and the
properties of chitosan that help counteract these factors. Additionally, the advantages of chitosan-based pres-
ervation technology compared to existing strawberry preservation methods were explained, efficiency was
evaluated, and future research directions were suggested.
1. Introduction Authority's Panel of Biological Hazards found that salmonella and nor-
ovirus contamination of strawberries occurred due to poor hygiene
Garden strawberries (Fragaria ananassa) are popular plants grown for practices, cross-contamination during handling, and the use of
their delicious fruits. These strawberries were first introduced in France contaminated water during the cleaning process. It turns out there are
in the 1750s by crossing two different types of wild strawberries (one inherent risks [5]. Given the significant potential for microbial
from North America and one from Chile) [1]. Strawberries are widely contamination and associated health risks, postharvest decontamination
popular for their rich flavor and health benefits, but their shelf life is treatment for strawberries is essential.
short: about one week when refrigerated and two days at room tem- A variety of techniques have been used to protect strawberries from
perature [2]. The high moisture content of strawberries (approximately microbial contamination and extend their postharvest shelf life. Chlo-
90 %) makes them particularly susceptible to microbial damage, rination, historically the most widely used method for postharvest
resulting in significant postharvest losses [3]. In particular, in Ontario, disinfection of fresh produce, has fallen out of favor in many regions due
Canada, approximately 56 % of strawberries harvested each year are to limited effectiveness, residual odor, and associated health concerns
discarded due to spoilage [4]. In addition to undergoing microbial [6]. In response, environmentally friendly alternatives covering both
degradation, strawberries have been implicated in disease outbreaks physical and chemical treatments have been designed. Physical ap-
and serve as vectors for pathogenic microorganisms. For example, a proaches such as high-pressure processing (HPP) [7], intense pulsed
large outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis in Germany in 2012, light (IPL) treatment [8], and refrigeration [9] have attracted attention
affecting >11,000 people, was blamed on frozen strawberries imported along with chemical methods such as electrolyzed oxidizing water
from China [5]. A study conducted by the European Food Safety (EOW) [10], organic acids [11], ozone [12], chlorine dioxide [13], and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.-W. Rhim).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.134859
Received 4 June 2024; Received in revised form 7 August 2024; Accepted 17 August 2024
Available online 18 August 2024
0141-8130/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
R. Priyadarshi et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 278 (2024) 134859
ethanol vapor [14]. However, these preservation methods require The freshly ripe strawberry stage lasts only two to three days due to
dedicated facilities and cannot be used once the product reaches su- its rapid respiration rate, significant weight loss, and susceptibility to
permarket shelves. Moreover, these methods not only negatively impact fungal attack. As a result, ripening has a significant impact on fruit
the environment but are also energy-intensive, increasing costs. There- quality, postharvest life and consumer acceptance. Fruit ripening is a
fore, in addition to these processing methods, packaging also plays an multifaceted process governed by genetic programming, environmental
important role in helping to maintain the quality of strawberries until cues, and complex biochemical and physiological changes. Key ripening
they reach consumers [15]. phenomena include the appearance of a red color promoted by changes
Additionally, as environmental concerns about plastic-based pack- in chlorophyll, carotenoid or anthocyanin levels. The ripening mecha-
aging grow, the use of biopolymers in the form of flexible packaging or nism of strawberries involves complex biochemical transformations that
edible coatings is gaining popularity. Recently, biopolymer-based edible affect color, taste, and aroma. The level of auxin regulates the accu-
packaging and coating formulations have attracted special interest in the mulation of major sugars and secondary metabolites during strawberry
postharvest preservation of fresh produce [16]. Among commonly used ripening. Auxin present in the achene portion of the fruit delays the
biopolymers, chitosan is of great interest to food packaging researchers ripening of the flesh, and consequently, color, texture, flavor, aroma and
due to its abundance, safety, edibility, antibacterial properties, nutritional content are influenced by climate and genetic factors
biocompatibility, and film-forming properties [17]. Due to these prop- [30,31].
erties, several researchers have reported using chitosan to package and Anthocyanin is the main pigment responsible for the red color of
coat a variety of fresh agricultural products, including strawberries, strawberries, and approximately 25 varieties have been reported [32].
successfully improving their postharvest shelf life [18,19]. Although Anthocyanins, found mainly in the outer layer of fruit, represent the
there are some interesting reviews on chitosan's ability to preserve fresh most important phenolic compounds and account for nearly 40 % of the
produce, no full-text articles have independently reviewed this bio- total phenolic content [33]. Among the anthocyanin pigments, pelar-
polymer's ability to preserve strawberries, a highly valuable seasonal gonidin 3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin 3-O-
fruit. glucoside are the most abundant in strawberry fruit [34]. Pelargonidin
Therefore, this review aims to specifically discuss the application of 3-O-glucoside has a bright red color, while cyanidin 3-O-glucoside has a
chitosan for strawberry postharvest preservation in the form of pack- darker red color [35]. During the early stages of fruit development,
aging and edible coatings. First, the postharvest physiology of straw- auxin and gibberellic acid cooperate to orchestrate strawberry fruit
berry fruit, including ripening and decay, was briefly described. We also ripening [36].
discussed the properties of chitosan that are important for strawberry Senescence greatly affects the postharvest shelf life of strawberries
postharvest preservation and how they may affect postharvest physi- by accelerating the decomposition process, leading to quality loss [37].
ology. Finally, we discussed the research conducted so far on the Fruit softening during senescence is a major factor affecting the post-
application of chitosan in strawberry postharvest preservation, harvest life of many fruits. During fruit softening, cell wall destruction
providing a future outlook for this field of research. and reduced cell wall adhesion occur. The major modifications during
cell wall modification include glycan matrix depolymerization, pectin
2. Postharvest physiology and spoilage of strawberry fruit depolymerization, and partial loss of sugars [38]. These changes can
induce cell wall relaxation, potentially resulting in swelling and
2.1. Growth, ripening, and senescence of strawberry increased porosity. This process is accompanied by a decrease in meta-
bolic function, which leads to a decrease in resistance to pathogens and
The chemical composition of strawberry fruits is greatly influenced increased susceptibility to fungal infections and spoilage. Due to loss of
by various factors such as genotype, agricultural practices, climatic rigidity and structural integrity, strawberries are susceptible to physical
conditions, and maturity [20,21]. In addition to these factors, the damage during handling and transportation. Senescence also reduces
nutritional value of strawberries is closely related to their components, taste, color, and nutritional value due to enzyme activity that breaks
such as soluble sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and secondary me- down sugars, organic acids, and pigments [37]. The degradative en-
tabolites [22]. Among these, the most abundant soluble sugars in zymes such as hydrolases, lyases, and transglycosylases have direct ac-
strawberries include glucose, fructose, and sucrose, which are synthe- cess to the substrate during this process. These combined effects of
sized by plants during photosynthesis and then transported to the fruit as senescence shorten shelf life, limiting the marketability and consumer
they ripen [23]. The major organic acids in strawberries include citrate, appeal of strawberries after harvest.
malate, and quinine, while the minor acids include acetic acid, oxalate,
succinate, isocitrate, fumarate, and aconite. The taste profile of straw- 2.2. Postharvest spoilage
berries is greatly influenced by the balance between total sugars and
organic acids, with the ratio playing an important role [24]. Moreover, Strawberries are perishable, so even if they are healthy at the time of
the geographic origin of strawberries has been shown to influence their harvest, they can easily rot. However, several preharvest factors can
sugar-to-acid ratio [25]. help reduce the incidence of rot, including specific postharvest practices
In addition to sugars, other important indicators of fruit ripening such as plant spacing, weed control, air flow between plants, fungicide
include amino acids, phenolic compounds, and volatile substances. The application, storage and handling [39]. Most spoilage related to the
aroma of strawberry fruit is determined by volatile substances produced storage and shelf life of strawberries is caused by fungal spoilage. Among
during fruit development [26]. About 280 volatiles have been identified these, the most economically damaging pathogen affecting strawberries
among strawberry varieties, of which esters (methyl and ethyl) consti- is Botrytis cinerea, followed by Rhizopus stolonifer, along with various
tute 25–90 %. Aldehydes such as 2- and 3-hexenal provide the aroma of fungi of Mucor species, Colletotrichum species, and Penicillium species
green or fleshy fruits, while the sweet aroma is attributed to furanone [40,41].
(furaneol and mesifurane) [27]. Moreover, water-soluble compounds The most common rot affecting strawberries is caused by gray mold,
such as amino acids can significantly contribute to fruit flavor [28]. The which is caused by the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea [42].
interactions of hormones, pigments, sugar metabolism, acids, and vol- B. cinerea can infect flowers or fruits at any stage of development.
atile compounds play a pivotal role in the biochemistry of strawberry Favorable conditions for the development of the disease include tem-
fruit ripening [29]. The main biochemical processes involved in this peratures that typically range from 18 to 25 ◦ C and humidity levels
ripening process include the breakdown of starch and chlorophyll, the exceeding 85 %. Infection usually occurs through punctures or me-
synthesis of pigments and volatile compounds, and the accumulation of chanical wounds on the fruit surface. A clear sign of this disease is the
sugars and organic acids. presence of gray, fluffy mycelium on the surface of the fruit. During the
2
primary infection stage, B. cinerea targets flower organs, including sta- 3. Chitosan and its properties as food packaging/coating
mens, petals, and sepals, potentially causing subsequent infections in the material
fruit. A study based on transcriptome analysis showed that unripe
strawberry fruits generally possess innate immunity, making them 3.1. Physicochemical properties and structure-property relationship
resistant to fungal rot [43]. The main diagnostic symptom associated
with gray mold is the presence of soft, rotten fruit covered in gray mold. Chitosan/chitin is the second most abundant natural polysaccharide
Soft rot (also known as Rhizopus rot or Mucor rot) is caused by the found in nature after cellulose [17,47]. Although it can be extracted
genera Rhizopus and Mucor, which are common plant pathogens asso- from a variety of sources, marine crustacean shells are typically the
ciated with postharvest storage of strawberries [44]. These pathogens primary source of chitosan [47]. The aquaculture industry is experi-
are ubiquitous in soil, air, and plant debris and can be transmitted by air encing rapid growth to meet current demand. However, disposing of
currents, wind, and certain invertebrates [45]. Strawberry fruits are crustacean shells poses environmental problems for the aquaculture
particularly susceptible to infection because they are typically very close industry. Recovering these shells from a variety of sources may provide
to the soil. Spores of these pathogens can spread easily, especially when the industry with the opportunity to produce chitosan and its derivatives
it rains. Both pathogens require mechanical damage to the fruit surface at competitive costs while addressing environmental concerns [47].
to initiate infection, after which the mycelium can rapidly multiply. In Chitosan, a partially deacetylated derivative of chitin, is a hetero-
the early stages of infection, black sporangia may appear on the fruit. polysaccharide comprising 2-amino-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose and 2-
Common symptoms of soft rot infection include loss of firmness, water acetamido-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose residue [47]. Its primary property
absorption and fruit leakage, all caused by the coordinated action of is determined by the presence of three distinct functional groups (pri-
enzymes that break down fruit tissue, such as polygalacturonases, mary -OH, secondary -OH, and -NH2) and its water solubility in acidic
xylanases, cellulases and amylases [46]. However, cooling fruit imme- pH [17]. Because of these reactive groups, chitosan exhibits inhibitory
diately after harvest can help alleviate soft rot infections. effects against a broad spectrum of bacteria and fungi [17,47]. Chitosan
Anthracnose in strawberries is mainly caused by infection with Col- has a variety of uses and can be used in a variety of formulations,
letotrichum species, particularly Colletotrichum acutatum [44]. Disease including food packaging [48,49]. In addition to serving as functional
outbreaks can occur at any stage, from preharvest to postharvest polymers, chitosan-based edible packaging and coating formulations
handling and storage. These plant pathogens may persist in plant debris, can serve as carriers for functional ingredients (e.g., antibacterial agents,
infected fruit, or soil. Conditions favorable for infection and disease texture enhancers, nutraceuticals) to improve the safety, quality, and
development typically include high humidity, damaged or bruised fruit, functionality of fruits and vegetables [19].
and warm temperatures. Anthracnose usually appears as dark, pitted The properties of chitosan are interconnected, giving it unique
lesions on fruit. These lesions may appear as small, round spots or large, properties. These properties mainly result from the presence of amine
well-circumscribed spots. Infected strawberries can also develop sec- groups within the chitosan chains, which are formed through the
ondary mold growth, making the problem even worse [46]. In moist deacetylation of chitin [17]. Therefore, the degree of deacetylation plays
environments, pink or orange spore masses may form, and lesions may an important role in determining the properties of chitosan. The degree
appear less depressed and brown. The main causes of strawberry of protonation of the amine groups determines the charge density along
anthracnose outbreaks include improper handling practices, inadequate the chitosan chain and directly affects its solubility in aqueous media
temperature and humidity control during storage and transportation, [17]. Changing the pH can affect the protonation of these amine groups,
and long-term storage conditions. thereby altering the charge density and solubility of chitosan [17]. Also,
Other factors that can lead to mold infestation include bruises, insect the chain conformation of chitosan is influenced by charge density, as
damage, and mechanical injuries. It is important to take appropriate repulsion between similarly charged groups induces chain extension
disease control measures to reduce postharvest rot caused by anthrac- [17]. This chain extension affects the mechanical and barrier properties
nose. Therefore, it is important to handle the fruit carefully to avoid of chitosan films, which are important in food packaging applications.
bruising or damaging it. Removing and disposing of infected or rotting Higher levels of deacetylation promote favorable interchain in-
fruit is one of the most important steps in preventing the spread of teractions, improving the dynamic rheology of chitosan solutions, which
disease. Disinfection or sanitization procedures are also recommended is important for film morphology [17]. Gelation or cross-linking is
to minimize infection and spread. Other disease control strategies another important property of chitosan in food packaging. Partial
include temperature and humidity control, disinfectant treatments, and acetylation or the addition of cross-linkers promotes gel formation,
integrated disease management approaches. resulting in films with water- and moisture-barrier properties ideal for
A sustainable way to prevent spoilage of strawberries before and packaging [17].
after harvest is to apply biopolymer-based formulations. Recently, the Additionally, the antibacterial activity of chitosan films depends on
utilization of biopolymers for the preservation of fresh and minimally the degree of deacetylation, where the charged amino groups interact
processed fruits and vegetables has been increasingly explored [16]. with microbial cell membranes, resulting in membrane degradation and
Postharvest preservation of fruits and vegetables can be achieved by cell death [17,50]. The presence of charged amine groups also gives
packaging these products using biopolymers in the form of flexible chitosan ionic binding properties, allowing it to form complexes with
active packaging films or by applying biopolymer-based coatings metal ions or nanoparticles, making it suitable for antibacterial food
directly to the surface. Biopolymers are rapidly gaining interest in packaging [50–52]. The antibacterial properties of chitosan have been
postharvest preservation technologies due to their edibility, biocom- most widely studied because they are distinct from other poly-
patibility, and sustainability. Unlike all other biopolymers, chitosan has saccharides. These properties of chitosan are also important in utilizing
unique antibacterial properties and is an interesting option for post- the polysaccharide for food packaging and preservation.
harvest preservation of strawberries [17,18]. The important properties Biodegradability is another important property sought in food
of chitosan that make it suitable for this application are described in the packaging materials. The enzymatically degradable properties of chi-
following section. tosan make it environmentally friendly, as it can be degraded by hy-
drolytic enzymes widely found in nature [53,54]. This property can also
be utilized in edible coatings and films because lysozyme present in body
fluids easily digests chitosan, making it suitable for consumption with
food [54].
The antioxidant activity of chitosan, along with its antibacterial
properties, biodegradability, and digestibility, are also important from
3
the perspective of applications in food packaging and preservation. collapse and leak intracellular fluid, resulting in cell death [18]. In
Therefore, these properties are discussed in detail in the following addition to these extracellular interaction mechanisms, chitosan also
sections. helps eliminate microorganisms by entering microbial cells and inter-
fering with normal metabolic processes. When low molecular weight
chitosan penetrates the cell nucleus, it binds to DNA molecules and in-
3.2. Antimicrobial activity hibits the translation of DNA into RNA [18]. It also chelates essential
trace metals required for microbial metabolism, reducing their avail-
Chitosan is probably the only natural polysaccharide that exhibits ability to microorganisms, inhibiting metabolic processes and resulting
antibacterial activity against bacteria, molds, and yeast [18]. The anti- in cell death [17].
bacterial effect depends on the cationic, degree of deacetylation (DA), As the first line of defense against microorganisms, chitosan coating
concentration, duration of exposure and the specific test organism forms a protective layer on the food surface, physically protecting the
[17,55]. Although the exact mechanism of chitosan's antibacterial ac- food from microbial attack [56]. It also restricts the exchange of gases
tivity against specific microorganisms is not clear, it is known to exhibit between the food and the external environment, inhibiting oxygen
antibacterial activity through several mechanisms contributing inde- transport and eliminating oxygen by making it unavailable to aerobic
pendently or synergistically (Fig. 1). microorganisms in the food [57]. Additionally, the formation of a
The most widely accepted mechanism for the antibacterial action of physically impermeable layer around bacterial cells by chitosan disrupts
chitosan is its chemical interaction with microbial cell membranes. The essential solute exchange between the cell interior and exterior, result-
cationic groups of chitosan interact with the anionic peptidoglycan ing in the breakdown of the metabolic machinery and ultimate cell death
present in the microbial cell wall, causing the microbial cell wall to
Fig. 1. Different mechanisms by which chitosan exerts antibacterial activity against spoilage microorganisms to promote strawberry preservation.
(Adapted with permission from [18]. Copyright (2024) Elsevier.)
4
[58]. dose. The researchers observed a similar trend where the scavenging
Another interesting mechanism by which chitosan protects against activity increased against hydroxyl radicals as well as superoxide anions
microbial attack on food is by inducing a defense response by coated as the molecular weight of chitosan decreased. El-Rehim et al. also
fresh produce [18]. Chitosan, which coats fruits and vegetables, is performed a similar experiment where they irradiated chitosan using an
known to activate defense-related enzymes within them and stimulate even higher dose (30 kGy) of Co-60 γ radiation, resulting in a reduction
the synthesis and release of antibacterial compounds [18]. Here, it is in its molecular weight from 1.9 × 106 Da to 9.95 × 103 Da [65]. Due to
worth noting that chitosan does not exert an antibacterial effect on its the reduced molecular weight, the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
own but induces the activation of the plant defense system against mi- (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity of chitosan increased to reach
croorganisms. Chitosan has been reported to activate the immune sys- the same level as commercially used antioxidant ascorbic acid. Both
tem by interacting with plant cell walls and generating an immune treated chitosan and ascorbic acid showed a DPPH free radical scav-
response in plants. Biochemical response cascades are triggered, enging activity of approximately 65 % at a concentration of 1 mg/mL.
resulting in the expression of genes involved in plant defense responses, Since the amine groups present in the chitosan chain are important
such as phytoalexins and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, which for the antioxidant effect, the degree of deacetylation (DD) also plays an
exhibit antibacterial activity against plant pathogens [59]. For instance, important role. Chitosan with higher DD exhibits stronger antioxidant
Liu et al. reported that the application of chitosan was effective in activity. Yen et al. performed alkaline N-deacetylation of crab shell
controlling potato tuber rot caused by Alternaria tenuissima, where it chitin for different intervals, i.e., 60, 90, and 120 min, and studied the
induced the translation and activation of various defense-related en- antioxidant activity of the resulting chitosan against DPPH free radicals
zymes, including catalase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and chiti- [66].
nase and β-1,3-glucanase [60]. It also helps increase levels of flavonoids
and lignin, which contribute to defense against pathogen attack. 3.4. Biodegradation and digestibility
Chitosan-induced antifungal activity was also reported, promoting chi-
tinase synthesis in fruits and upregulating corresponding gene expres- Chitosan is well known for its promising applications in various
sion. The fungal cell wall is composed of chitin and is, therefore, broken fields due to its biodegradability, making it a strong choice for the
down by the action of the chitinase enzyme [61]. development of sustainable materials. Environmental biodegradation
and decomposition of chitin and chitosan occur due to the complex
3.3. Antioxidant activity action of physical factors such as soil pH, temperature, humidity and
biological factors, including soil microorganisms. The degradation
Antioxidant activity is another functional property of chitosan, mechanism of chitosan involves hydrolysis by chitinase and chitosanase
which is important in food packaging applications. Researchers report enzymes, which cleave the glycosidic bonds of the polymer chain
that the antioxidant activity comes from the amino and hydroxyl func- [67,68]. This process breaks down chitosan into smaller oligomers and
tional groups present in the chitosan chains [53]. These functional eventually into monomers, mainly glucosamine. Microorganisms such
groups mainly react with hydroxyl radicals through various pathways. as bacteria and fungi play a central role in the decomposition process by
The hydroxyl functional groups of the chitosan chains react with hy- secreting chitinase to the surroundings to promote the decomposition of
droxyl free radicals, proceeding with a typical H-abstraction reaction chitosan [69].
[62]. The amino (− NH2) group is protonated to form NH+ 3 , which then A variety of chitinase- and chitosanase-producing bacterial genera,
reacts with the hydroxyl radical through an addition reaction. Alterna- such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Arthrobacter, and Streptomyces,
tively, a direct reaction occurs between free residual NH2 groups of and fungal genera, such as Beauveria and Penicillium, have been reported
chitosan and hydroxyl free radicals to form stable macromolecular [68]. Although present in every environment imaginable, most soil
radicals [62]. Like its antibacterial activity, the antioxidant activity of types are rich in microbial strains that produce chitinases, which pro-
chitosan also depends on several factors, including its molecular weight mote the breakdown of chitin and chitosan in the soil [68]. However,
and degree of deacetylation. factors such as degree of deacetylation (DD) and molecular weight (MW)
Researchers have demonstrated that the molecular weight of the have a significant impact on the rate of degradation. Chitosan with low
chitosan chain plays a major role in determining its antioxidant activity, DD and MW tends to have an improved biodegradation rate due to its
which increases as the chitosan molecular weight is decreased. Sun et al. higher affinity for enzymes compared to chitosan with high DD and MW,
used chitosan polymer with molecular weight 8.5 × 105 Da and per- which has a much slower biodegradation rate [70]. Additionally, the
formed its H2O2-mediated degradation to prepare chitosan oligomers activity of chitinase enzymes isolated from different species shows great
with different molecular weights, i.e., 2300, 3270, 6120, and 15,250 Da, variation with respect to optimal conditions. For example, the optimal
denoted as A, B, C, and D [63]. The scavenging activity of these oligo- pH of a chitinase isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is 2.5, while that
mers was studied against superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals. The of a chitinase isolated from Oreochromis niloticus has an optimal pH of
oligomer with the highest molecular weight (15,250 Da) exhibited the 9.0 [54]. Nevertheless, the biodegradation products of chitosan are non-
least antioxidant activity, whereas the one with the least molecular toxic and can be easily assimilated by microorganisms, contributing to
weight (2300 Da) displayed the highest activity. The highest tested the sustainability of the ecosystem.
oligomer concertation against superoxide anion was 35 mg/mL, at In addition to the environmental degradation of chitosan, utilizing
which the scavenging activity of oligomers A, B, C, and D was 89 %, 75 chitosan as an edible material in food preservation requires under-
%, 74 %, and 41 %, respectively. standing its in vivo degradation or metabolic processes. Chitosan, a
On the other hand, the highest concentration used against hydroxyl hydrophilic polymer, tends to be systemically absorbed by the body.
radicals was just 1.5 mg/mL, at which the oligomers showed 70 %, 65 %, Therefore, there must be an appropriate MW for kidney removal [54].
51 %, and 7 % scavenging activity, respectively. The results indicate that However, if they are larger, they can biodegrade in the body into smaller
(i) the scavenging activity increased in inverse proportion to the mo- pieces suitable for renal elimination. Biodegradation in the body can be
lecular weight of the oligomers, and (ii) the chitosan oligomers scav- chemical or enzymatic. Chemical breakdown can be a form of break-
enged hydroxyl radicals better compared to superoxide anions. In down catalyzed by acids in the stomach. On the other hand, enzymatic
another interesting study, Feng et al. irradiated chitosan solution (mo- breakdown can occur by the action of specific enzymes present in the
lecular weight = 2.1 × 105 Da) using different doses (2–20 kGy) of Co-60 body, which can hydrolyze and cleave the glucosamine-glucosamine
γ ray to degrade chitosan into low molecular weight polymers [64]. The bond, glucosamine-N-acetyl glucosamine bond, or N-acetyl glucos-
molecular weight of chitosan decreased with increasing irradiation dose, amine-N-acetyl glucosamine bond [54]. A decrease in MW characterizes
falling by 100 times to 2.1 × 103 Da when exposed to 20 kGy irradiation the degradation of chitosan and is usually analyzed by viscosity analysis
5
or gel permeation chromatography [71]. strawberry spoilage and extending the shelf life of fruit. Additionally,
In humans, chitosan degradation has been reported to occur by the chitosan film can help maintain the firmness, color, and nutritional
action of lysozyme and bacterial enzymes present in the colon, inde- content of strawberries during storage [72,73]. Studies have shown that
pendently of chitinases present in the body [54]. For example, lysozyme- pure chitosan films can effectively reduce the growth of common
mediated degradation of 50 % deacetylated chitosan was studied in vitro spoilage microorganisms such as Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer
at pH 5.5 and 37 ◦ C. A 66 % decrease in MW was observed after 4 h of in strawberries. However, by adding active functional additives to the
incubation of the polymer with the enzyme solution [71]. Additionally, chitosan-based film, the preservation of strawberries during storage can
similar to environmental degradation, the rate of chitosan degradation be further improved. Chitosan can be mixed with other biopolymers
in living organisms depends on DD, such that chitosan with higher DD such as alginate, starch, and cellulose to improve film-forming proper-
has a lower rate of degradation and vice versa [54]. Although several ties, mechanical strength, flexibility, and water vapor barrier properties,
methods and influencing factors governing the gastric digestion, sys- thereby improving the efficiency as an active packaging material for
temic degradation, and renal excretion of chitosan and chitin have been strawberries [74,75]. Chitosan-based active packaging films reduce
identified, it is necessary to improve the knowledge of the metabolic fate moisture loss during storage and transportation and inhibit microbial
of chitosan after precise ingestion for its use as an edible ingredient for growth in fruits, creating appropriate storage conditions, reducing
food preservation. Despite being widely known as a non-toxic and waste, preserving quality and extending the shelf life of strawberries.
biocompatible polysaccharide, modification of chitosan can increase or In general, chitosan-based active packaging films can control the
decrease its toxicity. Therefore, this knowledge gap needs to be filled physicochemical parameters of strawberries, including the regulation of
through future research. Nonetheless, it is approved for dietary use in moisture levels around the fruit, which is important for maintaining
several countries [53,54]. In addition, it obtained a GRAS (Generally texture and preventing dehydration [17]. These packaging films have
Recognized as Safe) substance rating from the U.S. Food and Drug antioxidant properties that preserve the nutritional quality of straw-
Administration (US-FDA), confirming its safety as a material suitable for berries by reducing oxidative stress. As a result, the fruit's vitamin C
preserving natural foods [17]. content and overall antioxidant capacity can be maintained. Chitosan-
based active films have excellent barrier properties against oxygen
4. Chitosan-based preservation of strawberries and carbon dioxide. By controlling this gas exchange between straw-
berries and the environment, chitosan-based films can help regulate
The GRAS status of chitosan provided by the FDA makes this respiration rates and delay physiological processes such as softening and
biopolymer an environmentally friendly and effective material for food decomposition [76]. Additionally, the development of active films
preservation. Chitosan-based preservation of strawberries can be ach- containing oxygen scavengers has made it possible to create a protective
ieved by two main methods: active packaging and edible coating, which atmosphere around strawberries by keeping oxygen levels within the
are capable of reducing microbial growth, delaying the ripening process, packaging low to retard mold growth. Several studies have reported the
and maintaining the overall quality of the fruit, thus extending its shelf successful application of chitosan-based active packaging films for
life. strawberry preservation [77,78].
Liu et al. studied the application of glycerol-plasticized raw chitosan
films for strawberry preservation and demonstrated that the molecular
4.1. Active packaging
weight and glycerol content of chitosan play important roles in deter-
mining the preservation properties of the resulting films [79]. They
The active packaging method uses free-standing chitosan-based films
prepared films using chitosan with different molecular weights and
to package strawberry fruits (Fig. 2). Chitosan film can inhibit the
varying glycerol ratios. Films prepared using high molecular weight
growth of mold and yeast on the surface of strawberries, reducing
Fig. 2. Chitosan-based active packaging film for postharvest preservation of strawberries.
6
chitosan (110 kDa) supplemented with 50 % (w/w) glycerol gave the added 0.3 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles in chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol blend
best results. The film maintained the highest levels of total ascorbic acid films, which provided radiation-cooling, antimicrobial, and ultraviolet
and slowed the decline in total soluble solids in packaged strawberries. shielding properties. The composite film reduced the surface tempera-
Additionally, the developed packaging material reduced weight loss and ture by 6.4 ◦ C due to its excellent radiative cooling properties in sub-
protected fruit color [79]. atmospheric conditions. Additionally, unlike polyethylene control films,
In another study, Ding et al. coated a chitosan formulation (2.5 wt%) the film provides a controlled moisture barrier, helping strawberries
on the surface of a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) film to form a double-layer maintain their weight over time while preventing mold growth from
packaging material [80]. The shelf life of strawberries packaged in moisture trapped inside the package. Due to these properties, straw-
double-layer film was 21 days. The ascorbic acid content of packaged berries packaged in the composite film were preserved without mold
fruits was higher than 65.90 (10 mg/kg) compared to 41.90 ± 2.83 (10 development for up to 7 days, showing a significant shelf life extension
mg/kg) in unpackaged strawberries, indicating that the ascorbic acid compared to commercial polyethylene films, where mold development
content of strawberries packaged with the double-layer film had better was only observed after 3 days (Fig. 3).
oxygen and antioxidant effects than the packaging film. After 21 days of Besides natural compounds and nanomaterials, enzymes have also
postharvest storage, the film maintained the fruit's pH value at 3.65. been used as an additive for chitosan-based active packaging films. For
Additionally, the chitosan-coated film helped significantly reduce instance, a recent study by Li et al. demonstrated the fabrication of
strawberry weight loss and spoilage index compared to pure PVA film, chitosan-corn protein blend film added with transglutaminase (TG) and
indicating the impact of chitosan and its functional properties on the its application for strawberry preservation [88]. They also used citrus
shelf life of packaged strawberry fruits [80]. essential oil as a functional material. The enzyme TG was responsible for
In addition to being used as a component in bilayer films, chitosan forming a crosslinked structure in the biopolymer matrix and enhanced
has also been used as a stand-alone film, with the addition of other the mechanical strength of the films, while the essential oils prevented
biopolymers to improve its properties. In a study by Yuan et al., nutrient oxidation and mold growth in the packed strawberries. The
chitosan-based active films containing Sargassum pallidum poly- composite films added with essential oils and TG enzyme displayed the
saccharide (1.2 %) showed significant results in preventing strawberry best strawberry preservation, extending the shelf life of the fruit to 10
rot. Compared to controls, the film prevented rapid mold emergence and days compared to 6 days for the control group [88]. Table 1 shows
alleviated shrinkage of packaged fruit for up to 7 days. Additionally, recent applications of chitosan-based active packaging for the post-
strawberry packaging reduced weight loss during the storage period harvest preservation of strawberries.
[81].
Recently, chitosan-based active films have been widely used to 4.2. Edible coatings
control fungal rot in strawberries. Packaging materials containing chi-
tosan and other antifungal agents inhibit mold growth while preserving Chitosan-based formulations have also been used in the form of
the organoleptic quality of strawberries stored in film, extending their edible coatings that are applied directly on the surface of strawberries.
postharvest shelf life [82,83]. Composite films based on N-succinyl Chitosan coating applied to strawberries showed significant results in
chitosan, nisin and Perilla frutescense essential oil delayed the decom- reducing microbial growth, delaying ripening, preserving cell structure,
position of strawberries during storage and extended the shelf life by 7 stabilizing anthocyanin pigments, and extending fruit shelf life [97]. The
days. The composite material not only reduced the rate of fruit weight effectiveness of chitosan coatings in preserving the quality of straw-
loss by reducing respiration and water evaporation but also delayed the berries and extending their shelf life can be enhanced by mixing them
signs of mildew by up to 5 days [84]. These active antibacterial systems with other biopolymers that improve the barrier and adhesive properties
may also be useful in preventing spoilage microorganisms from devel- of the coatings [98]. Additionally, the use of active functional additives
oping and multiplying in small crevices on the surface of strawberries in chitosan-based coating formulations can increase the preservation
during transport. effect of coated strawberries. These additives may include antibacterial
Chitosan-based blend films have also been used to fabricate antimi- agents, antioxidants, pH adjusters, moisture absorbents, and flavor en-
crobial packaging material. Wang et al. prepared a chitosan/cornstarch/ hancers. Optimization of coating formulation and application method is
cinnamaldehyde composite film for strawberry packaging, which required to achieve the desired preservative effect. [99,100]. Devel-
showed strong inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli, Rhizopus, and oping edible coatings for strawberry preservation requires strengthening
Botrytis cinerea. Packaged strawberries maintained high ascorbic acid chitosan-based formulations by incorporating natural antibacterial
content for up to 13 days (48.39 ± 2.78 mg/100 g), and the film delayed agents, antioxidants, or other active ingredients compatible with the
physical and chemical changes, stabilized fruit firmness, and conse- strawberry surface. On the other hand, applying a coating method
quently extended postharvest shelf life by up to 11 days [85]. suitable for perishable fruits (e.g., dipping or spraying) allows the
Nanoparticles have also been used alongside natural additives, such coating to form a uniform layer over the entire surface of the strawberry
as plant extracts or essential oils, to impart functional properties to the (Fig. 4).
chitosan films. An additional role played by nanoparticles is to act as a Chitosan-based edible coatings offer a promising approach to con-
reinforcing agent in the chitosan films and improve their physico- trolling physiological and biochemical changes in strawberries, helping
chemical properties [52]. In a study by Shankar et al., strawberries to extend their shelf life while maintaining quality and freshness during
packaged with chitosan-essential oil‑silver nanoparticle composite film postharvest storage. The developed coating can slow down respiration,
had stabilized spoilage levels and quality compared to unpackaged reduce ethylene production, minimize moisture loss, inhibit microbial
fruits. This film material showed strong antimicrobial activity and growth, and preserve the natural color, texture, and nutritional quality
reduced Salmonella typhimurium by 2.7 log CFU/g, Escherichia coli by 3.4 of strawberries. Chitosan-based edible coating preserves the nutritional
log CFU/g, Aspergillus niger by 2.8 log CFU/g, while exhibiting total quality of strawberries for a long period by slowing down the physico-
inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes [86]. Additionally, the addition of chemical processes that lead to nutritional loss [101,102]. Jiang et al.
silver nanoparticles and essential oils improved the tensile strength of studied the effect of pure chitosan coating on the shelf life of straw-
the films. The combination of two functional additives creates a syner- berries [103]. They analyzed the effect of chitosan with varying mo-
gistic effect to strengthen antibacterial properties and prevent straw- lecular weights (i.e., 5, 19 and 61 kDa) for this purpose. The researchers
berry rot [86]. Nanoparticles have also been used as the sole functional observed that chitosan coating with a molecular weight of 61 kDa
material in chitosan films. Recently, Huie et al. prepared microporous proved effective in reducing respiration rate and water loss in treated
chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol-based films and used them for the packaging strawberries compared to the control. The coating applied at the end of
of strawberries, aimed at enhancing their shelf life [87]. For this, they storage (11 days) maintained the pH value at 4.05 and increased
7
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic representation of the functionality provided by chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol-based microporous films for strawberry packaging, (b) Effect of
coating film on quality changes in strawberries stored at 20 ◦ C for 0, 3, 5, and 7 days. (CK: uncoated, PE: polyethylene coated, MT3: coated with microporous
chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol/TiO2 composite films).
(Adapted with permission from Huie et al. [87]. Copyright (2023) Elsevier.)
malondialdehyde content by 96 % compared to 162 % in uncoated fruits (10 %) on strawberry quality and antioxidant capacity during post-
[103]. harvest storage were evaluated. The coating reduced the weight loss of
Similar to the manufacture of chitosan-based active packaging films, the fruit and showed great robustness after 8 days of preservation, and
the coating formulation also contains active ingredients that improve the coated fruits maintained higher concentrations of phenols (28.49 mg
the shelf life of fruits. Martínez-González et al. prepared a chitosan- GAE/g), flavonoids (554.61 μg quercetin/g), and DPPH scavenging
based formulation enriched with nanostructured chitosan particles and (92.48 %) during storage [104]. Besides propolis, other plant-based
propolis extract. The effects of nanostructured chitosan/propolis coating polyphenols have also been studied as active ingredients in chitosan-
8
Table 1 firmness for a longer period. They also added oregano essential oil to the
Recent applications of chitosan-based active packaging for the postharvest formulation, which prevented microbial contamination, thus preserving
preservation of strawberries. the cell integrity and brilliant color of the coated strawberries. This
Active Packaging Main Findings References treatment preserved fruit moisture and reduced weight loss by 10.8 %
Chitosan/polyethylene glycol - Maintained the fresh [89]
compared to 37.0 % for uncoated fruit [106]. Other researchers have
composite films loaded with appearance of the strawberries used chitosan as a functional biopolymer additive to coating formula-
date palm fruit waste extract. and showed no signs of tions prepared from other biopolymers serving as the base matrix. In a
decomposition for 10 days. more recent study, Chen et al. attempted to use peach gum as a
- Slowed the growth rate of
renewable feedstock-based polysaccharide for manufacturing food
mesophilic bacteria, coliforms
and fungi on the fruit. packaging films [107]. However, they mixed peach gum film with chi-
Chitosan films incorporated with - Showed strong inhibition of [90] tosan to improve the mechanical properties due to ionic and hydrogen
Perilla frutescens leaf essential Botrytis cinerea growth in the bond interactions between the two polymers. The composite film
oil. fruit. showed excellent antibacterial activity due to chitosan, reducing E. coli
- Improved the quality
characteristics and sensory
and Staphylococcus aureus colonies by almost 99 %. Additionally, com-
attributes of the strawberries. posite films with different peach gum to chitosan ratios were used for
Chitosan/pectin (15 %) films - Formed a UV barrier in the [91] strawberry packaging, and all chitosan-containing films could efficiently
loaded with natamycin and outer layer and provided long- improve the shelf life of strawberries and preserve their quality for up to
epigallocatechin gallate. lasting antifungal activity in the
7 days (Fig. 5).
inner layer.
- Retarded microbial growth and Controlling fungal rot is indeed an important goal of strawberry
oxidative deterioration of the edible coating applications. Effective edible coatings form a protective
strawberries. barrier that reduces moisture loss and inhibits the growth of spoilage
Amphiphilic chitosan films cross- - Prevented the fruits from [92] mold and other pathogenic microorganisms, extending the shelf life of
linked with genipin. chemical and biological
strawberries and improving their overall quality. Chitosan-based edible
decomposing and extended their
shelf life. coatings reduce exposure to environmental factors such as oxidative
- Preserved the vitamin C stress and regulate moisture levels in strawberries, which promote mold
content of strawberries during proliferation and growth during storage [108,109]. Additionally, ac-
storage.
cording to the literature, several studies have reported that the appli-
Carboxymethyl chitosan/pectin - Delayed fungal deterioration [93]
composite films combined with and prevented rapid water cation of an antimicrobial edible coating to strawberries does not
blueberry anthocyanins. evaporation. adversely affect the fruit's sensory attributes, such as taste, aroma or
- Retarded fruit ripening and texture [110–112]. Since chitosan itself has antibacterial properties,
guaranteed postharvest quality pure chitosan-based preparations or other biopolymer preparations
after 7 days' storage.
blended/added with chitosan, have been shown to prevent strawberry
Chitosan/bacterial cellulose - Preserved the freshness and [94]
composite films combined with slowed down the oxidation of fungal spoilage [107]. Meanwhile, other researchers have used natural
curcumin. the edible oils. antibacterial agents in chitosan-based coating formulations to enhance
- Delayed discoloration and the antifungal effect further. Allyl isothiocyanate, a natural antibacterial
rotting of the strawberries.
compound, was added to a coating composite based on chitosan and
Microporous chitosan/polyvinyl - Slowed down strawberry [87]
alcohol-based films. respiration and transpiration.
organic corn fiber gum and applied to fresh strawberries [113]. The
- Maintained a low pH value, coating showed antimicrobial efficacy against Escherichia coli, Salmo-
which inhibited the proliferation nella, and native microbiota with 2.5 log CFU versus 4.2 log CFU for
of most bacteria and retarded untreated fruit. The treatments developed preserved fruit color and
mold growth.
firmness and reduced moisture loss during storage [113]. Similarly,
Hordein/chitosan composite - Reduced the level of [95]
films. strawberries' decay after 72 h of strawberries treated with chitosan coatings (1 %) enriched with Mentha
conservation, thus extending spicata essential oil (0.2 %) showed the lowest values for the total viable
their shelf life. count, psychrotrophic bacterial count, yeast, and mold. The final L.
- Controlled the physiological
monocytogenes population in treated strawberries was lower than that in
changes and biochemical
characteristics of the fruit during
untreated strawberries, reducing the risk of listeriosis infection. The
storage. coating minimized weight loss and slowed the decline in the titratable
Chitosan/Andrographis paniculata - Prevented physical damage and [96] acidity of coated fruits during storage compared to the control [114].
extract/selenium nanoparticles reduced fungal spoilage of the The edible composite coating based on banana starch-chitosan-aloe vera
composite films. strawberries.
gel was evaluated to extend the shelf life of strawberries. After 12 days of
- Preserved fruit freshness for up
to 10 days by stabilizing initial storage, coated strawberries reached a value of 4 log CFU/g for aerobic
color and reducing mass loss. mesophilic microbial counts, while uncoated strawberries reached 4.49
log CFU/g on the 7th day of storage. There was a significant reduction in
microbial growth (aerobic mesophiles, molds and yeasts) and a 5 %
based coatings for strawberry preservation. Riaz et al. reported that the reduction in body weight loss compared to uncoated fruit [115]. In a
chitosan-apple peel polyphenol composite coating delayed the respira- previous study, chlorophyllin (0.001 %)-chitosan (0.1 %) coating
tion and metabolism of treated fruits, maintaining higher total soluble inhibited Botrytis cinerea mycelial growth by 60 %. The population of
solids (6.8 %) and titratable acidity (0.78 g/100 g). In the same report, yeasts and micro-fungi on the surface of coated strawberries decreased
the coating stabilized total flavonoids and anthocyanins and preserved by 1.4 log compared with conventional fruit treatment (0.6 log). In the
the initial color and flavor of strawberries [105]. same report, treated strawberries showed the highest total antioxidant
Chitosan has also been blended with other polymers to improve its activity, with a value of >20.33 mmol Fe2+/kg [116]. Emulsions of
physicochemical properties. For example, Lee et al. fabricated an edible natural extracts have also been used as functional additives in chitosan-
coating composite based on chitosan nanofibers, cellulose nanocrystals, based coating formulations. A recent study by Akkuzu et al. demon-
and sodium alginate [106]. They reported that the formulations pre- strated the use of propolis as a functional additive in oil-in-water
pared using multiple polysaccharide components prevented mechanical emulsion formulations and chitosan-based coating formulations for
injuries to the fruit and prevented moisture loss, thus maintaining strawberries [117]. Strawberries inoculated with Botrytis cinerea were
9
Fig. 4. Chitosan-based edible coating for postharvest preservation of strawberries.
Pickering emulsion of thyme essential oil, instead of using chitosan

biopolymer as base matrix for coating formulations [118]. They directly
coated the strawberries with pickering emulsions and reported their
efficacy in preventing weight loss, softening, and microbial contami-
nation of the coated fruits. Table 2 shows recent applications of
chitosan-based edible coating for the postharvest preservation of
strawberries.
5. Strawberry preservation mechanism of chitosan-based

formulation
As discussed, chitosan has been used by several researchers for

strawberry preservation in various forms, such as active packaging films
and direct coating formulations. Both of these forms promote strawberry
preservation through the following mechanisms:
(i) Providing physical protection: Chitosan-based films and coatings

form a physical barrier between strawberries and external envi-
ronmental factors such as moisture, gases, and microorganisms
[17]. They also serve to protect against damage caused by me-
chanical shocks that occur during supply chain processes such as
handling, storage, and transportation [17].
(ii) Moisture/gas regulation: Chitosan-based active packaging and
Fig. 5. Prevention of mold growth on strawberries coated with various for- coating formulations also play an important role in regulating
mulations of peach gum/chitosan/glycerol coating solutions. The formulation water and gas exchange between the respiratory cells of fruit and
ratios are denoted as x-y-G, where x: peach gum, y: chitosan, and G: glycerol. the external environment, as they form a barrier between the
Distilled water was used as the control formulation. environment and the fruit [15]. This delay in gas exchange slows
(Adapted with permission from Chen et al. [107]. Copyright (2024) Elsevier.) down the breathing process and consequently extends shelf life.
The moisture barrier also prevents water loss from the fruit by
coated with the propolis emulsion-added chitosan-based coating retarding transpiration and consequently maintains turgor, thus
formulation and were stored at 4 ◦ C for 14 days. Compared to the un- maintaining fruit firmness for a long period [15]. It also prevents
coated fruits, which displayed an onset of mold growth after 7 days, no the movement of moisture from the external environment into
visible mold growth was observed on the coated strawberries the cell interior, reducing the possibility of deliquescence and
throughout the storage period. In another study, Li et al. prepared chi- reducing water activity, thereby reducing the possibility of mi-
tosan nanoparticles and utilized them as Pickering particles to prepare crobial contamination [15].
10
Table 2 use as an antibacterial filler in active packaging films and coating

Recent applications of chitosan-based edible coatings for the postharvest pres- formulations. The antibacterial activity of chitosan comes from
ervation of strawberries. the amine functional groups present in the chitosan structure,
Edible coating Main findings References which generate a net positive charge under mildly acidic solution
Chitosan-loaded lemongrass - Controlled postharvest fruit quality [119]
conditions [17]. These cationic groups in chitosan interact with
essential oil coating characteristics (weight loss, color, negatively charged functional groups that are normally abundant
and pH changes). on the surface of microbial cells. These interactions cause mi-
- Slowed tissue degradation and crobial cell walls to collapse, resulting in cell lysis and death [17].
preserved the firmness of the coated
The antimicrobial activity of the chitosan-based films and coat-
strawberries.
Chitosan-lactoferrin-gellan/ - Inhibited the growth of mesophilic [120] ings can also be improved by the action of antimicrobial additives
carboxymethyl cellulose bacteria on the surface of the such as natural oils and extracts, polyphenolic compounds, and
coating strawberries. nanostructures [17].
- Slowed fruit respiration and (iv) Antioxidant activity and UV protection: The amine functional
reduced titratable acidity content
consumption.
groups present in the chitosan structure also serve to impart
N-carboxymethyl chitosan/ - Stabilized cell firmness and delayed [121] antioxidant properties to chitosan [51]. Amine groups can react
gallic acid coating ripening of the strawberries. with free radicals to form stable macromolecular radicals, pre-
- Maintained the activity of venting free radical oxidation of nutrients in strawberries [51].
antioxidant enzymes and prevented
Chitosan is also known to have excellent UV-blocking effects
the loss of fruit nutrients during
storage. [50,51]. As a result, chitosan-based active packaging and coating
Chitosan coating enriched - Reduced the growth rate of aerobic [122] formulations play an important role in maintaining postharvest
with Luma apiculata mesophilic bacteria, molds, and quality by acting as antioxidants and sunscreens, preventing free
extracts yeasts in coated strawberries. radical and UV-mediated oxidation of nutrients and vitamins in
- Minimized the loss of flavonoids,
strawberries.
ascorbic acid, and anthocyanins.
Chitosan/cinnamon essential - Reduced mass loss, maintained the [123]
oil/TiO2 nanocomposites cellular structure, and stabilized 6. Challenges and future outlook
coating strawberry pigmentation.
- Delayed rotting and softening for
Recently, there has been increasing interest in utilizing biopolymers
up to 6 days in coated fruit.
Chitosan-Litsea cubeba - Slowed the respiration intensity [124] for strawberry preservation, and chitosan has emerged as an excellent
essential oil/corn starch and decomposition rate of treated candidate for this purpose. Its various advantages, including antibacte-
composite coating strawberries during storage at room rial and antioxidant properties, UV-blocking effect, biodegradability,
temperature. and food contact safety, make it a versatile material for the purpose of
- Reduced malondialdehyde
accumulation and retained more
extending the postharvest shelf life of strawberries. Whether used as an
reducing sugars and ascorbic acid. active packaging material or as a direct coating, chitosan offers practical
Chitosan coating enriched - Inhibited the growth of gray mold [125] benefits in preserving the freshness and quality of strawberries, solving
with turmeric/green tea (Botrytis cinerea) during 7 days of critical issues in the supply chain.
extracts postharvest storage.
However, several challenges remain to be addressed. The variability
- Enhanced the antioxidant
properties of the fruit by increasing of chitosan properties depending on molecular weight and degree of
the total phenolic content. deacetylation presents a complex environment that requires systematic
Chitosan coatings fortified - Preserved the strawberries' [126] exploration to exploit chitosan's full potential [17,129]. Research efforts
with clove essential oil brilliance and saturated red color should focus on optimizing chitosan formulations for specific applica-
during storage.
- Reduced microbiological
tions to ensure consistency and efficacy in a variety of scenarios.
alterations and slowed the growth of Moreover, careful attention is needed to understand the complex
mold and yeast. mechanisms of chitosan biodegradation and potential allergenic con-
Chitosan/tea seed oil - Reduced moisture loss and weight [127] cerns due to the presence of impurities. Additionally, chitosan itself, a
composite coatings loss during postharvest storage at
biopolymer derived from seafood waste, can cause allergic reactions in
2 ◦ C.
- Limited the appearance of voids in individuals sensitive to shellfish, raising concerns about the safety of
coated strawberries. food contact materials [130]. This allergenic potential requires rigorous
Chitosan and Prosopis juliflora - Retarded the growth of strawberry [128] testing and labeling to ensure consumer safety, complicating widespread
leaf ethanolic extract spoilage microorganisms (fungi and adoption in the food industry. Addressing these allergy issues is
coating aerobic bacteria) during storage.
- Preserved the strawberries' sensory
important for broader acceptance and utilization of chitosan in food
characteristics and extended their packaging solutions. Additionally, strict quality control measures are
shelf life by up to 10 days. essential to ensure the purity and safety of chitosan-based products and
Chitosan/peach gum - Demonstrated antibacterial [107] to instill consumer confidence.
polyelectrolyte composite properties and extended the shelf life
Another challenge in utilizing chitosan for food preservation at a
films of packaged strawberries.
- Prevented rapid decay up to the 7th commercial level is the ethical considerations surrounding the use of
day of storage and delayed fruit animal-derived chitosan, which may hinder its practical application as
weight loss. an edible ingredient as consumer preferences such as vegetarianism and
veganism evolve [131]. Exploring sustainable and ethical sources of
chitosan, such as microbial sources, could lead to wider consumer
(iii) Antimicrobial activity: Because chitosan has innate antibacterial
acceptance and adoption of these technologies in the food industry.
activity [17], active packaging and coatings using chitosan pro-
Despite these challenges, chitosan demonstrates sustainability
tect strawberries from fungal contamination, which is the most
through waste valorization and biodegradability. The production pro-
common cause of strawberry spoilage [15]. Additionally, in
cess that converts seafood industry by-products into useful materials is
addition to being used as a base polymer for active packaging
more resource-intensive than synthetic polymers. The biodegradable
films and coatings, chitosan has also been blended with other
nature of chitosan breaks down into non-toxic compounds, reducing
biopolymers for this purpose or converted into nanoparticles for
landfill burden and microplastic pollution [132]. Antibacterial
11
properties enhance food preservation and reduce food waste. Ongoing and the environment.
research is focused on more environmentally friendly extraction However, despite these various advantages of chitosan-based for-
methods and improved functional properties, making chitosan an mulations for strawberry preservation, concerns about their allerge-
increasingly viable alternative for sustainable food packaging and nicity emerge, especially for individuals suffering from shellfish allergy.
coatings, not only for strawberry preservation but also for other foods. Additionally, because it is an animal-derived biopolymer, it may be
This direction of research is consistent with circular economy principles difficult for certain consumers with specific food preferences, such as
and a move away from fossil fuel-based plastics, positioning chitosan as vegetarians or vegans, to accept this technology. Nevertheless, chitosan-
a key player in eco-friendly packaging solutions [133]. based coating and packaging technology provide an eco-friendly, sus-
Additionally, chitosan-based coatings offer several advantages for tainable, cost-effective and safe alternative compared to conventional
strawberry preservation compared to conventional methods such as methods for strawberry preservation.
irradiation, heat treatment, and refrigeration. Unlike irradiation and
heat treatment, which can change the texture, taste and nutritional CRediT authorship contribution statement
quality of strawberries, chitosan coating is soft and retains the fruit's
natural properties. Forms a biodegradable, edible film that prevents Ruchir Priyadarshi: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
microbial contamination and moisture loss, extending shelf life without draft, Visualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.
the need for chemical preservatives. Additionally, chitosan's antibacte- Abir El-Araby: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation,
rial properties inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens Formal analysis. Jong-Whan Rhim: Writing – review & editing, Su-
more effectively than refrigeration alone. This method is also energy pervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
efficient as it does not require the constant energy input required for
refrigeration, making it a more sustainable and cost-effective solution Declaration of competing interest
for strawberry preservation.
In the future, joint research efforts integrating expertise from various The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
fields can play an important role in overcoming existing challenges and interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
exploiting the full potential of chitosan in strawberry preservation. In- the work reported in this paper.
dustry partnerships combined with regulatory support can accelerate
innovation and sustainability in the food sector by quickly translating Data availability
research findings into practical applications. In essence, chitosan acts as
more than just a preservative. It embodies a paradigm shift towards No data was used for the research described in the article.
greener and more sustainable practices, consistent with the principles of
green chemistry and sustainable development. Acknowledgments
7. Conclusions This research was supported by the Brain Pool Program funded by
the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning through the National
The perishable nature of strawberries and their short shelf life pose Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2023-00218228) and the National
significant challenges to postharvest preservation. Demand for these Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean gov-
delicate fruits continues to be high, necessitating the exploration of ernment (MSIT) (2022R1A2B5B02001422).
innovative preservation strategies that go beyond traditional methods.
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International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 278 (2024) 134859

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

Chitosan-based sustainable packaging and coating technologies for

Fig. 2. Chitosan-based active packaging film for postharvest preservation of strawberries.

Fig. 4. Chitosan-based edible coating for postharvest preservation of strawberries.

Pickering emulsion of thyme essential oil, instead of using chitosan

5. Strawberry preservation mechanism of chitosan-based

As discussed, chitosan has been used by several researchers for

(i) Providing physical protection: Chitosan-based films and coatings

Table 2 use as an antibacterial filler in active packaging films and coating

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