A Collection of Technical Interview

Questions

http://www.spellscroll.com

November 4, 2008
2
Contents

1 Data Structures and Algorithms 7

1.1 Linked List Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Problems on Trees and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 String Manipulation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Recursion Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Problems on Searching and Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Bibliography 29
4 CONTENTS
Disclaimer

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6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Data Structures and

Algorithms

1.1 Linked List Problems

Problems 1-7 and accompanying discussions are taken from the book [Mon07].

1. [Stack Implementation] Discuss the stack data structure. Imple-

ment a stack in C using either a linked list or a dynamic array, and
justify your decision. Design the interface to your stack to be complete,
consistent, and easy to use.

Discussion:

• A stack is last-in-first-out data structure: Elements are always

removed in the reverse order in which they were added. The add
element and remove element operations are conventionally called
push and pop, respectively. Stacks are useful data structures for
tasks that are divided into multiple subtasks. Tracking return
addresses, parameters, local variables for subroutines is one ex-
ample of stack use; tracking tokens when parsing a programming
language is another.
• One of the ways to implement a stack is by using a dynamic array,
an array that changes size as needed when elements are added.
The main advantage of dynamic arrays over linked lists is that
arrays offer random access to the array elements. However, oper-
ations on a stack always work on one end of the data structure (the
top of the stack), so the random accessibility of a dynamic array
8 1.1. LINKED LIST PROBLEMS

gains you little. In addition, as a dynamic array grows, it must

occasionally be resized, which can be a time-consuming operation
as elements are copied from the old array to the new array.
• Conversely, linked lists usually allocate memory dynamically for
each element, and that overhead can be significant when dealing
with small-sized elements, especially if heuristics are used to min-
imize the number of times the array has to be resized. For these
reasons, a stack based on a dynamic array is usually faster than
one based on a linked list. In the context of an interview, though,
the primary concern is ease and speed of implementation: Imple-
menting a linked list is far less complicated than implementing a
dynamic array, so a linked list is probably the best choice for your
solution.
• A C-style implementation
typedef struct Element {
struct Element *next;
void *data;
} Element;

bool push( Element **stack, void *data);

bool pop( Element **stack, void **data);
bool createStack(Element **stack);
bool deleteStack(Element **stack);

bool createStack(Element **stack){

*stack = NULL;
return true;
}

bool push( Element **stack, void *data){

Element *elem = new Element;
if (!elem) return false;
elem->data = data;
elem->next = *stack;
*stack = elem;
return true;
}

bool pop(Element **stack, void **data){

http://www.spellscroll.com 9

Element *elem = *stack;

if (!elem) return false;

*data = elem->data;
*stack = elem->next;
delete elem;
return true;
}

bool deleteStack(Element **stack){

Element *next;
while (*stack)
{
next = (*stack)->next;
delete *stack;
*stack = next;
}
return true;
}

• A C++ version

class Stack {
public :
Stack();
virtual ~Stack();
void push(void *data);
void pop();

protected :
typedef struct Element{
struct Element *next;
void *data;
}Element;
Element *head;
};

Stack::Stack() {
head = NULL;
return;
}
10 1.1. LINKED LIST PROBLEMS

Stack::~Stack() {
while(head) {
Element* next = head->next;
delete head;
head = next;
}
return;
}

void Stack::push( void *data) {

Element *element = new Element;
element->data = data;
element->next = head;
head = element;
}

void* Stack::pop(){
Element *element = head;
void *data;
if (!element)
throw StackError(E_EMPTY);

data = element->data;
head = element->next;
delete element;
}

2. [Maintain Linked List Tail Pointer] head and tail are global point-
ers to the first and last element, respectively, of a singly-linked list of
integers. Implement C functions for the following prototypes:

bool remove(Element *elem);

bool insertafter(Element *elem, int data);

The argument to remove is the element to be deleted. The two argu-

ments to insertAfter give the data for the new element and the element
after which the new element is to be inserted. It should be possible to
insert at the beginning of the list by calling insertAfter with NULL as
http://www.spellscroll.com 11

the element argument. These functions should return true if successful

and false is unsuccessful.
Your functions must keep the head and tail pointers current.

bool remove(Element *elem){

Element * curPos = head;
if (!elem)
return false;
if (elem==head) {
head = elem->next;
delete elem;
if (!head) /* special case for 1 element list */
tail = NULL;
return true;
}

while (curPos){
if (curPos==elem){
curPos->next = elem->next;
delete elem;
if (curPos->next==NULL)
tail = curPos;
return true;
}
curPos = curPos->next;
}
return false;
}

bool insertAfter(Element *elem, int data) {

Element *newElem, *curPos = head;
newElem = new Element;
if (!newElem){
return false;
}
newElem->data = data;
/* Insert at beginning of list */
if (!elem){
newElem->next = head;
12 1.1. LINKED LIST PROBLEMS

head = newElem;
/* special case for empty list */
if (!tail)
tail = newElem;
return true;
}
while (curPos){
if (curPos == elem) {
newElem->next = curPos->next;
curPos->next = newElem;
/* special case for inserting at the end of list */
if (!(newElem->next))
tail = newElem;
return true;
}
curPos = curPos->next;
}

/* Insert Position not found */

delete newElem;
return false;
}

3. [Bugs in removeHead] Find and fix the bugs in the following C/C++
function that is supposed to remove the head element from a singly-
linked list:

void removeHead(Node *head){

delete head;
head = head->next;
}

• Check that (i)the data comes into the function properly; (ii) each
line of the function works correctly; (iii) Check that the data
comes out the function correctly; (iv) Check the common error
conditions.
• Corrected code:
http://www.spellscroll.com 13

void removeHead(Node **head){

Node* temp;
if (!(*head)){
temp = (*head)->next;
delete *head;
*head = temp;
}
}

4. [Mth-to-Last Element of a Linked List] Given a singly-linked list,

devise a time- and space-efficient algorithm to find the mth-to-last el-
ement of the list. Implement your algorithm, taking care to handle
relevant error conditions. Define mth to last such that when m=0, the
last element of the list is returned. 1

Element* findMToLastElement(Element* head, int m){

Element *current, *mBehind;
int i;
/* Advance current m elements from beginning, checking for
the end of the list */
current = head;
for (i = 0; i<m; i++){
if (current->next) {
current = current->next;
}
else{
return NULL;
}
}
/* Start mBehind at beginning and advance pointers together
until current hits last element */
mBehind = head;
while (current->next){
curren=current->next;
mBehind = mBehind->next;
}
1
A variant of this problem is to find the middle of a given singly-linked list.
14 1.1. LINKED LIST PROBLEMS

/* mBehind now points to the element we were searching for */

return mBehind;
}

5. [Null or Cycle] Write a function that takes a pointer to the head of a

list and determines whether the list is cyclic or acyclic. Your function
should return false if the list is acyclic and true if it is cyclic. You may
not modify the list in any way.

• Algorithm outline:
Start two pointers at the head of the list
Loop infinitely
If the fast pointer reaches a NULL pointer
Return that the list is Null terminated
If the fast pointer moves onto or over the slow pointer
Return that there is a cycle
Advance the slow pointer one node
Advance the fast pointer two nodes
• Code
/* Takes a pointer to the head of a linked list and determine if the
list ends in a cycle or is NULL terminated */
bool determineTerminate(Node *head){
Node *fast, *slow;
fast = slow = head;

while(true)
{
if (!fast||!fast->next) return false;
else if(fast==slow||fast->next==slow) return true;
else {
slow = slow->next;
fast = fast->next->next;
}
}
}
http://www.spellscroll.com 15

6. How do you reverse a linked list. Why don’t you use recur-
sion?

Node* reverseLinkedList(Node *base ){

Node* next; Node *current ;
current = base;
node *previous = NULL;

while(current != NULL ) {
next = current->next;
current->next = previous;
previous = current;
current = next;
}
return (previous);
}

// Recursive version
Node *reverse(Node *head) {
Node *temp;
if(head->next) {
temp = reverse(head->next);
head>next->next = head;
head->next = NULL;
}
else
temp = head;
return temp;
}

call as: head=reverse(head);

16 1.1. LINKED LIST PROBLEMS

7. [Sort a linked list]

//sorting in descending order

struct Node { int value; Node* NEXT; }
//Assume HEAD pointer denotes the first element in the list
//only change the values, don’t have to change the pointers
Sort( Node *Head) {
node* first,second,temp;
first = Head;
while(first!=null) {
second = first->NEXT;
while(second!=null) {
if(first->value < second->value) {
temp = new node();
temp->value = first->value;
first->value = second->value;
second->value = temp->value;
delete temp;
}
second = second->NEXT;
}
first = first->NEXT;
}
}

8. Given a linked list which is sorted. How will you insert new elements
in sorted way.

9. Delete an element from a singly linked list. How about deleting an

element from a doubly linked list.

10. Under what circumstances can one delete an element from a singly
linked list in constant time?

11. What is the difference between arrays and linked lists? What is the
advantage of contiguous memory over linked lists?

More linked list problems can be found at http://cslibrary.stanford.

edu/105/LinkedListProblems.pdf
http://www.spellscroll.com 17

1.2 Problems on Trees and Graphs

Problems 1-6 and accompanying discussions are taken from the book [Mon07].

1. [Preorder Traversal, No Recursion] Perform a preorder traversal

of a binary search tree, printing the value of each node, but this time
you may not use recursion.

• Algorithm outline:
Create the stack
Push the root node on the stack
While the stack is not empty
Pop a node
If he node is not null
print its value
Push the node’s right child on the stack
Push the node’s left child on the stack
• Code (with no error checking)
void preorderTraversal(Node root){
NodeStack stack = new NodeStack();
stack.push( root);
while (true) {
Node curr = stack.pop();
if (curr==null) break;
curr.printValue();
Node n= curr.getRight();
if (n!=null) stack.push(n);
n = curr.getLeft();
if (n!=null) stack.push(n);
}
}

2. [Lowest Common Ancestor] Given the value of two nodes in a bi-

nary search tree, find the lowest (nearest) common ancestor. You may
assume that both values already exist in the tree.

• Algorithm outline:
Examine the current node
If value1 and value2 are both less than the current node
18 1.2. PROBLEMS ON TREES AND GRAPHS

Examine the left child

If value1 and value2 are both greater than the current node
Examine the right child
Otherwise
The current node is the lowest common ancestor

• Code

Node findLowestCommonAncestor(Node root,

int value1, int value2){
while( root!=null){
int value = root.getValue();
if (value>value1 && value>value2) {
root = root.getLeft();
}
else if (value<value1 && value<value2) {
root = root.getright();
}
else {
return root;
}
}
}

3. You have a tree (not Binary) and you want to print the values of all
the nodes in this tree level by level.

4. Here is a tree. It’s a binary tree but in no particular order. How do

you write this tree to a file so that it can be reread in an reconstructed
exactly as shown?

5. Here is a graph of distribution centers and the weight to go from one to

another. How would you represent this using a data structure? Code
an algorithm that allows me to check if there is a path from one node
to another and what the weight of this path is.

6. Determine whether a graph is acyclic. Use the Floyd algorithm

to find all shortest path within the adjacency algorithm. If any element
on the main diagonal ends up being non-infinity, you know there is a
cycle in the graph.
http://www.spellscroll.com 19

If you want a simple algorithm, just take the 0-1 adjacency matrix and
calculate its N+1 power, if it is an N × N matrix. If the result is all
zeroes then there are no cycles. Otherwise there are.
• If the graph has no nodes, stop. The graph is acyclic.
• If the graph has no leaf, stop. The graph is cyclic.
• Choose a leaf of the graph. Remove this leaf and all arcs going
into the leaf to get a new graph.
• Go to 1.
7. In a general tree, how would you find the lowest common ancestor of
two nodes that are given to you as parameters?
8. If there are two structs, TreeNode and Tree. TreeNode contains 3
elements, data, lChild and rChild. Tree contains 2 elements, int size
and TreeNode *root. The tree is a complete tree. So how to find a
O(logN) approach to insert a new node.
9. Design an algorithm and write code to serialize and deserialize a binary
tree/graph
10. Given two binary trees, find whether or not they are similar.
11. Given a binary tree, write code to check whether it is a binary search
tree or not.
12. Design a graph class. Write the C++ interface for it.
13. Given a binary tree, convert it into a doubly linked list in place.
14. Given a binary tree with nodes, print out the values in pre-order/in-
order/post-order without using any extra space.
15. Write a function to find the depth/width of a binary tree.
16. How do you represent an n-ary tree? Write a program to print the
nodes of such a tree in breadth first order.
17. Implement a breadth first traversal of a (binary) tree.
18. Find the n-th node in an in-order search of a tree.
19. Given a binary tree with the following constraints: a) A node has either
both a left and right child OR no children b) The right child of a node
is either a leaf or NULL. write code to invert this tree.
20. What is a balanced tree?
20 1.3. STRING MANIPULATION PROBLEMS

1.3 String Manipulation Problems

Problems 1-4 and accompanying discussions are taken from the book [Mon07].

1. [Find the first nonrepeated character] Write an efficient function

to find the first nonrepeated character in a string.

• Algorithm outline:
First, build the character count hash table:
For each character
If no value is stored for the character. store 1
Otherwise, increment the value
Second, scan the string:
For each character
Return character if count in hash table is 1
If no characters have count 1, return null
• Code
public static Character fiestNonRepeated (String str)
{
Hashtable charHash = new HashTable();
int i, length;
Character c’
Object seenOnce = new Object();
Object seenTwice = new Object();

length = str.length();
//Scan str, building hash table
for (i=0; i< length; i++) {
c = new Character(str.charAt(i));
Object o = charHash.get(c);
if (o==null) {charHash.put(c, seenOnce);}
else if (o==seenonce) {
charHash.put(c, seenTwice);
}
}
for (i=0; i< length; i++){
c = new Character(str.charAt(i));
if (charHash.get(c) == seenOnce)
return c;
http://www.spellscroll.com 21

}
return null;
}
A (significantly) further speedup could be achieved by implement-
ing a faster char to Character mapping, possibly using an array to
cache the mappings, or at least the most frequent mapping (such
as for ASCII characters). Or use a hash table implementation that
could directly store character char values.

2. [Remove Specified Characters] Write an efficient function that

deletes characters from a string. Use the prototype

string removeChars(string str, string remove);

where any character existing in remove must be deleted from str. Jus-
tify any design decisions you make and discuss the efficiency of your
solution.

• Algorithm outline O(m+n):

1. Set all the elements in your lookup array to false.
2. Iterate through each character in remove, setting the corre-
sponding value in the lookup array to true.
3. Iterate through str with a source and destination index, copying
each character only if its corresponding value in the lookup array
is false.
• Code
string removeChars(string str, string remove){
char[] s = str.toCharArray();
char[] r = remove.toCharArray();
bool[] flags = new bool[128]; //assume ASCII!
int len = s.Length;
int src, dst;

//Set flags for characters to be removed

for (src=0; src<len; ++src){
flags[r[src]] = true;
}
src = 0; dst = 0;
//Now loop through all the characters,
22 1.3. STRING MANIPULATION PROBLEMS

//Copying only if they are not flagged

while (src<len){
if (!flags[(int)s[src]]) { s[dst++] = s[src];}
++src;
}
return new string(s,0,dst);
}

3. [Reverse Words] Write a function that reverses the order of the words
in a string. For example, your function should transform the string “Do
or do not, there is no try.” to “try. no is there not, do or Do”. Assume
that all words are space delimited and treat punctuation the same as
letters.

4. [Integer/String Conversions] Write two conversion routines. The

first routine converts a string to a signed integer. You may assume that
the string only contains digits and the minus character(’-’), that it is
a properly formatted integer number, and that the number is within
the range of an int type. The second routine converts a signed integer
stored as an int back to a string.

5. Suggest an algorithm to find the first non-repeating character in a given

string.

6. Write code to tokenize a string.

7. If you are given a number as a parameter, write a function that would

put commas after every third digit from the right.

8. Implement the unix command WordCount (wc) using language of your

choice. The method takes a string and returns the number of words in
the string, number of chars and the number of lines.

9. Write a function that returns the longest run of a letter in a string. e.g.
“cccc” in the string “abccccdef”.

10. Write an atoi() function for decimal. Once this was done, generalize it
for any radix.

11. Write a program to convert a decimal number to Roman numerals.

12. Algorithm and code to detect occurrence of a string(patterns) in an-

other string ex: aab, aababa.
http://www.spellscroll.com 23

13. Write a function that returns the longest palindrome in a given string.
e.g “ccddcc” in the string “abaccddccefe”.

1.4 Recursion Problems

Problems 1-4 and accompanying discussions are taken from the book [Mon07].
1. [Binary Search] Implement a function to perform a binary search on
a sorted array of integers to find the index of a given integer. Use this
method declaration.
int binarySearch( int[ ] array, int lower, int upper, int target);
Comment on the efficiency of this search and compare it with other
search methods.

2. [Permutations of a String] Implement a routine that prints all pos-

sible orderings of the characters in a string. Treat each character in
the input string as a distinct character, even if it is repeated. Given
the string “aaa”, your routine should print “aaa” six times. You may
print the permutation in any order you choose.

3. [Combinations of a String] Implement a routine that prints all pos-

sible combinations of the characters in a string. These combinations
range in length from one to the length of the string. Two combinations
that differ only in ordering of their characters are the same combina-
tions.

4. [Telephone Words] Write a routine that takes a seven-digit telephone

number and prints out all of the possible “words” or combinations of
letters that can represent the given number. Because the 0 and 1 keys
have no letters on them, you should change only the digits 2-9 to letters.
You’ll be passed an array of seven integers, with each element being one
digit in the number. You may assume that only valid phone numbers
will be passed to your routine. You can use the helper routine

char getCharKey(int telephoneKey, int place)

which takes a telephone key (0-9) and a place of either 1,2,3 and re-
turns the character corresponding to the letter in that position on the
specified key.
24 1.5. PROBLEMS ON SEARCHING AND SORTING

1.5 Problems on Searching and Sorting

Recommended readings: [Knu98a; Knu98b; Ben99; Gus97]

1. How do you merge n sorted lists with average length K in O(n*log(K))

time?

2. Implement a binary search in a sorted array.

int binarysearch(DataType t) {
int l, u, m;
l = 0;
u = n-1;
while (l <= u) {
m = (l + u) / 2;
if (x[m] < t)
l = m+1;
else if (x[m] == t)
return m;
else /* x[m] > t */
u = m-1;
}
return -1;
}

3. Design an algorithm and write code to find two numbers in an array

whose sum equals a given value.

4. Given an array of integers, find the contiguous sub-array with the

largest sum.

5. How to find the two numbers whose difference is minimum among the
set of numbers.

6. Given an array of length N containing integers between 1 and N, de-

termine if it contains any duplicates.

7. Design an algorithm to find duplicates in an array. Discuss different

approaches.

8. How would you detect a repeated element in an integer array. Discuss

various solutions and the order of the algorithm.
http://www.spellscroll.com 25

9. Write a program to remove duplicates from a sorted array.

10. Sort an array of size n containing integers between 1 and K, given a
temporary scratch integer array of size K.
11. You have a fixed list of numbers. Now given any other list, how can
you efficiently find out if there is any element in the second list that is
an element of the first list (fixed list).
12. Given 2 files, each with names of thousands of customers who bought
something from Amazon.com on that particular day. Find the common
customers (i.e. common names in file1 and file2)
13. If you are given a set of 1000 integers in a set A , and 10,000,000
integers in a set B, how would you create a set C that would only
contain numbers that are both in A and B?
14. Find the intersection of 2 sorted integer arrays. What if one of them is
huge? What if one of them is so huge, it can’t fit in memory. How do
you minimize the number of disk seeks?
15. From K sorted arrays, each of size N, how would you construct one big
array, and what would the big-O of the procedure be? What if you
only had memory of size 2N.
16. You have a file with millions of lines of data. Only two lines are identi-
cal; the rest are all unique. Each line is so long that it may not even fit
in memory. What is the most efficient solution for finding the identical
lines?
17. Design an algorithm to find the 100 shortest distances to stars in the
universe.
18. Given 1 million customer addresses, how to store and search them
efficiently. Suppose you can search the address by phone number or
name or account number.
19. Given two log files, each with a billion usernames (each username ap-
pended to the log file), find the usernames existing in both documents
in the most efficient manner? Use pseudo-code or code. If your code
calls pre-existing library functions, create each library function from
scratch.
20. You have 50,000 html files, some of which contain phone numbers. How
would you create a list of all the files which contain phone numbers?
26 1.6. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

21. Given a file containing approx 10 million words, Design a data structure
for finding all the anagrams in that set.

22. Design an algorithm to find the most user viewed pages.

1.6 Miscellaneous Problems

1. Implement a queue in an array.

2. An array of integers of size n. Generate a random permutation of the

array, given a function rand n() that returns an integer between 1 and
n, both inclusive, with equal probability. What is the expected time of
your algorithm?

3. How could a linked list and a hash table be combined to allow someone
to run through the list from item to item while still maintaining the
ability to access an individual element in O(1) time?

4. Shuffling

/*
* get_shuffle --
* Construct a random shuffle array of t elements
*/
static size_t * get_shuffle(size_t t) {
size_t *shuffle;
size_t i, j, k, temp;

shuffle = emalloc(t * sizeof(size_t));

for (i = 0; i < t; i++)

shuffle[i] = i;

/*
* This algorithm is taken from D. E. Knuth,
* The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2:
* Seminumerical Algorithms, 2nd Ed., page 139.
*/

for (j = t - 1; j > 0; j--) {

k = arc4random() % (j + 1);
http://www.spellscroll.com 27

temp = shuffle[j];
shuffle[j] = shuffle[k];
shuffle[k] = temp;
}

return shuffle;
}
28 1.6. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
Bibliography

[Ben99] J. Bentley. Programming Pearls. ACM Press, 2nd edn.,

1999. Buy at Amazon.com: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/
ASIN/0201657880/spellscrollco-20.

[Cor01] T. H. Cormen, C. E. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, and C. Stein.

Introduction to Algorithms. The MIT Press, 2nd edn.,
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