Deformation of Solids

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YOUR NOTES
AS Physics CIE 
6. Deformation of Solids
CONTENTS
6.1 Deformation: Stress & Strain
6.1.1 Extension & Compression
6.1.2 Hooke's Law
6.1.3 The Young Modulus
6.2 Deformation: Elastic & Plastic Behaviour
6.2.1 Elastic & Plastic Behaviour
6.2.2 Elastic Potential Energy
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6.1 Deformation: Stress & Strain YOUR NOTES


6.1.1 Extension & Compression
Tensile Force
Forces don’t just change the motion of a body, but can change the size and shape of them
too. This is known as deformation
Forces in opposite directions stretch or compress a body
When two forces stretch a body, they are described as tensile
When two forces compress a body, they are known as compressive
Diagram of tensile and compressive forces

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the amount of load or stress a material can handle until it stretches and
breaks
Here are some common materials and their tensile strength:
Tensile strength of various materials
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YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
Cylindrical samples of steel, glass and rubber are each subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile force F. The extensions e are measured and graphs are plotted as
shown below.
Correctly label the graphs with the materials: steel, glass, rubber.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Remember to read the questions carefully in order to not confuse the terms ‘tensile
stress’ and ‘tensile strain’.
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Extension and Compression YOUR NOTES

When you apply a force (load) onto a spring, it produces a tensile force and causes the 
spring to extend
Stretching a spring with a load produces a force that leads to an extension

Hooke’s Law
If a material responds to tensile forces in a way in which the extension produced is
proportional to the applied force (load), we say it obeys Hooke’s Law
This relationship between force and extension is shown in the graph below
Page 5 of 29
Force v extension graph for a spring YOUR NOTES

The extension of the spring is determined by how much it has increased in length 
The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true when
stretching a material i.e. the extension is no longer proportional to the applied load
The point is identified on the graph where the line is no longer straight and starts to
curve (flattens out)
Hooke’s law also applies to compression as well as extension. The only difference is that an
applied force is now proportional to the decrease in length
The gradient of this graph is equal to the spring constant k. This is explored further in the
revision notes “The Spring Constant”
 Worked Example
Which graph represents the force-extension relationship of a rubber band that is
stretched almost to its breaking point?
ANSWER: A
Rubber bands obey Hooke’s law until they’re stretched up to twice their original size or
more - this is because the long chain molecules become fully aligned and can no longer
move past each other
This is shown by graph A - after the section of linear proportionality (the straight line), the
gradient increases significantly, so, a large force is required to extend the rubber band by
even a small amount
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Graph B is incorrect as the gradient decreases, suggesting that less force is required to YOUR NOTES
cause a small extension 
Graph C is incorrect as this shows a material which obeys Hooke’s Law and does not break
easily, such as a metal
Graph D is incorrect as the plateau suggests no extra force is required to extend the rubber
as it has been stretched
 Exam Tip
Exam questions may ask for the total length of a material after a load is placed on it
and it has extended. Remember to add the extension to the original length of the
material to get its final full length
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6.1.2 Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES


Hooke's Law
A material obeys Hooke’s Law if its extension is directly proportional to the applied force
(load)
The Force v Extension graph is a straight line through the origin (see “Extension and
Compression”)
This linear relationship is represented by the Hooke’s law equation
Hooke’s Law
The constant of proportionality is known as the spring constant k
 Worked Example
A spring was stretched with increasing load.
The graph of the results is shown below.
What is the spring constant?
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YOUR NOTES

Page 9 of 29
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Double check the axes before finding the spring constant as the gradient of a force-

extension graph. Exam questions often swap the load onto the x-axis and length on
the y-axis. In this case, the gradient is not the spring constant but 1 ÷ gradient is.
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The Spring Constant YOUR NOTES

k is the spring constant of the spring and is a measure of the stiffness of a spring 
A stiffer spring will have a larger value of k
It is defined as the force per unit extension up to the limit of proportionality (after which the
material will not obey Hooke’s law)
The SI unit for the spring constant is N m-1
Rearranging the Hooke’s law equation shows the equation for the spring constant is
Spring constant equation

The spring constant is the force per unit extension up to the limit of proportionality (after
which the material will not obey Hooke’s law)
Therefore, the spring constant k is the gradient of the linear part of a Force v Extension
graph
Spring constant is the gradient of a force v extension graph

Combination of springs
Springs can be combined in different ways
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In series (end-to-end) YOUR NOTES

In parallel (side-by-side) 
Spring constants for springs combined in series and parallel

This is assuming k1 and k2 are different spring constants
The equivalent spring constant for combined springs are summed up in different ways
depending on whether they’re connected in parallel or series
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Three springs are arranged vertically as shown.
Springs P,Q and O are identical and have spring constant k. Spring R has spring
constant 4k.What is the increase in the overall length of the arrangement when a
force W is applied as shown?
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
The equivalent (or effective) spring constant equations for combined springs work
for any number of springs e.g. if there are 3 springs in parallel k1 , k2 and k3 , the
equivalent spring constant would be keq = k1 + k2 + k3 .
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6.1.3 The Young Modulus YOUR NOTES


Stress, Strain & the Young Modulus
Stress
Tensile stress is the applied force per unit cross sectional area of a material
Stress equation
The ultimate tensile stress is the maximum force per original cross-sectional area a wire is
able to support until it breaks
Strain
Strain is the extension per unit length
This is a deformation of a solid due to stress in the form of elongation or contraction
Note that strain is a dimensionless unit because it’s the ratio of lengths
Strain equation
Young’s Modulus
The Young modulus is the measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in
length with an added load ie. how stiff a material is
Page 15 of 29
This gives information about the elasticity of a material YOUR NOTES

The Young Modulus is defined as the ratio of stress and strain 
Young Modulus equation
Its unit is the same as stress: Pa (since strain is unitless)

Just like the Force-Extension graph, stress and strain are directly proportional to one
another for a material exhibiting elastic behaviour
A stress-strain graph is a straight line with its gradient equal to Young modulus
The gradient of a stress-stress graph when it is linear is the Young Modulus
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A metal wire that is supported vertically from a fixed point has a load of 92 N applied
to the lower end.
The wire has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 mm2 and obeys Hooke’s law.
The length of the wire increases by 0.50%.What is the Young modulus of the metal
wire?
A. 4.6 × 107Pa B. 4.6 × 1012 Pa C. 4.6 × 109 Pa D. 4.6 × 1011 Pa
 Exam Tip
To remember whether stress or strain comes first in the Young modulus equation, try
thinking of the phrase ‘When you’re stressed, you show the strain’ ie. Stress ÷ strain.
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Young's Modulus Experiment YOUR NOTES

To measure the Young’s Modulus of a metal in the form of a wire requires a clamped 
horizontal wire over a pulley (or vertical wire attached to the ceiling with a mass attached) as
shown in the diagram below
A reference marker is needed on the wire. This is used to accurately measure the extension
with the applied load
The independent variable is the load
The dependent variable is the extension
Method
1. Measure the original length of the wire using a metre ruler and mark this reference point with
tape
2. Measure the diameter of the wire with micrometer screw gauge or digital calipers
3. Measure or record the mass or weight used for the extension e.g. 300 g
4. Record initial reading on the ruler where the reference point is
5. Add mass and record the new scale reading from the metre ruler
6. Record final reading from the new position of the reference point on the ruler
7. Add another mass and repeat method
Improving experiment and reducing uncertainties:
Reduce uncertainty of the cross-sectional area by measuring the diameter d in several
places along the wire and calculating an average
Remove the load and check wire returns to original limit after each reading
Take several readings with different loads and find average
Use a Vernier scale to measure the extension of the wire
Measurements to determine Young’s modulus
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1. Determine extension x from final and initial readings YOUR NOTES

Example table of results: 
Table with additional data
2. Plot a graph of force against extension and draw line of best fit
3. Determine gradient of the force v extension graph
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YOUR NOTES

4. Calculate cross-sectional area from:
5. Calculate the Young’s modulus from:
 Exam Tip
Although every care should be taken to make the experiment as reliable as possible,
you will be expected to suggest improvements in producing more accurate and
reliable results (e.g. repeat readings and use a longer length of wire)
Page 20 of 29
6.2 Deformation: Elastic & Plastic Behaviour YOUR NOTES


6.2.1 Elastic & Plastic Behaviour
Elastic & Plastic Deformation

Elastic deformation: when the load is removed, the object will return to its original shape
Plastic deformation: when the load is removed, the object will not return to its original
shape or length. This is beyond the elastic limit
Elastic limit: the point beyond which the object does not return to its original length when
the load is removed
These regions can be determined from a Force-Extension graph:
Below the elastic limit, the material exhibits elastic behaviour

Above the elastic limit, the material exhibits plastic behaviour
Elastic deformation occurs in the ‘elastic region’ of the graph. The extension is proportional
to the force applied to the material (straight line)
Plastic deformation occurs in the ‘plastic region’ of the graph. The extension is no longer
proportional to the force applied to the material (graph starts to curve)
These regions are divided by the elastic limit
Brittle and ductile materials

Brittle materials have very little to no plastic region e.g. glass, concrete. The material breaks
with little elastic and insignificant plastic deformation
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Ductile materials have a larger plastic region e.g. rubber, copper. The material stretches YOUR NOTES
into a new shape before breaking 
Stress-strain curve for a brittle and ductile material

To identify these materials on a stress-strain or force-extension graph up to their breaking
point:
A brittle material is represented by a straight line through the origins with no or
negligible curved region
A ductile material is represented with a straight line through the origin then curving
towards the x-axis
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A sample of metal is subjected to a force which increases to a maximum value and
then fractures. A force-extension graph for the sample is shown.
What is the behaviour of the metal between X and Y?A. both elastic and plastic
B. not elastic and not plastic
C. plastic but not elastic
D. elastic but not plastic
ANSWER: C
Since the graph is a straight line and the metal fractures, the point after X must be its elastic
limit
The graph starts to curve after this and fractures at point Y
This curve between X and Y denotes plastic behaviour
Therefore, the correct answer is C
 Exam Tip
Although similar definitions, the elastic limit and limit of proportionality are not the
same point on the graph. The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which the
material is no longer defined by Hooke’s law. The elastic limit is the furthest point a
material can be stretched whilst still able to return to its previous shape. This is at a
slightly higher extension than the limit of proportionality. Be sure not to confuse
them.
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6.2.2 Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES


Area under a Force-Extension Graph
The work done in stretching a material is equal to the force multiplied by the distance
moved
Therefore, the area under a force-extension graph is equal to the work done to stretch
the material
The work done is also equal to the elastic potential energy stored in the material
Work done is the area under the force - extension graph
This is true for whether the material obeys Hooke’s law or not
For the region where the material obeys Hooke’s law, the work done is the area of a
right angled triangle under the graph
For the region where the material doesn’t obey Hooke’s law, the area is the full region
under the graph. To calculate this area, split the graph into separate segments and add
up the individual areas of each
Loading and unloading
The force-extension curve for stretching and contraction of a material that has exceeded
its elastic limit, but is not plastically deformed is shown below
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YOUR NOTES

The curve for contraction is always below the curve for stretching
The area X represents the net work done or the thermal energy dissipated in the material
The area X + Y is the minimum energy required to stretch the material to extension e
 Worked Example
The graph shows the behaviour of a sample of a metal when it is stretched until it
starts to undergo plastic deformation.
What is the total work done in stretching the sample from zero to 13.5 mm
extension?
Simplify the calculation by treating the curve XY as a straight line.
Page 25 of 29
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Make sure to be familiar with the formula for the area of common 2D shapes such as
a right angled triangle, trapezium, square and rectangles.
Page 26 of 29
Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES

Elastic potential energy is defined as the energy stored within a material (e.g. in a spring) 
when it is stretched or compressed
It can be found from the area under the force-extension graph for a material deformed
within its limit of proportionality
 Worked Example
A spring is extended with varying forces; the graph below shows the results.
What is the energy stored in the spring when the extension is 40 mm?
Page 27 of 29
YOUR NOTES

Page 28 of 29
Calculating Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES

A material within it’s limit of proportionality obeys Hooke’s law. Therefore, for a material 
obeying Hooke’s Law, elastic potential energy can be calculated using:
Elastic potential energy can be derived from Hooke’s law
Where k is the spring constant (N m-1) and x is the extension (m)
 Exam Tip
The formula for EPE = ½ kx2 is only the area under the force-extension graph when it is
a straight line i.e. when the material obeys Hooke’s law and is within its elastic limit.
Page 29 of 29

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6.1 Deformation: Stress & Strain YOUR NOTES

Diagram of tensile and compressive forces

Extension and Compression YOUR NOTES

Stretching a spring with a load produces a force that leads to an extension

Force v extension graph for a spring YOUR NOTES

6.1.2 Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES

What is the spring constant?

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

The Spring Constant YOUR NOTES

Spring constant equation

Spring constant is the gradient of a force v extension graph

In series (end-to-end) YOUR NOTES

Spring constants for springs combined in series and parallel

6.1.3 The Young Modulus YOUR NOTES

This gives information about the elasticity of a material YOUR NOTES

Young Modulus equation

Its unit is the same as stress: Pa (since strain is unitless)

The gradient of a stress-stress graph when it is linear is the Young Modulus

Young's Modulus Experiment YOUR NOTES

Measurements to determine Young’s modulus

1. Determine extension x from final and initial readings YOUR NOTES

Table with additional data

4. Calculate cross-sectional area from:

5. Calculate the Young’s modulus from:

6.2 Deformation: Elastic & Plastic Behaviour YOUR NOTES

Elastic & Plastic Deformation

Below the elastic limit, the material exhibits elastic behaviour

Brittle and ductile materials

Stress-strain curve for a brittle and ductile material

6.2.2 Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES

Work done is the area under the force - extension graph

Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES

Calculating Elastic Potential Energy YOUR NOTES

Elastic potential energy can be derived from Hooke’s law

Where k is the spring constant (N m-1) and x is the extension (m)

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