UNIT Cultural Syncretism:

Bhakti Movement in India

13
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
„„Adi Sankara’s counter to the traditions of Jainism and Buddhism
„„Religious renaissance and the impact of devotional movement in south India
„„Conflicts between Saivism and Vaishnavism
„„Conflicts with sramanic sects of Jainism and Buddhism
„„Trends in Bhakti Movement of north India, due to the impact of Sufism and the influence
of Vaishnavite movement in Bengal
„„Monotheistic movement represented by Kabir, Guru Nanak and Ravidas and the reformist
approach of the Ramanujar school of thought

Introduction of a devotional or bhakti movement. Bhakti as

a religious concept means devotional surrender
Like all cultural traditions, religion too to a supreme god for attaining salvation. Even
does not exist in isolation. It adapts to existing though texts such as the Bhagavad Gita talk
situations and meets both social and spiritual about the path of bhakti, or bhakti-marga,
needs of the people. As a country with a long the movement gained force only in this
history, religion in India developed by interacting period. Historians argue that this emerged in
with various traditions. Vedic religion, which opposition to the ethical, fatalistic and atheistic
came with the advent of Aryan-speaking traditions of Jainism and Buddhism. Vedic
peoples to India, absorbed many elements from theism incorporated certain features from
the Indus civilization. Mother goddess worship both. While Adi Sankara provided Hinduism
had its origins in Harappa. Similarly an image with a philosophic doctrine of Advaita to
found in the Indus script has been identified as counter the heterodox religions it remained
that of Siva. The prime Vedic gods were Indra, at the intellectual level. It was the great Saiva
Varuna, Agni, etc. and it was only later that the Nayanmars and Vaishnava Azhwars, with their
worship of Siva and Vishnu developed. In the moving verses, gave form to the Bhakti doctrine
mid-first millennium before the Common Era and won the support of the people. Historians
(B.C.) two great religions emerged in the Indo- refer to this as the Bhakti movement. This
Gangetic valley: Buddhism and Jainism (apart movement, supported by the ruling kings, made
from other heterodox religions such as Ajivika) a deep and lasting impact on all aspects: social,
which challenged the orthodox Vedic religious political, religious, cultural and linguistic. Thus
practices. south India became the home of religious
Similarly, in the mid-first millennium of renaissance from the 7th to the 10th century.
the Common Era, in the southern country, a With theologians like Ramanuja it turned into a
great religious tradition flourished in the form philosophical and ideological movement in the
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 eleventh century. Inspired by many poet-saints Early Conflicts
the bhakti cult became widespread from 14th
The earliest instances of conflict between
century in the whole of India. We analyze here
Saivism and Vaishnavism on the one hand and
the general features of the bhakti movement, its
the Sramanic sects of Buddhism and Jainism
main proponents, the two different trends of the
on the other hand occurred during the Pallava
movement and its impact on social and cultural
period.
life of the people.
Mahendravarma Pallava I, a Jain by faith,
13.1  Bhakti Movement in persecuted those belonging to other religions.
the South Appar, a Jaina in his early life, called Darmasena,
The transformation of later turned to Saivism under the influence
a tribal society into a well- of his sister. Mahendravarma at the instance
structured social order and of his Jaina advisers tried to reconvert Appar
the emergence of a powerful first by persuasion and then by persecution.
monarchical system of But eventually it ended in the king himself
governance necessitated conversion to Saivism.
patronizing one religion or According to tradition, Sambandar
the other to legitimize authority. Buddhism and defeated the Jains in a theological debate and
Jainism were predominantly patronized by the consequently his opponents were impaled.
merchant class and they were also supported Maravarman Arikesari (640-670), also known
by the States. The Bhakti movement originated as Koon Pandyan, who converted from Saivism
among the landholding castes, and it was critical to Jainism, was later re-converted under the
of Buddhists and Jains. This also led to a fight influence of Sambandar. According to a Saivite
for royal patronage. legend, after his re-conversion, he ordered a
massacre of Jains in Samantham, a village in
Conflict with Buddhism & Jainism Madurai district.
Sources: The bhakti literature, mostly The philosophical treatises such as the Saiva
puranas and hagiographical texts, provide Siddhanta texts contain elaborate disputations
information about the religious conflicts in
of Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Some of the
Tamilnadu. Thevaram consists of the hymns by the
Saiva Siddhanta texts, such as Sivagnana Sithiyar,
three Nayanmars: Appar (Thirunavukkarasar),
contain a separate section called ‘parapakkam’
Sambandar (Thirugnanasambandar) and
which essentially refute Buddhist and Jain
Sundarar. Together these constitute the seven of the
theological arguments. Bhakti literature and
twelve Saiva Thirumurais. The Eighth Thirumurai
hagiography narrate instances of conflict and
consists of the hymns of Manickavasakar.
the defeat of heterodoxy. Inscriptions indicate
Many of these hymns articulate their criticism
that such conflict was accompanied by violence
of Jainism and Buddhism. Periyapuranam by
with the impaling of many monks.
Sekkizhar which narrates the stories of the sixty-
three Nayanmars is an important source for the Despite the sophisticated philosophical
study of the Bhakti movement. The hymns of disputation, it was the nature of the Bhakti
the Vaishnava saints, Azhwars, are compiled as movement and the royal patronage that it
Nalayira Divya Prabandham. The importance received that ultimately led to the downfall of
of the bhakti poems lie in the fact that they are Buddhism and Jainism. By the eleventh century,
still read, sung and revered by people, and they both these religions were effectively defeated.
also form an important part of Tamil literary While Buddhism was wiped out in the Tamil
tradition. Epigraphical sources and iconography country as in much of India Tamil-speaking
also provide much information. Jain communities have survived in pockets in
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 Tamilnadu to this day. Temples and shrines of protest against rites and ceremonies,
were destroyed or fell into disuse while many superstitions, and unwanted formalisms. A
artefacts were lost due to neglect and vandalism. popular monotheistic movement along with
To this day one can see decapitated statues of Vaishnava Bhakti movement came to be
Buddha and the Jain thirthankaras in many launched. The monotheists followed a path
parts of Tamilnadu. which was independent of dominant religions
Despite this, the orthodox and heterodox of the time, Hinduism and Islam. They denied
interacted with each other and they have left their allegiance to either of them and criticized
a mark. The idea of renunciation, which is superstitious and orthodox elements of both
central to Buddhism and Jainism, was adopted the religions.
by Saivites and Vaishnavites. In response to the The advent of Islam with the Turkish
simplicity and life negation of the heterodox conquest posed a challenge to Vedic scholars
sects bhakti movement celebrated life with and priests. By the end of the fourteenth
festivals and rituals. Similarly, the high value century Islam had spread to large parts of
accorded to vegetarian food habits and the India. A considerable section of the Indian
prohibition on killing of animals may be traced population had taken to Islam. Combined with
to this influence. The supremacy accorded to state power, the universal message of Islam
the Tamil language was a response to the fact with emphasis on equality attracted the lower
that the heterodox religions used north India sections of society.
Prakrits. Most importantly, bhakti exponents
posited that, unlike the fatalistic religions of The new political and social situation
Buddhism and Jainism, devotion to Vishnu and created conditions for the growth of non-
Siva could overcome fate. conformist movements with anti-caste,
anti-vedic and anti-puranic traditions. The
Thus Vedic Hinduism was transformed by resultant changes in the cultural sphere
the conflict with Buddhism and Jainism. were development of regional languages, the
13.2  Spread of Bhakti evolution of Hindustani, and of Indo-Muslim
music and architecture.
Movement to the
North India The Hindu response to Muslim political
power was complex. While there was
When the popularity of the bhakti considerable hostility to the new religion
movement in south India reached its peak,
there was also a tendency to internal reform to
the doctrine of bhakti was expounded at the
strengthen Hinduism so as to face the challenge.
philosophical level by a series of Vaishnava
An important outcome of the encounter was
scholars and saints. Ramanujar expounded
the rise of syncretic sects and major poets and
the philosophy known as Vishistadvaita, or
Saints such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Ravidas.
qualified monism. His teaching qualified Adi
Sankara’s emphasis on absolute monism or the 13.3 Impact of Sufism
oneness of the ‘supreme’ and the ‘souls’.
In parallel with the Bhakti movement in
If the Bhakti movement flourished in the Hinduism, Sufism played a similar role in Islam.
Tamil country from the seventh century, it was The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Fakir are used
only from the fifteenth century that there was for Muslim saints who attempted to develop
an extraordinary outburst of devotional poetry their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises,
in north India. The society had degenerated contemplation, renunciation and self-denial. By
into a caste-ridden community with practice the 12th century, Sufism had become an influential
of segregation, polytheism and idolatry. The aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over
religious minded saints raised their voice almost the entire Muslim community.
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 Sufism represents the inward or esoteric 5. They advocated the principle of Universal
side and the mystical dimension of Islam. Sufi brotherhood.
saints transcended religious and communal 6. They criticized idol worship.
distinctions, and worked for promoting the
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with
interest of humanity at large. The Sufis were a class
deep devotion.
of philosophers remarkable for their religious
catholicity and tolarance. Sufis regarded God 8. Arguing that all living beings, including
humans, were god’s children, they strongly
as the supreme beauty and believed that one
denounced caste system which divided
must admire it, take delight in His thought and
people according to their birth.
concentrate his attention on Him only. They
believed that God is ‘Mashuq’ (beloved) and 9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages
Sufis are the ‘Ashiqs’ (lovers). Sufism crystallized and fasts.
into various ‘Silsilahs’ or orders. The most 10. They did not consider any language
popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, as sacred and composed poems in the
Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis. language of the common people.
Sufism took root in both rural and urban
13.5  Proponents of Bhakti
areas, and exercised a deep social, political and
cultural influence on the masses. It rebelled Movement
against all forms of religious formalism, Kabir
orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and
Kabir is probably the
endeavoured to create a new world order in
most important cultural
which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal. At
figure of medieval
a time when struggle for political power was
India. His iconoclastic
the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded
poetry which ridiculed
people of their moral obligations. In a world ostentatiousness and
torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring ritual, and emphasized
peace and harmony. The most important the universality of god
contribution of Sufism is that it helped to won many adherents. Kabir
blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and Little concrete historical evidence is available
prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity on his life. He was probably a weaver. Said to
and brotherhood between these two religious be a disciple of Ramananda, he learnt Vedanta
communities. philosophy from him. According to the popular
Tazkirah-i-Auliya-i-Hind (Lives of Muslim
13.4  Salient Features of
Saints), he was a disciple of the Muslim Sufi,
Bhakti Movement Shaikh Taqi. Kabir was a religious radical who
1. The bhakti reformers preached the denounced with equal zest the narrowness
principles of monotheism (oneness of of sectarianism, both Hindu and Islam. His
God) message appealed to the lower classes of
Hindu community. The most salient features
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle
of his teachings is denunciation of polytheism,
of life and death. They advocated that the
idolatry, and caste. He was equally unsparing
salvation could be attained only by deep
in his condemnation of Muslim formalism. He
devotion and faith in God.
was a true seeker after God, and did his best to
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for break the barriers that separated Hindus from
obtaining the bliss and grace of God. Muslims. What appealed to the millions of
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors. his followers through the ages, however, is his

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 passionate conviction that he had found the the teachings of its other gurus, incorporates
pathway to God, a pathway accessible to the the writings of many Bhakti poets and Sufi
lowest as well as the highest. His poetry is still saints such as Ramananda, Namadeva, Kabir
recited across large parts of India. and Sheikh Farid.
Ravidas Chaitanya (1485–1533)
Ravidas was a Chaitanya of Bengal
poet saint of the bhakti represents an aspect of the
movement during the 15th bhakti movement that is
to 16th century. Venerated very different from that seen
as a guru (teacher) in in the lives and teachings
the regions of Punjab, of Kabir and his successors.
Chaitanya
Rajasthan, Maharashtra Chaitanya’s concern, unlike
and Madhya Pradesh, the Ravidas that of Kabir, was not with bringing people to
devotional songs of Ravidas made a lasting an understanding of a God, beyond all creeds
impact upon the bhakti movement. The life and formulations; it was to exalt the superiority
details of Ravidas are uncertain and contested. of Krishna over all other deities. It was, in other
Most scholars believe he was born in a family words, a revivalist, not a syncretic movement,
of tanners. Ravidas was one of the disciples of a return to a worship of Vishnu under one of
the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda. Ravidas’ his most appealing forms, the loving ecstatic
devotional songs were included in the Sikh Krishna.
Scriptures. Ravidas spoke against social divisions The Bengal Vaishnavites did not try to
of caste and gender, and promoted unity in the reform Hinduism. Instead, they emphasized
pursuit of personal spiritual freedoms devotion to Krishna. Chaitanya, however,
made disciples from all classes. He popularised
Guru Nanak (1469–1539)
the practice of group devotional singing
The saint with the accompanied by ecstatic dancing. His movement
biggest institutional became popular in Bengal and Orissa.
influence was Guru
Nanak who founded Namadeva
the Sikh religion which Namadeva, a son of
shows undoubted a tailor and an inhabitant
syncretic influence. As Guru Nanak of the village of Naras-
a monotheistic religion Vamani in Satara district
Sikhism emphasized the oneness of god and of Maharashtra, under the
adherence to a strict morality. Over two influence of Saint Janadeva,
centuries, under the leadership of its ten gurus, was converted to the path of
Sikhism expanded swiftly in the Punjab region bhakti. A staunch devotee of
winning numerous adherents. Sikh teachings Vithala (avatar of Vishnu) of
resulted in the creation of a strong sense of Pandarpur, Namdeva spent Namadeva
community. The politics of the times created much of his time in worship
conflicts with the Mughal empire leading to along with his followers, chanting mostly in
persecution which resulted in the martyrdom of his own verses. He wrote many abhangs (songs
its gurus. Guru Govind Singh was the last guru. composed and sung by saints in Maharashtra in
After him the Granth Sahib was considered the praise of God’s glory) in Marathi and Hindi. He
guru. While the teachings of Guru Nank is the travelled as far as Punjab where his teachings
Adi Granth. The Guru Granth Sahib, part from became so popular that they were later absorbed

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 in the Guru Granth. Love god with all your heart the path of love on God. Mirabai preached the
to lead a pious life surrendering everything to worship of God in the name of Krishna and
him with steadfast devotion is the essence of his stressed that no one should be deprived of His
message. divine grace on the ground of birth, poverty,
age and sex. Her devotional songs and lyrics
Ramananda (1400-1470)
constitute a rich cultural heritage. Her bhajans
While Chaitanya of are sung with fervour to this day. Her teachings
Bengal belonged to the carried the message of divine worship to almost
philosophical school of every Hindu household.
Madhavacharya (a chief
Sur Das
advocate of Dvaita school
of vedhanta), Ramananda Sur Das lived at
was of Ramanuja’s the court of Akbar
philosophical thought. and was popularly
Ramananda was born at Ramananda known as the blind
Prayag (Allahabad) and received his higher bard of Agra. Sur
education in Hindu religious philosophy at Das is believed to
Banaras and joined the school of Ramanuja as have been a disciple
a preacher. He visited the holy places of North of Vallabacharya
India and preached Vaishnavism. Ramananda who was a Vaishnava
introduced radical changes in Vaishnavism by preacher in the
founding his own sect based on the doctrine of Sultanate period.
Sur Das
love and devotion to Rama and Sita. He preached Vallabhacharya was
equality before God. He rejected caste system, the founder of Pushtimarga (way of grace). Sur
particularly the supremacy of Brahmins as the Das preached religion of love and devotion to a
sole custodians of Hindu religion. The people personal God. He wrote inspiring and moving
from the lower strata of the society became his poems, Hindi poems about Lord Krishna.
followers. His twelve disciples included Ravidas, Krishna’s bal lila constitutes the first great theme
Kabir and two women. Ramananda was the first of Sur Das poetry. According to him, love is a
to preach his doctrine of devotion in Hindi, the sublimated theme representing the irresistible
vernacular language. It gained him a good deal attraction of the gopis of Brindavan towards
of popularity among the people of all classes. Krishna. The intensity of passion displayed by
His followers were divided into conservative the gopis is an expression of the natural attraction
and radical schools. of the human spirit towards the divine soul. His
popular works are Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali and
Mirabai (1498-1546) Sahitya Lahari. His monumental work Sur Sagar
Mirabai was born or Sur’s Ocean is a story of Lord Krishna from
in Kudh of Merta district the birth to the departure for Mathura.
of Rajasthan. She was the
great granddaughter of Tuka Ram
Rana Jodhaji, founder of Tuka Ram was born in 1608 in a village near
Jodhpur. She was married Poona, Maharashtra. He was a contemporary
to Bhoj Raj, son of Rana of Maratha Shivaji and saints like Eknath and
Sanga of Mewar. She Ramdas. After his early life as a trader he started
became a devotee of Lord Mirabai spending his time singing devotional songs in
Krishna, left the palace and praise of his favourite deity Lord Vithoba of
began singing her songs (bhajans) and preaching Pandarpur.

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 Tuka Ram believed „„Impact of Sufism on Islam and its influence
in a formless God. in the evolution of a monotheistic religion
According to him, it was especially Sikhism are analyzed
not possible to enjoin „„The major proponents of bhakti movement
spiritual joy with worldly and the impact of their work in the north
activities. He stressed India are highlighted
the all-pervasiveness of Tuka Ram
God. He rejected Vedic sacrifices, ceremonies,
pilgrimages, idol worship, etc. He also preached EXERCISE
the virtue of piety, forgiveness and peace of
mind. He spread the message of equality and Q.R.Code
brotherhood. He tried to foster Hindu-Muslim
Unity. Some of his verses are devoted to this I. C
 hoose the
theme. He wrote his abhangas in Marathi
Correct Answer
13.6  Impact of the Bhakti 1. 
_________ provided Hinduism with a
Movement philosophic doctrine of Advaita.
(a) Adi Sankara (b) Ramanuja
Salvation which was previously considered
attainable, only by people of the first three (c) Ramananda (d) Chaitanya
orders in the social hierarchy became available 2. _________ refers to the conflict between the
to everyone. Bhakti movement provided women orthodox Vedic sects and Shramanic sects.
and members of the lower strata of the society an (a) Ramayana (b) Bagavatha purana
inclusive path to spiritual salvation. Literature on
devotional songs in regional languages became (c) Hagiographies (d) Bal lila
profuse. The poet-saints of this movement 3. _________ was known as Koon Pandyan.
championed a wide range of philosophical (a) Mahendravarman I
positions, ranging from theistic dualism of
(b) Maravarman Arikesari
Dvaita, to absolute monism of Advaita. Much
of the regional practices such as community (c) Narasimhavarman
singing, chanting together of deity names, (d) Sundara Pandyan
conducting festivals, going on pilgrimages, 4. Appar as a Jaina was known as _________
performing rituals relating to Saivism, and
(a) Harisena (b) Theerthankara
Vaishnavism have survived to this day.
(c) Sivagnana Sithiyar (d) Dharmasena
   SUMMARY 5. Fakir is the term used for_________
„„The protest and resistance of Jains and (a) Muslim saint (b) Buddhist
Buddhists to the authority of Orthodox Vedic (c) Hindu ascetic (d) Sikh guru
religion by making religion accessible to all, 6. Madhavacharya belonged to the philosophical
without caste or gender bias is dealt with school of _________
„„The persecution of Jains and Buddhists by (a) Dwaita (b) Advaita
Saivites with royal patronage is discussed
(c) Visistadvaita (d) Pushti marga
„„The transformation of Vedic religion while
conflicting with Jainism and Buddhism is 7. _________ was one of the disciples of the
explained Bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
„„The spread of bhakti cult to north India and (a) Chaitanya (b) Mirabai
its salient features are examined (c) Guru Nanak (d) Kabir
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 8. _________ was the first to preach his doctrine 2. What do you know about the contribution of
of devotion in Hindi. Ravidas to the Bhakti movement?
(a) Ravidas (b) Ramananda 3. What were Ramananda’s teachings?
(c) Kabir (d) Namadev 4. Mirabai’s songs and lyrics constitute a rich
cultural heritage - Explain.
9. _________ was known as ‘the blind bard of
Agra’ at the court of Akbar. 5. What were the two different attitudes of the
Hindu saints towards Islam?
(a) Surdas (b) Tukaram
(c) Ramananda (d) Mirabai III. Write Short Answers
10. 
_________ was the contemporary of the 1. South India became the home of religious
Maratha ruler Shivaji. renaissance. Explain.
(a) Ramananda (b) Mirabai 2. Analyse the teachings of (a) Sur Das (b) Tuka
Ram.
(c) Surdas (d) Tukaram
3. Kabir’s teachings.
11. Find out the correct statement
4. How did Chaitanya differ from Kabir?
(a) 
Appar, a Saiva in his early life, later
persuaded by his sister, turned to Jainism. 5. Point out the impact of the Bhakti Movement.

(b) Sufis regarded god as the supreme beauty. IV. Answer the following in detail
(c) The Bengal Vaishnavites tried to reform 1. Explain the impact of Sufism.
Hinduism by promoting Ram bhakti. 2. List out the salient features of the Bhakti
(d) 
Devotional songs of Ravidas were Movement.
included in the Buddhist Scriptures. Activity
12. A
 ssertion (A): The bhakti reformers 1. Prepare a biographical sketch of Kabir.
preached the principle of monotheism.
2. Highlight the impact of Bhakti Movement
Reason (R): They criticized idol worship on music and art.
(a) A is correct, R is not the correct explanation Assignment with Teacher’s
of A Guidance
(b) A and R are wrong 1. Prepare an album by collecting pictures of
(c) A is correct, R is the correct explanation Bhakti Saints.
of A 2. 
Visit some of the birth places of Bhakti
(d) A is wrong, R is correct saints in Tamilnadu and collect the details of
sthalapuranas of temples they served.
13. Match the following
(A) Kabir - 1. Sahitya Lahari REFERENCE BOOKS
(B) Sur Das - 2. Shaik Taqi
1. 
S. Krishnasawamy Aiyangar, Some
(C) Sufism - 3. Sambandar
Contributions of South India to Indian
(D) Koon Pandyan - 4. Weaver Culture, University of Calcutta, 1923.
(a) 2, 3, 4, 1 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3 2. R. Champakalakshmi, Religion, Tradition
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1 (d) 3, 4, 2, 1 and Ideology, Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Noboru Karashima, A Concise History of
II. Write Brief Answers South India, Oxford University Press, 2014.
1. 
Highlight the services rendered by 4. S.A.A. Rizvi, Wonder That Was India II,
Ramanujar for Bhakti cult ? Picador India, 2005.
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 GLOSSARY

Syncretism Amalgamation of different கலாச்சாரப் பரிமாற்றம்

religious and cultures
Hagiographical Excessive flattering account திருத்ெதாண்டர் வாழ்க்ைக பற்றிய
about the lives of saints புராணங்கள்
Intuitive Feeling to be true even without உள்ளுணர்வு
conscious reasoning
Bard Poet பாணர்
Sublimate Purify புனிதமாக்கு; விழுமியதாக்கு
Pervasiveness Presence felt throughout a எங்கும் நிைறந்ததாக; நீக்கமற
place or thing நிைறந்த
Ecstatic Joyful, blissful ேபரானந்த / அநுபூதி நிைல

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Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India

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