Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

KIRINYAGA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

SPM 2104

MATHEMATICS FOR SCIENCE

E- LEARNING MODULE

Year 2020
Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

INTRODUCTION
This module is designed to prepare Bachelor of Science students in the various mathematics
units. It gives a general introduction to all mathematics units. The main purpose for this unit
is to provide students with basic mathematical tools and abilities of algebra, trigonometry,
probability and statistics, which will provide support for further study of science-based
courses.

Objectives
By the end of this course the student should be able to;
1) Appreciate how to solve problems involving quadratic functions.
2) Be able to simplify expressions involving surds, logarithms and indices, and use
the techniques in applications.
3) Be able to solve problems in permutations and combinations.
4) Be able to handle series with their applications.
5) Be able to use the remainder theorem to factorize polynomials.
6) Appreciate the six trigonometric functions for any size of angle, and their
applications to solutions of a triangle.
7) Apply the addition, multiple angle and factor formulae, and their use in solving
trigonometric equations.
8) Be able to represent data using an appropriate graphical method.
9) Be able to determine measures of central tendency and variability for given data
10) Appreciate the classical and axiomatic approaches to probability.
11) Handle problems involving compound events in probability, conditional
probability, tree diagrams, and the binomial distribution.

Course Outline

Week Topic Sub – Topic Remark

1-2 Quadratic  Quadratic Functions

functions and  Properties of Quadratic equations roots
Equations  Remainder theorem and its application to
solution of factorizable polynomial
equations
3 Surds,  Rational and Irrational numbers
Logarithms  Indices and laws of indices
and indices  Logarithms
4 Permutations  Factorial notation
And  Permutations
Combinations  Combinations

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

5 CAT 1

6-7 Series  Finite and infinite

 Arithmetic
 Geometric
 Binomial (positive index only)
 Application to compound interest,
applications growth and decay
8-9 Trigonometry  Trigonometry functions: their graphs and
inverses
In degrees and radian Measure.
 Sine and Cosine formulae
 Addition formulae
 Multiple angle formulae
 Factor formulae
10 CAT 2

11 Statistics  Collection and Representation of data

 Measure of central tendency (Mean, Mode
and Median)

12 Statistics  Measure of Variability {by graphical and

calculation methods}
13-14 probability  Classical and Axiomatic Approaches to
probability
 Compound events
 Conditional probability
 Tree diagrams
 Binomial distribution

Teaching Methods
1. Lecture: oral presentation generally incorporating additional activities, e.g.
writing on a chalk-board, expression, class questions and discussions, or student
presentations.
2. Tutorial: to give the students more attention.
3. Online Sessions.
Assessment
1. Written end of semester Examination comprising 70% of the total marks.
2. Continuous Assessment Tests within the semester comprising 30% of the total
marks (Tests 20%, Assignments 10%)

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Course Reference Materials

Text Books

1. Uppal, S. M and H M Humphreys Mathematics for science New Age International,

India, 1996, ISBN: 8122409946
2. L. Bostock and S. Chandler. Core Mathematics for Advanced Level (3rd Edition). Stanley
Thornes (Publishers) Ltd. 2000, ISBN: 978 – 0748755097
3. Hungerford, T. W; Mercer, R., College algebra, (Saunders College Publishing), 1991,
ISBN:978- 0030595219
4. J. K Backhouse, S. P. T Houldsworth, and P. J. F Horril Pure Mathematics (Fourth
Edition) 1996 ISBN: 0582 353866

Course Journals

1. The Mathematical Scientist. Published/Hosted by Applied Probability Trust.

ISSN; 0312-3685.
2. African Journal of Mathematics, Computer Science and Research.
Published/Hosted by Academic Journals. ISSN: 2006-9731
3. International Journal of Science and Mathematics, Springer, ISBN: 1572 – 0068
4. International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, ISSN: 1927 –
5307

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... ii
Objectives................................................................................................................................... ii
Course Outline .......................................................................................................................... ii
Teaching Methods.................................................................................................................... iii
Assessment ................................................................................................................................ iii
Course Reference Materials .................................................................................................... iv
WEEK 1: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS .............................. 7
Quadratic Functions.................................................................................................................. 7
Properties of Quadratic equations roots ................................................................................ 7
QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 8
WEEK 2: REMAINDER THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATION TO SOLUTION OF
FACTORIZABLE POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS ............................................... 9
Polynomial Division ................................................................................................................. 9
The Remainder Theorem ......................................................................................................... 9
Factor Theorem ........................................................................................................................ 10
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 10
WEEK 3: SURDS, LOGARITHMS AND INDICES .......................................... 11
Surds ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Rationalization of the Denominator ..................................................................................... 11
Indices....................................................................................................................................... 12
Logarithms ............................................................................................................................... 12
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 13
WEEK 4: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS .................................... 14
Factorial Notation .................................................................................................................... 14
Permutation.............................................................................................................................. 15
Combinations .......................................................................................................................... 20
EXERCISE ................................................................................................................................ 22
WEEK 5: CAT I....................................................................................................... 22
WEEK 6: SERIES .................................................................................................... 23
Sequence of Numbers. ............................................................................................................... 23
Series. ........................................................................................................................................ 24
EXERCISE ................................................................................................................................ 33
WEEK 7: SERIES .................................................................................................... 35
Finite Arithmetic Series (A.P.) ............................................................................................... 35
Factorial .................................................................................................................................... 36
Binomial Theorem .................................................................................................................. 37
EXERCISE ................................................................................................................................ 42
WEEK 8: TRIGONOMETRY ................................................................................ 43
Trigonometric Functions ........................................................................................................ 43
Radian and Degree Measure of an Angle ..................................................... 44
Trigonometric Ratios in a Right-Angled Triangle.............................................................. 45
EXERCISE ................................................................................................................................ 46
WEEK 9: TRIGONOMETRY ................................................................................ 47
Double Angle Formulae ......................................................................................................... 47

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Sine rule and cosine rule ........................................................................................................ 52

WEEK 10: CAT II ................................................................................................... 55
WEEK 11: STATISTICS ........................................................................................ 56
Collection of Data ................................................................................................................... 56
Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................... 57
Diagrammatic Representation of Data ................................................................................. 61
Graphical Presentation ........................................................................................................... 68
WEEK 12: STATISTICS ........................................................................................ 69
Measures of Central Tendency .............................................................................................. 69
Measures of Variation ............................................................................................................ 88
WEEK 13: PROBABILITY................................................................................... 106
Approaches to Probability ................................................................................................... 107
Ways to Represent Probabilities ......................................................................................... 109
Rules of Probability .............................................................................................................. 109
Conditional Probability and Independence ...................................................................... 110
Tree Diagrams in conditional probability ......................................................................... 111
EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................ 112
WEEK 14: Revision /Examination week ........................................................... 114
Revision Questions ............................................................................................................... 114

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 1: QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Quadratic Functions
The parabola is a curve that was known and studied in antiquity. It arises from the
dissection of an upright cone.

With the advent of coordinate geometry, the parabola arose naturally as the graph of a
quadratic function. The graph of the function y = mx + b is a straight line and the graph of
the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c is a parabola. Since y = mx + b is an equation of
degree one, the quadratic function, y = ax 2 + bx + c represents the next level of algebraic
complexity.

An equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where x is the variable whose highest power is

two (degree 2) and a, b and c are constants is called a quadratic equation

The following methods exist for solving quadratic equations.

i. Factor method.
ii. Completing squares method.
iii. Using quadratic formula.
iv. Graphical method.

Properties of Quadratic equations roots

The relationships between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation

Any quadratic equation will have two roots (even though one may be a repeated root or the
roots may not even be real). We now consider some further properties of these two roots.
Suppose you know that the two solutions of a quadratic equation are 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 5 and
you want to find a quadratic equation having 2 and 5 as its roots. The method consists of
working backwards, i.e. following the steps for solving a quadratic equation but in reverse
order. Now if 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 5 are the solutions then the equation could have been factorised
as
(𝑥 = 2)(𝑥 = 5) = 0.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Expanding the brackets gives 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0. This is a quadratic equation with roots 2

and 5. Any multiple of this equation will have the same roots.

The General Case

Consider the most general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and suppose that the two
solutions are 𝑥 = 𝛼 and 𝑥 = 𝛽
Now if 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation then you can ‘work backwards’ to generate the
original equation.
A quadratic with the two solutions 𝑥 = 𝛼 and 𝑥 = 𝛽 is
(𝑥 − 𝛼 )(𝑥 − 𝛽 ) = 0.
Expanding the brackets gives
𝑥 2 − 𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 [1]
The most general quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and this can easily be written in
2

the same form as equation [1].

You can divide 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 throughout by 𝑎 giving
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 [2]
The coefficients of 𝑥 in [1] and in [2] are now both equal to 1. Since [1] and [2] have the
2

same roots, 𝛼 and 𝛽 , and are in the same form, you can write
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎

Equating coefficients of 𝑥 gives

𝑏 𝑏
− (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) = ⇒ (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) = −
𝑎 𝑎
Equating constant terms gives
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎

Note: 𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0

QUESTIONS
1. Use the methods put in brackets to solve the following quadratic equations
i. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 15 = 0 (Factor method)
ii. 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 3 = 0 (Completing Square)
iii. 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 (Quadratic formula)
iv. 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 13 = 0 (Completing Square)
2. Write down the sum and product of each of the following
i. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5 = 0
ii. 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 3 = 0
3. Given that 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 4 and 𝛼𝛽 = 7, find the values of:
1 1
i. +𝛽
𝑎
ii. 𝛼 2𝛽2
iii. 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 2: REMAINDER THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATION TO

SOLUTION OF FACTORIZABLE POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
Polynomial Division
The division of the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) by the polynomial 𝑑(𝑥) produces a quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and a
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) and so we can write
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).
The key idea in performing the division is to keep working with the leading terms, as the
following example shows.

In this example, we see that the quotient is 𝑞(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 14 and the remainder
is 𝒓(𝒙) = 24. We can perform a partial check by substituting 𝒙 = 2 into the last line.
It can be seen from the above example that the degree of the remainder is less than the
degree of the divisor, since otherwise, we could continue the division. Thus, in the case
when is a linear factor, the remainder will be a constant and so we can write it as .
In general, we can now write 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟(𝑥) = 0, or,

0 ≤ 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (𝑟(𝑥)) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (𝑑(𝑥)).

The Remainder Theorem

Long division of polynomials is a cumbersome process and, in some instances, we are only
interested in the remainder. This does not appear until the end of the computation. When we
divide a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) by a linear factor (𝑥 – 𝑎), we can find the remainder quite easily.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Since the divisor is linear, 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟 where r is a constant.

Substituting
𝑥 = 𝑎
Into both sides, we have 𝑟 = 𝑝(𝑎).

Thus, the remainder is equal to the polynomial evaluated at 𝑥 = 𝑎

This surprising result is called the Remainder Theorem. We should keep in mind that it
says nothing at all about the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and only works when we are dividing by a linear
factor (𝑥 – 𝑎).

Factor Theorem
Factoring quadratics is an important technique which we used to solve quadratic equations.
In a similar way, we would like to be able to develop some techniques to factor polynomials.
If the linear polynomial (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) then we can write 𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 – 𝑎) and so the remainder when p(x) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎) is equal to 0. Using the
remainder theorem, we have just proven:

Theorem
(𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) if 𝑝(𝑎) = 0. If 𝑝(𝑎) ≠ 0, then (𝑥 – 𝑎) is not a factor
of 𝑝(𝑥). The number 𝑎 which gives 𝑝(𝑎) = 0 is called a zero of the polynomial.

QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following are factors of 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥3 – 6𝑥2 + 11𝑥 – 6?
(x – 2), (x + 1), or (x – 1)
2. The polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) = 3𝑥6 – 5𝑥3 + 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 10 is divisible by 𝑥 + 1 and
𝑥 – 2. Find the values of the coefficients a and b.
3. Factorise the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 2𝑥 3 – 8𝑥 + 16.
4. Solve 𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 – 7𝑥 3 – 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 3: SURDS, LOGARITHMS AND INDICES

Surds
Definition of terms;
Radical
For all real 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0 , and all integers 𝑎 > 0 ,
𝑎
√𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑎
where,
𝑎 is the index
√ is the radical

𝑥 is the radicand.

A number which can be expressed as a fraction of integers (assuming the denominator is

5 3
never 0) is called a rational number. Examples of rational numbers are 2 , − 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.
A number which cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers is called an irrational
3
number. Examples of irrational numbers are 2 , √7 = and 𝜋 .

An irrational number involving a root is called a surd. Surds occur frequently in

trigonometry, calculus and coordinate geometry. Usually, the exact value of a surd cannot be
determined but an approximate value of it can be found by using calculators or mathematical
tables. In this section, √𝑎 means the positive square root of 𝑎 while
−√𝑎 means the negative square root of 𝑎.

General Rules of Surds

i. Multiplication of surd
√𝑎 𝘹√𝑏 = √𝑎𝘹𝑏 for example, √3 𝘹√12 = √3𝘹12 = √36 = 6
ii. Division of surds
√𝑎 𝑎 √72 72
√𝑎 ÷ √𝑏 = √𝑏 = √𝑏 for example, √72 ÷ √2 = √2
= √2 = 6
These rules are useful for simplifying two or more surds of for combining them into one
single surd.

Note, however, that √3 + √6 ≠ √3 + 6 and √9 − √5 ≠ √9 − 5 which can be easily checked by

a calculator; and, therefore, in general √𝑎 + √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + 𝑏 and √𝑎 − √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 − 𝑏

Rationalization of the Denominator

4
When a fraction has a surd in its denominator, e.g. , it is usual to eliminate the surd in the
√3
denominator. In fact, the writing of surds in the denominators of fractions should be avoided.
The process of removing this surd is called rationalizing of the denominator.

√m + √n and √m − √n are specially related surds known as conjugate surds. The product of
conjugate surds is always a rational number.

2
(√𝑚 + √𝑛 ) (√𝑚 − √𝑛 ) = (√𝑚 )2 − (√𝑛) = 𝑚 − 𝑛 (Give examples)

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Indices
If a positive integer 𝑎 is multiplied by itself three times, we get 𝑎3 , i.e. 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎3 . Here
𝑎 is called the base and 3, the index or power. Thus 𝑎4 means the 4th power of 𝑎.

In general, 𝑎𝑛 means the nth power of 𝑎, where 𝑛 is any positive index of the positive integer 𝑎.

Rules of Indices
There are several important rules to remember when dealing with indices.
If a, b, m and n are positive integers, then

i. 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
ii. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
iii. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
iv. 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑎𝑚 = (𝑎𝑥𝑏)𝑚
𝑎 𝑚
v. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑚 = ( )
𝑏
vi. 𝑎0 = 1
1
vii. 𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛
1
viii. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛√𝑎
𝑚 𝑚
ix. 𝑎 𝑛 = ( 𝑛√𝑎)

Give examples in each

Logarithms
Definition:
For any number y such that 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1)1), the logarithm of 𝑦 to the base 𝑎 is
defined to be 𝑥 and is denoted by 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦.
Thus if 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Note:
The logarithm of 1 to any base is 0, i.e. log 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0
The logarithm of a number to a base of the same number is 1, i.e. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
The logarithm of a negative number is undefined.

Laws of Logarithms
i. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
ii. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
iii. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑝 = 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚

Changing the Base of Logarithms

Logarithms to base 10 such as 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑥 + 1) are called common logarithms. An
alternative form of writing 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5 is lg5. Common logarithms can be evaluated using a
scientific calculator.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Logarithms to base e such as 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 3 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 are called Natural logarithms or Napierian
logarithms. Natural logarithms are usually written in an alternative form, for example, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 3
is written as ln 3. (Note: e = 2.718...)

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏
If a, b, and c are positive numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 1, then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑎
𝑐

QUESTIONS
1 1
1. Simplify, without using tables or calculators, the value of 3− + 3+
√2 √2
1
3 5
2. Simplify √𝑎 ÷ √𝑎2 𝑥(𝑎−1 )2

3. Solve the equation 22𝑥+3 + 2𝑥+3 = 1 + 2𝑥

4. Solve the simultaneous equations 3𝑥+𝑦 = 243, 22𝑥−5𝑦 = 8
41 41
5. Without using tables, evaluate 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 35 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 70 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5
6. Given that 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 4 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑝 = 2, calculate the value of p without using tables or
calculators.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 4: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

Factorial Notation

Definition
The number of ways of arranging n distinct object is denoted by 𝑛! and is read as 𝑛
factorial.

NB 𝑁! = 𝑁 × (𝑁 − 1) × (𝑁 − 2) × (𝑁 − 3) × (𝑁 − 4) × (𝑁 − 5) × … × 3 × 2 × 1

For example
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
3! = 3 × 2 × 1
2! = 2 × 1
1! = 1

Now

4! = 4 × 3!
3! = 3 × 2!

By convention 1! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging one object. What is the value
of 𝟎!?

𝒏! = 𝒏 × (𝒏 − 𝟏)! … … … … … … … (𝒊)

Replacing 𝑛 by 1 in the equation 𝑖 above we have

1! = 1 × (1 − 1)!
1! = 1 × 0!
1! = 0!
1 = 0!

Hence the value of 𝟎! = 𝟏

Examples;
Simplify
15! 15!
+
11! 4! 12! 3!
Solution
Get the L.C.M
12(15!) + 4(15!)
=
12! 4!
15! (16)
=
12! 4!
16 × 15!
=
12! 4!
16!
=
12! 4!

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12!
=
12! 4!
16 × 15 × 14 × 13
=
4!
16 × 15 × 14 × 13
=
4×3×2×1
= 4 × 5 × 7 × 13
= 1820

Simplify
35! 3 × 35!
+
16! 19! 17! 18!
18 × 17 × 35! + 19 × 18 × 3 × 35!
=
19! 18!
35! (18 × 17 + 19 × 18 × 3)
=
19! 18!
35! × 18(17 + 19 × 3)
=
19! 18!

35! × 18(17 + 57)

=
19! 18!
35! × 18 × 57
=
19! 18!

35! × 57
=
19! 17!

Simplify

16! 2 × 16! 16!

+ +
9! 7! 10! × 6! 11! 5!

Permutation
Definition
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order. The number
of ways of arranging n distinct objects is called permutations.

For example, the three letters A, B, C can be arranged in concurrent positions as

𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶𝐵, 𝐵𝐴𝐶, 𝐵𝐶𝐴, 𝐶𝐵𝐴, 𝐶𝐴𝐵.

There are 6 arrangements (3!) for the three letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶. When the three letters are
arranged in 3 consecutive positions

3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

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Alternative approach
If we have the letters 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶, we can have 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 in the first positions. There are 3 distinct
ways of filling the first positions.

Once the first position is filled, two letters remain and any of them can be used in the
second position.

For each of the three ways of filling the 1st position, we have 2 ways of filling the 2nd
position.

The third position can be filled in any 1 way and therefore the total number of
arrangements is= 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

Therefore:
The number of arrangements or permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects is
given by:

𝒏!
𝒏𝒑𝒓 =
( 𝒏 − 𝒓) !

Where 𝑟 < 𝑛 and is an integer

Consider a situation where 4 letters are to be filled in two positions. How many different
permutations are there for the 2 objects chosen from 4 distinct objects?

Solution
There are 4 ways of filling the 1st position.
Once the first position is filled 3 letters remain i.e, there are three ways of filling the 2nd
position.

Therefore, the number of arrangements of two objects chosen from the 4 distinct objects will
be

4! 4! 4×3×2×1
= = = 12
2! (4 − 2)! 2×1
The same way arranging 5 letters

5! 5! 5×4×3×2×1
= = = 20
3! (5 − 2)! 3×2×1

The arrangements of 5 letters in 3 distinct objects

5! 5! 5×4×3×2×1
= = = 60
2! (5 − 3)! 2×1

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Example
In a lottery trial, 1000 tickets were sold. Determine the possible winners of the 1 st, 2nd, and
3rd prices if 3 tickets are drawn one after another.

Solution
1000!
1000𝑝3 =
(1000 − 3)!
1000!
1000𝑝3 =
997!
1000 × 999 × 998 × 997!
=
997!
= 1000 × 999 × 998

Example
Five letter words are formed from the letters of the word TIEGROUP. How many of these
words have no repeated letters?

Solution
8!
8𝑝5 =
( 8 − 5)!
8!
8𝑝5 =
3!
8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
8𝑝5 =
3×2×1
8𝑝5 = 8×7×6×5×4
8𝑝5 = 6720

Remarks
In some cases, objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be alike eg CHOOSE

Now if we have objects of which 𝑟1 of the 1st kind are alike, 𝑟2 of the 2nd kind are alike, 𝑟3 of
the 3rd kind are alike ….., 𝑟𝑙 of the 𝑙th kind are alike, then the total number of distinct
permutation is
𝑛!
𝑟1 ! 𝑟2 ! 𝑟3 ! … . 𝑟𝑙 !

Example
Determine the number of permutations of the letters of the word
CHOOSE
6!
=
2!

ARRANGE
7!
=
2! 2!

SPEEDOMETERS

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12!
=
2! 4!

MISSISSIPPI
11!
=
4! 4! 2!

How many even numbers greater than 2000 can be formed by the digits 1, 2, 4,8 if each digit
can be used only once in each number?

2 × 1 × × 3 =12
2

4th 3rd 2nd 1st

If the number 𝑏 > 2000, the first digit can be chosen in three ways i.e 2,4,8. Whichever has
been chosen there to be the first digit, there are two ways in which the fourth digit can be
chosen in order to make the number even.
The second digit can now be chosen in two ways and this leaves one integer for the third
position.

How many arrangements can be made of three letters chosen from PEAT if the 1 st letter is a
vowel and each arrangement contain three different letters?
3rd 2nd 1st
2 × 3 × 2 =12 ways

How many ways can 5 different books be arranged on a shelf

1 × 2 × ×3 × 4 × × 5

=5!
=120 ways

How many ways can 8 people be seated in a round table

= (8 − 1)! = 7!
= 5040

Example
How many odd numbers greater than 500000 can be made from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
 Without repetition
 With repetition
Solution
6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
3 × 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 1 =72 where 3 = ones decimal place

2 × 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 1 =48 where 5 = ones decimal place

2 × 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 1 =48 where 3 = ones decimal place

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= 72 + 48 + 48 = 168 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
With repetition

3 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 1 Where 3, 5, 7 = ones decimal place

The number of different numbers greater than 500,000 is

3[3 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 1] = 11,664
Example
How many odd numbers greater than 500,000 can be made from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
 Without repetition
 With repetition

Solving for a
NB The number can either be six-digit number or a seven digit number
6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
4 2 3 4 5 1 =480 where 3 =ones decimal place

3 2 3 4 5 1 =360 where 5=ones decimal place

3 2 3 4 5 1 =360 where 7=ones decimal place

Total= 480 + 360 + 360 = 1200

Consider a seven-digit number

6 1 2 3 4 5 1

=720 where 3, 5, 7 are in the ones decimal place hence = 720 × 3 = 2160

Hence there are (2160 + 1200) = 3360 numbers greater than 500000 which can be made
from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8

Example
Determine the number of permutations of the letters of the word
ARRANGE
 Letters N and G are to be together
 The letters R and R are to be together

Solution:
Total permutation
7!
=
2! 2!

7×6×5×4×3×2×1
=
(2 × 1)(2 × 1)

= 1260

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The number of permutations in which G and N are together is equal to

6! × 2 6!
= = = 360
2! 2! 2!

Hint 2 is because of (NG or GN)

The number of permutations in which N and G are not together =1260 − 360 = 900

Remarks
The number of arrangements of 𝒏 people seated around the table is (𝒏 − 𝟏)!

Combinations
In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important. In some cases, the order
of selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order.

Definition
When the selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order is referred to as
combinations.

For example, 𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶𝐵, 𝐶𝐵𝐴 are different permutations but they are the same combinations
of letters

Example 1
How many committees of three persons can be made from five persons namely, Andrew,
Beatrice, Charles, Duncan and Eunice?

Solution
Let us denote Andrew, Beatrice, Charles, Duncan and Eunice by letters A, B, C, D, E
respectively.
The committees or combination of three people may be:
ABC ACE BDE
ABD ADE CDE
ABE BCD
ACD BCE

There are 10 different committees or combination of three persons from five.

In general, the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n objects can be given by

𝒏 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏) … (𝒏 − 𝒓 + 𝟏)
( )=
𝒓 𝒓 ( 𝒓 − 𝟏) … 𝟏

This can also be written in terms of factorials where

𝑛!
𝑛𝑐𝑟 =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

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In the previous example, the number of combinations of 3 persons chosen from 5 is

5 5!
5𝑐3 = ( ) =
3 3! 2!
5 × 4 × 3!
=
3! × 2!
= 10
Example 2
Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. How many ways can this be
done?

Solution
20! 20 × 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15!
20𝒄𝟓 = =
5! 15! 5! 15!
20! 20 × 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15!
20𝒄𝟓 = =
5! 15! 5×4×3×2×1
= 4 × 19 × 6 × 17 × 2
= 15504
Example 3
A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9
women. In how many ways can this be done?

Solution
5 men can be selected from 7 men in 7𝑐5 ways
6 women can be selected from 9 women in 9𝑐6 ways
A mixed team containing 5 men and 6 women is selected in
= 7𝑐5 × 9𝑐6
7! 9!
= ×
5! 2! 6! 3!
7 × 6 × 5! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
= ×
5! 2! 6! 3!
7×6 9×8×7
= ×
2! 3!
7×3 9×8×7
= ×
1 3×2×1
= 21 × (3 × 4 × 7)
= 21 × 84
= 1764

Example 4
A girl wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 6 of them. In how many ways can
she choose who to invite if two of them are sisters and must not be separated

Consider the two cases

When both sisters are invited
When neither sister is invited
For the 1st option, i.e if the two sisters are invited, then she needs to select 2 out of 6

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6! 6×5
6𝑐2 = = = 15 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2! 4! 2!
From the 2nd option, i.e if two sisters are not invited, then the girls will have to choose 4 out
of 6 in

6! 6×5
6𝑐4 = = = 15 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
4! 2! 2!

Total number of ways = (15 + 15)𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

= 30 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Remarks
Since she has two options, i.e 1st or 2nd, then we add 15 to 15 in order to get 30

EXERCISE
1. A committee of 6 is to be selected from 9 women and 3 men. In how many ways can
members be chosen so as to include at least one man?
2. A committee of 10 is to be chosen from 9 men and 6 women. In how many ways can
it be formed if at least 4 women are to be in the committee?
3. 9 people are going to travel in two taxis. The large taxi has 5 seats and the smaller has
4. In how many ways can the party be split?

WEEK 5: CAT I

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WEEK 6: SERIES
Sequence of Numbers.
 A sequence is an ordered set of numbers that most often follows some rule (or
pattern) to determine the next term in the order.
 A sequence may be finite or infinite.
Example

𝐴 = {2, 4,6,8,10,12,14 } finite sequence

𝐵 = {2, 4,6,8,10,12,14 ⋯ } infinite sequence

A finite or infinite sequence is either ascending, descending or oscillatory.

Examples.

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ⋯ Ascending infinite sequence

1 1 1
1 + + + ⋯ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2 4 8
−1, 2, −3, 4, −5, …oscillating sequence.

A sequence is defined by giving the rule that defines a general term.

Consider a general sequence denoted by

𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , … … … … . . 𝑢𝑛 ⋯

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … ….
Example
i) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … … 𝑢𝑛 … = 2𝑛
ii) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ⋯ 𝑢𝑛 ⋯ = 𝑛2
1 1 1 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 1, , , ⋯ 𝑢𝑛 ⋯ =
2 4 8 2𝑛
iv) −1, 2, −3, 4, −5, ⋯ 𝑢𝑛 ⋯ = 𝑛(−1)𝑛
Exercise.

1. Find the next 3 terms in the following sequence.

a) 2, 5, 8, 11,14, 17, ⋯ ⋯
b) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ⋯ ⋯
1 3 7
𝑐) 1, 1 , 1 , 1 ⋯ ⋯
2 4 8
𝑑) 1, 3, 6, 11,
𝑒) 8, 5, 2, −1, ⋯ ⋯
1 1
𝑓) 3, 1 , 0, −1 , ⋯ ⋯
2 2

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𝑔) 1, −1, 1, −1, … …
1 1 1
ℎ) 1, − , ,− ⋯⋯
2 4 8
2. Write down the first 10 terms of the following sequence: for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … …
𝑎) 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛 𝑏) 𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 7 𝑐) 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 𝑛2 𝑑) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛2 + 1)

𝑛 1
𝑒) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑓) 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑔) 𝑢𝑛 = 1 −
𝑛+1 2𝑛

Series.
A series is the summation of the terms of a sequence. The Greek letter sigma Σ is used to
represent the summation of terms of a sequence of numbers.

Given a sequence such as

𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , … … … … . . 𝑢𝑛

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … … . 𝑛

Where 𝑢𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the sequence

Summation (series) of n terms will be

𝑛

∑ 𝑢𝑖 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛
𝑖=1

The series can either be finite or infinite depending on the respective sequence.

A finite series is a summation of a finite number of terms. An infinite series has an infinite
number of terms whose upper limit is infinity.
Example

Finite series.
7

𝑖) ∑ 𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 28
𝑖=1
6

𝑖𝑖) ∑ 2𝑘 = 23 + 24 + 25 + 26 = 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 = 120
𝑘=3
4

𝑖𝑖𝑖) ∑ 𝑛𝑛 = 11 + 22 + 33 + 44 = 1 + 4 + 27 + 256 = 288

𝑛=1

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Infinite series

Example.

Consider the following infinite series

∞

𝑖) ∑ 2𝑛 = 2 + 4 + 8 + 10 + ⋯
𝑛=1
∞
1 1 1 1
𝑖𝑖) ∑ = 1 + + + ⋯⋯
2𝑛 2 4 8
𝑛=1

An infinite series will either diverge to an infinity as the upper limit or converge to a finite
value. This will form base of investigation of convergence of series which is outside the scope
of this unit.
Types of sequence/series

There two main types of sequences

i) An arithmetic sequence; this one in which successive terms differ by the same
amount known as common difference.

Example

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 ⋯ ⋯
The common difference is 2 since each term in the sequence is obtained by adding
3 to the previous term

ii) A geometric sequence; is one in which the quotient of any two successive terms is
a constant known as common ratio.
Example
1 1 1 1
1, , , , ⋯⋯
2 4 8 16
1
The common ratio between any two successive terms in the sequence is 2

Similarly, there are two main types of series, the Arithmetic progressive series
(A.P.) and Geometric Progressive series (G.P.) for the respective sequences.
Finite arithmetic series or progression (AP)

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between

any two successive terms is a constant number called the common difference (𝑑).

Let the first term = 𝑎

The second term = 𝑎 + 𝑑

The third term = 𝑎 + 2𝑑

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The fourth term = 𝑎 + 3𝑑

⋮
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Therefore, 𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝑇𝑛 or the last term is given by

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Where 𝑎 is the first term in the sequence.

Summing up the finite number of terms in the arithmetic sequence we get a finite
arithmetic series.

Example.

Find the sum of the first 100 natural numbers.

Solution.
This is an arithmetic sequence where 𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 1

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑇𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛 = 100
100

∑ 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ⋯ + 100
𝑛=1

This would either mean doing the physical addition of the 100 terms which would
definitely take relatively much time or manipulate the arithmetic using the
following simpler approach by the great mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss.

Steps.

 Arrange the numbers in ascending order

 Write the numbers in descending order
 Add together the corresponding pairs of terms
 Simplify the equation for sum of 100 terms (𝑆𝑛 ).
𝑆100 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ ⋯ + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100
𝑆100 = 100 + 99 + 98 + 97 + ⋯ ⋯ + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1
2𝑆100 = 101 + 101 + 101 + 101 + ⋯ ⋯ + 101 + 101 + 101 + 101
2𝑆100 = 101(100)
𝑆100 = 101(50)
𝑆100 = 5050

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Sum of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ terms of an Arithmetic series will be

 Start with the general formula for an arithmetic sequence of 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

 Sum it from the first term 𝑎 to the last term in the sequence.
𝑛

∑ 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛
𝑛=1

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑) + + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 2𝑑 ) + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎
2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
Or
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑇𝑛 )
2
Examples

1. Find the sum of the series

S n  3  1  1  ...  45

Solution
n
Sn a  Tn , a  3, d  2, n  ?
2
48
 45  3  (n  1)d  n  1   n  25
2
S 25 
25
3  45  25(21)  525
2
2. Write down the terms indicated in each of the following APs
a) 3  1  ..............16 th , 19 th
b) 8  5  ................15th , 31st
1 7
c)   ..................15th , n th
4 8

d) 50  48  ...................................100 th , n th .
e) 3  7  ........................................200 th , (n  1 )th

3. Find the number of terms in the following APs.

a) 2  4  6  .......  46

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b) 50  47  44  .....  14
c) 2.7  3.2  ......  17.7
d) a  a  1  .......  (a  n  1)
e) 2  7  12  ....  77
4. Find the sum of the following A.P. as far as the terms indicated
a) 20  14  ........................20 th term
b) 6  16  26  ...........200 th term.
1
c) 1  1  ..................................n th term
4
d) 3  6  ................15 th term
5. The second terms of an AP.

Questions

1. Calculate the sum of the first 500 terms in the arithmetic sequence
𝑇𝑛 = 3 + 7(𝑛 − 1)
Solution.
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, 𝑎 = 3, 𝑑 = 7, 𝑛 = 500
Hence,
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
500
𝑆500 = (2(3) + (500 − 1)7)
2
500
𝑆500 = (6 + 3493)
2
𝑆500 = 250(3499)
𝑆500 = 874750
2. Calculate the sum of the first 762 terms in the arithmetic sequence
𝑇𝑛 = 7𝑛 − 5
Solution.
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑,
𝑇𝑛 = 7𝑛 − 5
= 7(𝑛 − 1 ) + 7 − 5
= 2 + 7(𝑛 − 1)

∴ 𝑎 = 2, 𝑑 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 762
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2

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𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
𝑆762 = 381(4 + (761)7)
𝑆762 = 381(4 + 5327)
𝑆762 = 381(5331)
𝑆762 = 2031111
3. Find the sum of the series
−5 − 3 − 1 + ⋯ + 123
Solution.

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, 𝑎 = −5, 𝑑 = 2, 𝑇𝑛 = 123, 𝑛 =?

123 = −5 + (𝑛 − 1)2
128
∴ =𝑛−1
2
𝑛 = 64 + 1
= 65
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
65
𝑆65 = (−10 + (64)2)
2
65
𝑆65 = (−10 + 128)
2
65
𝑆65 = (118)
2
𝑆65 = 65(59)
𝑆65 = 3835
4. Given an arithmetic sequence with 𝑇2 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 3, determine how many
terms must be added together to give a sum of 2146.
Solution.
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, 𝑑 = 3, 𝑇2 = 7, 𝑎 = 𝑇1 = 7 − 3 = 4, 𝑛 =? 𝑇𝑛 =?

𝑆𝑛 = 2146
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2

𝑛
2146 = (2(4) + (𝑛 − 1)3)
2
4292 = 𝑛(8 + 3𝑛 − 3)

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4292 = 5𝑛 + 3𝑛2
3𝑛2 + 5𝑛 − 4292 = 0

−5 ± √25 + 51504
𝑛=
6
−5 + 227
𝑛=
6
222
𝑛=
6
222
=
6
𝑛 = 37
𝑆37 = 2146
5. The sum of the second and third terms of an arithmetic sequence is equal to
zero and the sum of the first 36 terms of the series is equal to 1152. Find the
first three terms in the series.
Solution.
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑,
𝑇1 = 𝑎, 𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑
𝑇2 + 𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 0
2𝑎 = −3𝑑
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 36, 𝑆36 = 1152
2
1152 = 18(2𝑎 + 35𝑑 )
1152
= (−3𝑑 + 35𝑑 )
18
64 = 32𝑑
𝑑=2
3𝑑
𝑎=−
2
𝑎 = −3
But,
𝑇1 = 𝑎, 𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑
Therefore, first 3terms are
𝑇1 = 𝑎 = −3, 𝑇2 = −3 + 2 = −1, 𝑇3 = −3 + 4 = 1

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Exercise

1. Determine the value of k:

𝑘

∑ (−2𝑛) = −20
𝑛=1

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑘 = 4
2. The sum to n terms of an arithmetic series is
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (7𝑛 + 15)
2
a) How many terms of the series must be added to give a sum of 425?
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑛 = 10
b) Determine the sixth term of the series.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑇𝑛 = 46
3. a) The common difference of an arithmetic series is 3. Calculate the values of n for
which the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the series is 93, and the sum of the first n terms is 975.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑛 = 13 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 50
b) Explain why there are two possible answers
4. The third term of an arithmetic sequence is -7 and the seventh term is 9.
Determine the sum of the first 51 terms of the sequence.
Ans. 4335
5. Calculate the sum of the arithmetic series
4 + 7 + 10 + ⋯ + 901.
𝑆300 = 135750
6. Evaluate without using a calculator:
4 + 8 + 12 + ⋯ + 100
3 + 10 + 17 + ⋯ + 101

𝑆25 25
𝐴𝑛𝑠. =
𝑆15 15
7. The second term of an arithmetic sequence is −4 and the sum of the six terms of the
series is 21.
a) Find the first term and the common difference.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑑 = 5, 𝑎 = −9
b) Hence, determine 𝑇100
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑇100 = 486

8. Determine the value of the following;

8 8

𝑎) ∑ (7𝑤 + 8) 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑆9 = 324 𝑏) ∑ 7𝑗 + 8 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑆8 + 8 = 260

𝑤=0 𝑗=1

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9. Determine the value of 𝑛

𝑛

∑(2 − 3𝑐 ) = −330
𝑐=1

Ans.𝑛 = 15

10. The sum of n terms of an arithmetic series is 5𝑛2 − 11𝑛 for all values of n.
Determine the common difference.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑑 = 10
11. The sum of an arithmetic series is 100 times its first term, while the last term is
9times the first term. Calculate the number of terms in the series if the first term is
not equal to zero.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑛 = 20
Properties of Finite series.

General properties for arithmetic and geometric series which will be applied in
calculating series whose general term is a polynomial.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖 ± 𝑏𝑖 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ± ∑ 𝑏𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑎𝑖 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Theorems of finite series.

The following theorems give formulas to calculate series with common general terms.
These formulas, alongside with the properties above, make it possible to solve any series
with polynomial general term as long as each individual term has a degree of 3 or less.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑖) ∑1 = 𝑛 𝑖𝑖) ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖) ∑𝑖 =
2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
𝑖𝑣) ∑ 𝑖 = 𝑣) ∑ 𝑖 3 = ( )
6 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Theorem for finite Arithmetic progressive series

Consider the following AP series

{𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )}

Then,

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

𝑛−1
𝑛
∑ 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑑 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 )
2
𝑘=0

Theorem for finite Geometric progressive series (GP)

Suppose the following geometric series is given

{𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 }

Then,
𝑛−1
𝑘
𝑟𝑛 − 1
∑ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 ( )
𝑟−1
𝑘=0

EXERCISE
i) Solve the series.
20

∑ 2𝑡 2 + 7𝑡
𝑡=1
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 7210
ii) Solve the series.
15

∑ 3𝑘 3 + 2𝑘 2 + 9
𝑘=1
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 45815

Telescoping sums
A telescoping sum is a summation where successive terms cancel each
other out.
For example
𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖+1 − 𝑎𝑖 = (𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ) + (𝑎3 − 𝑎2 )(𝑎4 − 𝑎3 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) + (𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛 )

𝑖=1

(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ) + (𝑎3 − 𝑎2 )(𝑎4 − 𝑎3 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) + (𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛 )

𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎1
iii) Find the sum of geometric series
2 + 8 + 32 + 128 + ⋯ + 8192
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 10922

Solution.

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{𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 }
8 32 128
𝑎=2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 8192 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = = = =4
2 8 32
2(4)𝑛−1 = 8192
(4)𝑛−1 = 4096 = 46

𝑛=7
6
𝑘)
47 − 1
∑ 2(4 = 2( )
4−1
𝑘=0

= 10922

iv) Calculate
6
1 𝑘−1
∑ 32 ( )
2
𝑘=1
Ans. 63

v) Use the general formula for the sum of geometric series to determine k if
8
1 𝑛 255
∑𝑘( ) =
2 64
𝑛=1
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑘 = 4

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 7: SERIES
Finite Arithmetic Series (A.P.)
Geometric Series

Geometric series is an infinite series of the form

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 …
𝑛=0

where 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜.

A simple example is the geometric series for

1
𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟
2
∞
1 1 1
∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = 1 + + + …
2 4 8
𝑛=0

Which converges to 2.

1. Derive the general expression for the sum of the first n terms of the series
Solution

Use partial sums 𝑆𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 (𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
(1 − 𝑟)𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
This is the general expression for the sum of first 𝑛 terms of the series.

Prove that the infinite series (sometimes called the geometric series)
∞

𝑆 = ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 …
𝑛=0

a) Converges to
𝑎
𝑖𝑓 |𝑟| < 1
(1 − 𝑟)

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b) Diverges if |𝑟| > 1

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑆 = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞

𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛+1 )
𝑎) 𝑆 = lim 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑟| < 1 𝑟 𝑛+1 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞ ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒,
𝑛→∞ 1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − 0)
𝑆=
1−𝑟
𝑎
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛+1 )
𝑏) 𝑆 = lim 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑟| > 1 𝑟 𝑛+1 → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞ ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑛→∞ 1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − ∞ )
𝑆= = 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
1−𝑟

Factorial
A factorial is the product of natural numbers less than or equal to a given natural number. It
is denoted by introducing an exclamation mark after the number.

For instance, factorial 6 is written as 6! This is expressed as

6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
Factorial 7 as 7! And expressed as

7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 etc.

Factorial are commonly encountered in the evaluation of permutations and combinations

and also in determining of the coefficients of binomial expansion terms.

Factorial have been generalized to include non-integral terms and is outside the scope of this
unit.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Binomial Theorem
Binomial Expansion

1
A binomial is the sum or difference of two terms. For example, 𝑥 + 𝑦, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦, 4𝑥 − 3 𝑦 e.t.c.

are all binomials

PASCAL’S TRIANGLE

11

121

1331

14641

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1

Consider the following expansions

(𝑥 + 𝑦)0 = 1

(𝑥 + 𝑦)1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

(𝑥 + 𝑦)4 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4

(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5

(𝑥 + 𝑦)6 = 𝑥 6 + 6𝑥 5 𝑦 + 15𝑥 4 𝑦 2 + 20𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 15𝑥 2 𝑦 4 + 6𝑥𝑦 5 + 𝑦 6

Writing the coefficient of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘 in a triangular array we obtain

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

11

121

1331

14641

1 5 10 10 5 1

Example

Expand (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)3 in descending of X

Solution

From the pascal’s triangle, the coefficients of power 3 are 1 3 3 1

(2𝑥 + 3𝑦)3 = (2𝑥)3 + 3(2𝑥)2 (3𝑦) + 3(2𝑥)(3𝑦)2 + (3𝑦)3

= 8𝑥 3 + 36𝑥 2 𝑦 + 54𝑥𝑦 2 + 27𝑦 3

Example

1
Obtain the expansion of (2𝑥 − 2) in descending powers of x

Solution

Coefficients of 4 are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1

−1 1 2 1 3 1
= (2𝑥) + (4)(2𝑥)3
4
+ 6(2𝑥) (− ) + 4 2𝑥 (− ) + (− )4
2 ( )
2 2 2 2

1
= 16𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 +
16

Exercise

Use the pascal’s triangle to expand

i) (1 − 𝑥 )3
1
ii) (𝑥 + 4)4

iii) (2𝑥 − 1)3

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Binomial Theorem

If n is a positive integer, then

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎1 𝑏𝑛−1
0 1 2 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑛
+ ( ) 𝑎0 𝑏𝑛
𝑛

Where

𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

Which is an expression for n Combination r i.e. nCr

Examples

Find the coefficient of 𝑥 10 the expansion (2𝑥 − 3)14

Solution

In the function (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 is (𝑛𝑟)𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟

Hence the coefficient of 𝑥 10 is given by

14 14−4
=( )2 (−3)4
4

= 14𝑐4 214−4 (−3)4

14!
= (2)(10) (−3)4
4! (14 − 4)!

14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10!
= (2)(10) (−3)4
4! × 10!

= 7 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 32 × 32 × 81

= 83,026,944

Find the coefficient of 𝑥 6 in the expansion (2𝑥 − 3)14 is

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

𝑛
= ( ) (2𝑥 )𝑛−𝑟 (−3)𝑟
𝑟

= 14𝑐8 26 (−3)8

14! 6
= 2 (−3)8
8! 6!

Example

Find the term independent of 𝑥 in the expansion of

1
i) (𝑥 + 𝑥)14
1
ii) (2𝑥 − 𝑥)12
1
iii) (3𝑥 − 24)8

The term independent of x in

NB term independent of x is the term where the power of x is 0.

i.e (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 the general term of the binomial expansion is given by

𝑛
𝑡𝑟+1 = ( ) (𝑎𝑥)𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟
𝑟

The term independent of x is where 𝑛 − 𝑟 = 0

1
= (𝑥 + )14
𝑥

14 7 1 7
=( )𝑥 ( )
7 𝑥

14
=( )
7

14!
=
7! 7!

14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
=
7! 7!

14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8
=
7!

The constant term independent of 𝑥 in the expansion

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

1 12 1
(2𝑥 − )12 = ( ) (2𝑥)6 (− )6
𝑥 6 𝑥

12 1
= ( ) (2)6 𝑥 6 (−1)6 ( )6
6 𝑥

12
= ( ) (2)6
6

The constant term independent of 𝑥 in the expansion

1 8 8 1
(3𝑥 + ) = ( ) (3𝑥)0 ( )8
2𝑦 8 2𝑦

1 8
=( )
2𝑦

Example

1
Obtain the 1st 4 terms of expansion (1 + 2 𝑥)10 in ascending power of 𝑥. Hence find the

value of (1.005)10 correct to 4 decimal places.

Solution

1 1 1 1
= 10𝐶0 110 ( 𝑥)0 + 10𝐶1 19 ( 𝑥)1 + 10𝐶2 18 ( 𝑥)2 + 10𝐶3 17 ( 𝑥)3
2 2 2 2

1 1 1
= 1 × 1 × 1 + 10 × 1 × 𝑥 + 45 × 1 × 𝑥 2 + 120 𝑥 3
2 4 8

45 2
= 1 + 5𝑥 + 𝑥 + 15𝑥 3
4

(1.005)10 = [1 + 0.005]10

1
= [1 + (0.01)]10
2

45
= 1 + 5(0.01) + (0.01)2 + 15(0.01)3
4

= 1 + 0.05 + 0.001125 + 0.000015

= 1.05114

= 1.0511 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 4 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

Example

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Obtain the expansion of (1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )8 as far as the terms in 𝑥 3

Solution

Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2

(1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )8 = (1 + 𝑦)8

8 8 8 8
= ( ) 18 𝑦 0 + ( ) 17 𝑦 + ( ) 16 𝑦 2 + ( ) 15 𝑦 3
0 1 2 3

= 1 + 8𝑦 + 28𝑦 2 + 56𝑦 3

= 1 + 8(𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 ) + 28(𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )2 + 56(𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )3

= 1 + 8(𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 ) + 28(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 4 ) + 56(𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 6 )

= 1 + 8𝑥 − 16𝑥 2 + 28𝑥 2 − 112𝑥 3 + 112𝑥 4 + 56𝑥 3 − 336𝑥 4 + 672𝑥 5 − 448𝑥 6

= 1 + 8𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 3

EXERCISE
Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following

a) (1 + 𝑥)16 3𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

b) (3 + 2𝑥)6 4𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
c) (2 − 𝑥)20 15𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
3
d) (2 + 2 𝑥)8 5𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Use binomial theorem to find the values of

a) (1.01)10 3𝑑𝑝
b) (2.001)10 6 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
c) (0.997)12 3𝑑𝑝
d) (1.998)8 2𝑑𝑝
Expand the following as far as the term in 𝑥 3

a) (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )3
b) (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )6
c) (2 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )7
d) (3 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )4

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

WEEK 8: TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometric Functions
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words ‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ which
means measuring the sides of a triangle.
Angle definition.

Amount of opening between two lines about the vertex

Or

An angle is the amount of rotation of a revolving line with respect to a fixed line.

If the rotation is in clockwise direction the angle is negative and it is positive if the rotation
is in the anti-clockwise direction.

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Radian and Degree Measure of an Angle

Units commonly used for measuring angles are radians or degree measures. The
radian measure is employed in advanced mathematics and in many branches of
science.

Figure: Radian Measure of an Angle

Let AB be an arc on the circle of length r. We define the magnitude of angle AOB

which the arc AB subtends at the center as one radian. Since circumference of a circle
is 2𝜋𝑟, it subtends at the center an angle of
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
= = 2𝜋 radians
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑟
But we know the number of degrees in a circle is 3600 . Hence 2π radians = 360◦, which
𝜋
means that π radians = 1800 . Thus 1 radian =1800 ≈ 57.30 Thus 10 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

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Trigonometric Ratios in a Right-Angled Triangle

Trigonometric relations

 The sine, cosine and tangents are functions of the angle

Basic Trigonometric Relations

sin  cos 
i. Ratios: tan   , cot  
cos  sin 
1 1 1
ii. Reciprocals: sec   , cos ec or csc  , cot  
cos  sin  tan 
iii. Identities: cos   sin   1, sec   1  tan  , csc   1  cot 2 
2 2 2 2 2

iv. Negative angle formulae; sin(  )   sin  , cos(  )  cos  , tan(  )   tan 

Compound Angles Relation

Six compound angles identities
i. cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
ii. cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
iii. sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A
iv. sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A
tan A  tan B
v. tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
vi. tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
Note: v, and vi are derived from the I, ii, iii and iv.

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EXERCISE
Using the above identities prove
i. 2 sin 2   1  cos 2 ii. 2 cos 2   1  cos 2
iii. 2 sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
iv. 2 cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
v. 2 sin A cos B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
vi. 2 sin B cos A  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
 A B  A B
vii. sin A  sin B  2 sin   cos 
 2   2 
 A B  A B
viii. cos A  cos B  2 cos  cos 
 2   2 
tan A  tan B
ix. tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

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WEEK 9: TRIGONOMETRY
Double Angle Formulae
Making 𝐴 = 𝐵

sin 2 A  2(sin A cos A)......... .......... .......( i )

cos 2 A  cos2 A  sin 2 A.......... .......... .....(ii)

cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A,

but cos 2 A  sin 2 A  1
 cos 2 A  1  sin 2 A,
 sin 2 A  1  cos 2 A,

Substituting for cos 2 A in (ii) above yields

cos 2 A  1  sin 2 A  sin 2 A

 cos 2 A  1  2 sin 2 A

Substituting for sin 2 A in (ii) above yields

cos 2 A  cos 2 A  (1  cos 2 A)

 cos 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1
Exercise

Show that

2 tan A
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A

Worked Examples
15 5
1. Given sinA  , cosB 
17 13
a) Find
i) cosA and sinB
Solution
2
 15 
cos A  1  sin A  cos A  1   
2

 17 
289  225 64 8
 cos A   cos A   cos A 
289 289 17
2
5
sin B  1  cos 2 B  sin B  1   
 13 

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

169  25 144 12
 sin B   sin B   sin B 
169 169 13

ii. sin( A  B)

Solution
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A
15 5 12 8
 sin( A  B)    
17 13 13 17
75 96 171
 sin( A  B)   
221 221 221

iii. sin( A  B)
iv. cos( A  B)
v. cos( A  B)
vi. cos 2 A vii. sin 2B
vii. cos( B  A)  cos( B  A)
viii. cos( B  A)  cos( B  A)
ix. sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
x. sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
 A B  A B
xi. sin   cos 
 2   2 
 A B  A B
xiii. cos  cos 
 2   2 
tan A  tan B
xiv.
1  tan A tan B
Solutions
tan A  tan B
ii) Find
1  tan A tan B

Solution
2
 15 
cos A  1  sin A  cos A  1   
2

 17 
289  225 64 8
 cos A   cos A   cos A 
289 289 17
2
5
sin B  1  cos 2 B  sin B  1   
 13 
169  25 144 12
 sin B   sin B   sin B 
169 169 13

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Solution
tan A  tan B
ii)
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
sin( A  B)
tan( A  B)  .
cos( A  B)

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A. .

15 5 12 8
 sin( A  B)    
17 13 13 17
75 96 171
 sin( A  B)   
221 221 221
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin B sin A.
8 5 12 15
 cos( A  B)    
17 13 13 17
40 180 140
 cos( A  B)   
221 221 221

sin( A  B) 171 221

tan( A  B)   
cos( A  B) 221  140
171

221

9 8
2. Given sinA  , and cosB 
41 17
a) Find
iii) cosA and sinB
tan A  tan B
iv)
1  tan A tan B

Solution

9 8
sinA  , and cosB 
41 17
2
9
cos A  1  sin A  cos A  1   
2

 41 
1681  81 1600 40
 cos A   cos A   cos A 
1681 1681 41

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

2
8
sin B  1  cos 2 B  sin B  1   
 17 
289  64 225 15
 sin B   sin B   sin B 
289 169 17
Solution
tan A  tan B
ii)
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
sin A 9 41 9
tan A    
cos A 41 40 40
sin B 15 17 15
tan B    
cos B 17 8 8
tan A  tan B 9 15  66 33
 tan A  tan B    
1  tan A tan B 40 8 40 20
tan A  tan B 9 15 27 95
 1  tan A tan B  1    1 
1  tan A tan B 40 8 68 68
tan A  tan B  33 68
 
1  tan A tan B 20 95
 33 17 561
  
5 95 475
Repeat as question 4(a) above.
3. Find
a) sin B and cos A

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

b) sin( A  B)
Solution
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A
3 5 4 12
cos A  , cos B  , sin A  , sin B 
5 13 5 13

c) cos( A  B)
Solution
cos c( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
3 5 4 12
cos A  , cos B  , sin A  , sin B 
5 13 5 13

d) sin( A  B)
Solution
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A
3 5 4 12
cos A  , cos B  , sin A  , sin B 
5 13 5 13

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e) cos( A  B)
Solution
cos c( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
3 5 4 12
cos A  , cos B  , sin A  , sin B 
5 13 5 13

Sine rule and cosine rule

i) Notation.
 Given a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, the angles are denoted by the capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 while
the lengths of the sides opposite these angles are denoted by 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.

i. Sine rule

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In any triangle ABC

a b c
   2R
sin A sin B sin C
Or
sin A sin B sin C 1
  
a b c 2R

where R is the radius of the of the circumcircle of the triangle ABC.

Prove!

ii. Cosine rules.

In any triangle ABC

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Summary.

Area of Any Triangle

Prove

But,

h  asinC hence, Area of any triangle ABC is given by

1 1 1
A ab sin C  ac sin B  cb sin A .
2 2 2

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Also, it easily be proved that this formula can be written as

A  s(s  a)( s  b)( s  c) wher e 2s  a  b  c (Heron’s formula)

WEEK 10: CAT II

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WEEK 11: STATISTICS

Collection of Data
Data constitute the foundation of statistical analysis and interpretation. Hence the first step
in statistical work is to obtain data. Data can be obtained from three important sources,
namely:

Secondary Data

Like all scientific pursuits, in statistics also the investigator need not begin from the very
beginning; he may use and must take into account what has already been discovered by
others. When an investigator uses the data, which has been already collected by others, such
data are called Secondary data. Secondary data can be obtained from journals, reports,
government publications, publications of research organizations, trade and professional
bodies, etc. However, secondary data must be used with utmost care, the reason being that
such data may be full of errors because of bias, inadequate size of the sample, substitution,
errors of definition, arithmetic errors, etc. Even if there is no error, secondary data may not
be suitable and adequate for the purpose of inquiry. Hence, before using secondary data the
investigator should examine the following aspects:

a. Whether the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation: The suitability of data can
be judged in the light of the nature and scope of investigation.
b. Whether the data are adequate for the purpose of investigation: Adequacy of the data is
to be judged in the light of the requirements of the survey and the geographical area
covered by the available data.
c. Whether the data are reliable:
 The following tests, if applied, may be helpful to determine how far the given data are
reliable:
1. Was the collecting agency unbiased or did it “have an axe to grind”?
2. If the enumeration was based on a sample, was the sample representative?
3. Were the enumerators capable and properly trained?
4. Was there a proper check on the accuracy of field work?
5. Was editing, tabulating and analysis carefully and conscientiously done?
6. What degree of accuracy was desired by the compiler? How far was it achieved?

Internal Data

Internal data refer to the measurements that are the by-product of routine business record
keeping like accounting, finance, production, personnel, quality control, sales, etc. Since
internal data originate within the business, collecting the desired information does not
actually offer much difficulty. The particular procedure depends largely upon the nature of
facts being collected and the form in which they exist. The problem of collection is primarily
that of having the proper record made at the time the information is secured.

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Primary Data

Primary data are measurements observed and recorded as part of an original study. The
work of collecting original data is usually limited by time, money, and manpower available
for the study. When the data to be collected are very large in volume, it is possible to draw
reasonably accurate conclusions from the study of a small portion of the group called a
sample. The actual procedures used in collecting data are essentially the same whether all the
items are to be included or only some items are considered.

There are two basic methods of obtaining primary data, namely:

a. Questioning: Data are collected by asking questions from people who are thought to
have the desired information. Questions may be asked in person, or in writing. A
formal list of such questions is called a questionnaire.
b. Observation: When data are collected by observation, the investigator asks no
questions. Instead, he observes the objects or actions in which he is interested.
Sometimes individuals make the observations; on other occasions, mechanical devices
observe and record the desired information.

Presentation of Data
After the data have been collected, the next step is to present them in some suitable form. The
need for proper presentation arises because of the fact that statistical data in raw form almost
defy comprehension. Frequently the first stage in presenting data is to produce a table. When
the data consists of a few figures, it can be easily presented and understood. But when the
number of figures is very large, a proper classification is essential for analysis and deriving
valid differences.

Frequency Distribution

One such method of classification is in the form of a frequency distribution. The frequency
of a value is the number of times a value is repeated. When the number of observations is
small and we have repetitions of the values, we can arrange them in the form of a table
according to their magnitudes with corresponding frequencies. Such a table is called
frequency table. For example, if the marks obtained by students on final examinations are:
18, 12, 9, 11, 12, 11, 6, 18, 19, 11, 12, 9, 3, 11, 8, 9, 11, 9, 8, 12.

The frequency table is obtained as follows:

Marks(X) 3 6 8 9 11 12 18 19

Frequency(f) 1 1 2 4 5 4 2 1

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Classification according to class-intervals

When the number of observations is large and the difference between the greatest and the
smallest values is large, we have classification according to class intervals. The following
technical terms are important when data are classified according to class-intervals:

i. Class limits: The class limits are the lowest and the highest values that can be included
in the class. For example, take the class 20 – 40. The lowest value of this class is 20 and
the highest is 40. The two boundaries of a class are known as the lower limit and
upper limit of the class. The lower limit of a class is the value below which there can
be no value in that class. The upper limit of a class is the value above which there can
be no value in that class.
ii. Class-intervals: The span of a class, that is, the difference between the upper limit and
the lower limit, is known as class-interval. For example, in the class 20 – 40, the class
interval is 20 (40 minus 20).
iii. Class frequency: The number of observations corresponding to the particular class is
known as the frequency of that class or the class frequency.
iv. Class mid-point: It is the value lying half-way between the lower- and upper-class
limits of a class-interval. Mid-point of a class is ascertained as follows:
Upper Limit of the class  Lower Limit of the class
Mid-point of a class =
2
For the purpose of further calculations in statistical work the mid-point of each class
is taken to represent that class.

There are two methods of classifying the data according to class-intervals, namely;

(a) “Exclusive” method: When the class-intervals are so fixed that the upper limit of one
class is the lower limit of the next class, it is known as the “Exclusive” method classification.
The following data are classified on this basis;

Income ($) No. of Employees Income ($) No. of Employees

5000 – 6000 50 8000 – 9000 150

6000 – 7000 100 9000 – 10000 40

7000 – 8000 200 10000 and above 10

Total 550

It is clear that the “exclusive’ method ensures continuity of data inasmuch as the upper limit
of one class is the lower limit of the next class. Thus, in the above example, there are 50
employees whose income is between $5000 and $5999.99. An employee who is getting exactly
$6000 would be included in the class 6000 – 7000. This method is widely followed in practice.
However, it is confusing to a layman who has no knowledge of Statistics.

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(b) “Inclusive” method: Under the “Inclusive” method of classification, the upper limit of
one class is included in that class itself. The following data are classified on this basis;

Income ($) No. of Employees Income ($) No. of Employees

5000 – 5999 50 8000 – 8999 150

6000 –6999 100 9000 –9999 40

7000 – 7999 200 10000 – 10999 10

Total 550

In the class 5000 – 5999, we include employees whose income is between $5000 and $5999. If
the income of an employee is exactly $6000, he is included in the next class. The above
example makes it clear that there is no confusion here of the type we find under the
“exclusive’ method.

Principles of Classification

i. The number of classes should preferably be between 5 and 15. However, there is no
rigidity about it. The classes can be more than 15 depending upon the total number of
observations in the data and the details required. Struges suggested the following
formula for determining the approximate number of classes:
k  1  3.322 log( N ) Where

k = the approximate number of classes, N = Total number of observations and

log = The ordinary logarithm to the base of 10.

However, the precise number of classes to be used for a given variable depends upon
personal judgment and other considerations such as the details required the ease of
calculation of further statistical work, etc.

ii. The classes should be mutually exclusive.

iii. The starting point, i.e., the lower limit of the first class, should either be zero or 5 or
multiples of 5. For example, if the lowest value of the data is 63 and we have taken a
class-interval of 10, then the first class should be 60 – 70, instead of 63 – 73.
iv. To ensure continuity and to get correct class-interval we should adopt “exclusive”
method of classification. However, where “inclusive” method has been adopted it is
necessary to make an adjustment to determine the correct class-interval and to have
continuity. The adjustment consists of finding the difference between the lower limit
of the second class and the upper limit of the first class, dividing the difference by two,
subtracting the value so obtained from all lower limits and adding the value to all
upper limits. This can be expressed in the formula as follows;

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Lower Limit of the 2nd class  Upper Limit of the 1st class
Correction factor =
2
How the adjustment is made when the data are given by inclusive method can be seen
from the following example:

Income ($) No. of Employees Income ($) No. of Employees

5000 – 5999 5 8000 – 8999 18

6000 –6999 10 9000 –9999 12

7000 – 7999 15 10000 – 10999 4

Total 64

To adjust the class limits, we take the difference between 6000 and 5999 which is one. By
diving it by two we get ½ or 0.5. This (0.5) is called the correction factor. Deduct 0.5 from the
lower limits of all classes and add 0.5 to all upper limits. The adjusted classes would then be
as follows:

Income ($) No. of Employees Income ($) No. of Employees

4999.5 – 5999.5 5 7999.5 – 8999.5 18

5999.5 – 6999.5 10 8999.5 – 9999.5 12

6999.5 – 7999.5 15 9999.5 – 10999.5 4

Total 64

v. Whenever possible all classes should be of the same size.

Example 1

Let the marks of 50 students of a class be:

46 58 54 52 55 59 52 62 65 67

64 63 77 78 92 6 7 12 18 16

3 23 25 25 27 81 88 24 29 22

34 33 30 37 36 42 48 28 22 28

17 13 70 37 32 36 41 40 43 44

We can arrange them as follows;

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Marks Frequency Marks Frequency

0 – 10 3 50 – 60 6

10 – 20 5 60 – 70 5
20 – 30 10 70 – 80 3

30 – 40 8 80 – 90 2

40 – 50 7 90 – 100 1

Total 50

Data organized and summarized as in the above frequency distribution is called grouped data.

Diagrammatic Representation of Data

1. Histogram

Consists of a set of rectangles drawn vertically on each class interval. For a grouped
frequency distribution, the histogram is drawn by taking the class intervals on the X-axis and
drawing rectangles on each of these class intervals with areas proportional to the frequencies
of the respective classes.
Example 2

Represent the following data by a histogram.

Marks Frequency Marks Frequency

0 – 10 5 50 – 60 10

10 – 20 11 60 – 70 8

20 – 30 19 70 – 80 6

30 – 40 21 80 – 90 3

40 – 50 16 90 – 100 1

Total 100

Solution

The histogram of the above data is given below:

2. Frequency Polygon

To draw a frequency polygon, we plot the frequencies against the corresponding mid values
of the class intervals. The points joined by straight lines give the frequency polygon.

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Example 3

Plot the frequency polygon of the marks of students given in example 2 above.
Solution

Marks Frequency Midpoint

0 0

0 – 10 5 5

10 – 20 11 15

20 – 30 19 25

30 – 40 21 35

40 – 50 16 45

50 – 60 10 55

60 – 70 8 65

70 – 80 6 75

80 – 90 3 85

90 – 100 1 95

0 105

Note:

It is customary to add the extensions PQ and RS to the next lower and next higher midpoints
which have corresponding class frequencies of zero.

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3. Frequency Curve

The frequency curve is obtained by joining the points plotted as above by means of freehand
smooth curve.

4. Cumulative Frequency Curve (“Less Than” Ogive Curve)

The cumulative frequency curve is obtained by first plotting the points with the upper-class
boundaries of class interval in the X-axis and their corresponding cumulative frequencies.
The points are joined by means of a freehand smooth curve. The cumulative frequency curve
is specifically called “Less than” Ogive curve.
Example 4

Plot the “Less than” ogive curve of the marks of students given in example 2 above.

Solution

Marks Frequency Cumulative frequency Upper class boundary

0 – 10 5 5 10

10 – 20 11 16 20

20 – 30 19 35 30

30 – 40 21 56 40

40 – 50 16 72 50

50 – 60 10 82 60

60 – 70 8 90 70

70 – 80 6 96 80

80 – 90 3 99 90

90 – 100 1 100 100

From the graph there are “y” students who scored less than “x” marks.

“More Than” Ogive Curve

If we plot the “more than” cumulative frequencies against the corresponding lower-class
boundaries and join the points by a smooth curve we get a “more than” ogive curve.

Example 5
Plot the “More than” ogive curve of the marks of students given in example 2 above.

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Solution

Marks Frequency More than cumulative frequency Upper class boundary

0 – 10 5 100 0

10 – 20 11 95 10

20 – 30 19 84 20

30 – 40 21 65 30

40 – 50 16 44 40

50 – 60 10 28 50

60 – 70 8 18 60

70 – 80 6 10 70

80 – 90 3 4 80

90 – 100 1 1 90

0 100

From the graph there are “y” students who scored more than “x” marks.

The value of x at the intersection of the two graphs is the median value.

5. Graphs

A graph is any pictorial representation of data where the Cartesian co-ordinates are used.
The independent variable is shown on the x-axis and the dependent variable along the y-
axis. A graph should have a clear and comprehensive title. It should be proportional with the
horizontal and vertical scales chosen carefully so as to give the best possible appearance. The
scales should accommodate the whole data and a false baseline may be used to avoid an
unnecessarily elongated axis. The table from which the data used to plot the graph should be
given alongside the graph and on index used to show the meaning of different curves used
in a graph. If the data plotted is not original, then the source of data or information must be
shown at the base of the graph.

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Example 6

A researcher has obtained data on the total sales revenue and cost of production ABC Ltd
Company shown below; plot a graph for the data.

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6

Cost of production (000) Sh 40 30 35 30 25 20

Total Revenue (000) Sh 20 30 40 45 50 55

Figure: ABC Ltd Total Revenue – Cost graph for the lasts six years

6. Pie-Charts

A pie chart presents data in the form of a circle. The slices represent absolute or relative
proportions. A pie chart is formed by making of a portion of the pie corresponding to each
characteristic being displayed.

Example 7

A researcher studying the distribution of manufacturing costs in ABC Ltd found that 20% of
the firm’s unit cost is due to labor, 40% raw materials, 25% maintenance costs and 15% debt
servicing. Present this information in a pie chart.

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Figure: A pie chart representing the distribution of ABC Ltd per unit manufacturing cost
during the year.

7. Bar Charts

A bar chart comprises a number of spaced rectangles, which generally have their major axes
vertical. They can be used to represent a large variety of statistical data.
Example 8

Consider data relating to the number of patients diagnosed with Bacterial meningitis in a
hospital each year.

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

No.of patients 141 225 205 108 192

300
Number of
patients

200

100

0
2001

This data can be represented by the bar chart as shown below.

Notice that it is now easy to see that variations in the number of cases over this period of
time.

The number of patients diagnosed with Bacterial meningitis in a hospital during the period
2001 – 2005

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8. Multiple Bar charts

Bar charts often prove most useful if we have two (or more) sets of comparable data, and
wish to compare and contrast them.

Example: Suppose that apart from the data relating to the number of patients diagnosed with
Bacterial meningitis in a hospital each year, we also have the corresponding numbers for
Malaria cases.

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Number of patients 141 225 205 108 192

(Meningitis)

Number of patients 321 251 123 547 148

(Malaria)

Component Bar Charts

In this type of bar chart each bar is subdivided into two or more components.

Example: Suppose further that the data in the example above is grouped according to sex as
follows:

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Number of Male 100 125 90 20 102

patients

Number of Female 41 100 115 88 90

patients

Total Patients 141 225 205 108 192

This data can be represented in a component bar chart as shown in the figure below. Looking
at this presentation, it is possible to discern two main features; firstly, we can see how the

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meningitis cases vary from year to year and secondly we can get a good idea of the make-up

250

200
patients

150
Males Female
100

50

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

year

of this total in terms of proportions of patients who are male or female.

Graphical Presentation
Graphical presentation is one of the commonest methods used. Graphs can and do provide
an extremely useful method of presenting statistical data in a form, moreover, that the
majority of the people will understand. Consider for example the sales data for some
company over a period of six years as shown in the table below;
Year 2000 20001 2002 2003 2004
Sales (Ksh) 420,000 370,000 360,000 380,000 540,000

This original data can be presented in a graphical form as follows;

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
2000 20001 2002 2003 2004

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WEEK 12: STATISTICS

Measures of Central Tendency
 In the previous chapters, data collection and presentation of data were discussed.
Even after the data have been classified and tabulated one often finds too much details
for many uses that may be made of the information available.
 We, therefore, frequently need further analysis of the tabulated data. One of the
powerful tools of analysis is to calculate a single average value that represents the entire
mass of data.
 An “average” is a single value which is considered as the most representative or
typical value for a given set of data. Such a value is neither the smallest nor the largest
value, but is a number whose value is somewhere in the middle of the group.
 For this reason, an average is frequently referred to as a measure of central tendency
or central value.

Objectives of Averaging

There are two main objectives of study of averages:

(i) To get one single value that describes the characteristics of the entire data.

Measures of central value, by condensing the mass of data in one single value, enables
us to get an idea of the entire data.

(ii) To facilitate comparison.

Measures of central value, by reducing the mass of data in one single value, enables
comparisons to be made. Comparison can be made either at a point of time or over a
period of time.

Characteristics of A Good Average

Since an average is a single value representing a group of values, it is desirable that such a
value satisfies the following properties:

(i) It should be easy to understand.

Since statistical methods are designed to simplify complexity, it is desirable that an

average be such that can be readily understood, its use is bound to be very limited.

(ii) It should be simple to compute.

It should be simple to compute so that it can be used widely; however, it should not
be sought at the expense of other advantages.

(iii) It should be based on all observations.

The average should depend upon each and every observation so that if any of the
observation is dropped average itself is altered.

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(iv) It should be rigidly defined.

An average should be properly defined so that it has one and only one interpretation.

(v) It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.

We should prefer to have an average that could be used for further statistical
computations.

(vi) It should have sampling stability.

We should prefer to get a value which has what statisticians call “sampling stability”.

(vii) It should not be affected by the presence of extreme values.

Although each and every observation should influence the value of the average of the
average, none of the observation should influence it unduly.

The following are the important measures of central tendency which are generally used in
business:

(a) Arithmetic mean, (b) Median, (c) Mode, (d) Geometric mean,
and (e) Harmonic mean.

Arithmetic Mean

The most popular and widely used measure for representing the entire data by one value is
what most laymen call an “average” and what statisticians call the arithmetic mean. Its value
is obtained by adding together all the observations and by dividing this total by the number
of observations.

Calculation of Arithmetic Mean – Ungrouped Data

The arithmetic mean, often simply referred to as mean, is obtained by adding together all the
observations and by dividing this total by the number of observations.

Thus if X 1 , X 2 ,, X N represent the values of N items or observations, the arithmetic mean
denoted by X is defined as:

X1  X 2    X N  X
Mean  X  
N N

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Example 1

The monthly income (in $) of 10 employees working in a firm is as follows:

4487, 4493, 4502, 4446, 4475, 4492, 4572, 4516, 4468, 4489

Find the average monthly income.

Solution

Let income be denoted by X.

X 1  X 2    X N  X 4487  4493    4489 44940

Mean  X      4494
N N 10 10
Hence the average monthly income is $4494.

Calculation of Arithmetic Mean – Grouped data

Thus if the values X 1 , X 2 ,, X N occur with frequencies f1 , f 2 ,, f N times respectively, then,
the arithmetic mean denoted by X is defined as:

Mean  X 
f1 X 1  f 2 X 2    f N X N

 fX
N N Where

X = mid-point of the various classes, f = the frequency of each class, and f = the total
frequency.

Example 2

The following are the figures of profits earned by 1,400 companies during 2010 – 2011.
Profits ($) No. of Profits ($) No. of
Companies Companies

200 – 400 500 1000 – 1200 100

400 – 600 300 1200 – 1400 80

600 – 800 280 1400 – 1600 20

800 – 1000 120

Calculate the average profits for all the companies.

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Solution

Profits ($) Mid-points No. of

X Companies, f fX

200 – 400 300 500 150,000

400 – 600 500 300 150,000

600 – 800 700 280 196,000

800 – 1000 900 120 108,000

1000 – 1200 1100 100 110,000

1200 – 1400 1300 80 104,000

1400 – 1600 1500 20 30,000

Total N = 1400  fX  848,000

Mean  X 
 fX  848,000  605.71
N 1400

Correcting Incorrect values

It sometimes happens that due to an oversight or mistake in copying certain wrong values
are taken while calculating the mean. The problem is how to find out the correct mean. The
process is very simple. From  X deduct wrong observations and add correct observations
and then divide the correct  X by the number of observations and the result so obtained
will give the value of the correct mean.

Example 3

The average weekly wage for a group of 25 persons working in a factory was calculated to
be $ 378.40. It was later discovered that one figure was misread as 160 instead of the correct
value $200. Calculate the correct average wage.
Solution

 X  NX  25  378.4  9460
Correct  X  9460  160  200  9500
9500
 380
Hence Correct mean = 25

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Example 4

The mean of 200 observations was 50. Later on, it was discovered that two observations were
wrongly read as 92 and 8 instead of 192 and 88. Find out the correct mean.
Solution

 X  NX  200  50  10,000
Correct  X  10,000  (92  8)  (192  88)  10,000  100  280  10,180
10,180
 50.9
Hence Correct mean = 200

Combined Mean

If we have the arithmetic mean and number of observations of two or more than two
related groups, we can compute combined average of these groups by applying the
following formula:

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2
X 12 
N1  N 2 where

X 12  Combined mean of the two groups

X1  Arithmetic mean of the first group

X 2  Arithmetic mean of the second group

N1  Number of observations in the first group

N 2  Number of observations in the second group

Example 4

a) There are two branches of a company employing 100 and 80 employees respectively. If
the arithmetic means of the monthly salaries paid by two branches are $4570 and $6750
respectively, find the arithmetic mean of the salaries of the employees of the company as
a whole.

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Solution

Combined mean of the income =

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2 1004570  806750 997,000

X 12     5538.89
N1  N 2 100  80 180

If we have to find out the combined mean of three related groups, the above formula can be
extended as follows:

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2  N 3 X 3
X 123 
N1  N 2  N 3

b) The mean of marks in Statistics of 100 students of a class was 72. The mean of marks of boys
was 75, while their number was 70. Find out the mean marks of girls in the class.
Solution

We are given N  100 , X 12  72 , mean of boys, X 1  75 , Number of boys, N1  70 . We

have to find out the mean marks of girls, i.e., X 2 .

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2
X 12  
N1  N 2

72 
7075  30X 2
70  30
 7200  5250  30X 2  X 2 
1950
 65
30
Hence the mean marks of girls in the class = 65.

c) The mean age of a combined group of men and women is 30 years. If the mean age of the
group of men is 32 and that of the group of women is 25, find out the percentage of men
and women in the group.
Solution

Let N1 represent the percentage of men and N 2 represent the percentage of women so that
N1  N2  100 . We are given X12  30, X1  32, X 2  25

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2
X 12  
N1  N 2
N1 32   N 2 25
30 
100
 3000  32 N1  100  N1 25  32 N1  25N1  3000  2500  500
 N1  71.43 and N 2  100  71.43  28.57

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Weighted Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean discussed above gives equal importance to all observations. But there
are cases where the relative importance of the different observations is not the same. When
this is so, we compute weighted arithmetic mean. The term “weight” stands for the relative
importance of the different observations. The formula for computing weighted arithmetic
mean is:

Xw 
WX where X represents the weighted arithmetic mean, X = The variable, and W =
W
w

weights attached to the variable X.

Example 5

A student final marks in Mathematics, Physics, English and Accounting are respectively 82,
86, 90, and 70. If the respective credits received for these courses are 3, 5, 3, and 1; determine
the approximate average mark.

Solution

Xw 
WX 
82(3)  86(5)  90(3)  70(1) 246  430  270  70 1016
   84.67  85
W 3 5  31 12 12

Merits and Demerits of the arithmetic mean as an average

Merits: satisfy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), and (vi)

Demerits: Does not satisfy (vii), i.e., it is affected by extreme observations.

Median

The median is a measure of central tendency which appears in the “middle” of an ordered
sequence of values. That is, half of the observations in a set of data are lower than it and half
of the observations are greater than it. When the items in a series are arranged in ascending
or descending order of magnitude, the measure of the central item is called the median. It
may be mentioned that it is not the central item but it is the measure of this item which is
defined as median. Median is best used for qualitative data such as beauty, health,
intelligence, etc.

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Calculation of Median – Ungrouped Data

 N  1
th

When the total frequency is odd and equal to say N, the value of   item is termed as
 2 
the median.

When the total frequency is even, say 2N, then the N th and (N + 1)th are the two central
items. The arithmetic average of these two items gives the median.
Example 6

The table below shows the number of goals scored by a team in 15 matches.

Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency 1 0 3 2 5 3 1

Find the median.

Solution
The frequency distribution with cumulative frequency is constructed as follows:

Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency 1 0 3 2 5 3 1

Cumulative Frequency 1 1 4 6 11 14 15

The number of observations is odd, i.e., N = 15.

 N  1
th

Then Median =   = 8th observation.

 2 

This occurs in the cumulative frequency of 11. Thus the median is 4.

Example 7

The table below shows the marks scored by group of students.

Marks 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency 2 3 10 12 8 3 2

Find the median.

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Solution

The frequency distribution with cumulative frequency is constructed as follows:

Marks 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency 2 3 10 12 8 3 2

Cumulative Frequency 2 5 15 27 35 38 40

The number of observations is even, i.e., N = 40.

 N th  N th 
      1
 2  2  20th  21st 7  7
  7
Then Median = 2 2 2

Calculation of Median – Grouped Data

N
Determine the particular class in which the value of the median lies. Use   to locate the
2
N
median class because in the use of grouped data it is   which divides the area of the curve
2
into two equal parts. Apply the following formula for determining the exact value of the
median:

Median  L 
N / 2  pcf   i
f where
L = Lower limit of the median class, i.e., the class in which the middle observation in the
distribution lie.
p.c.f. = Preceding cumulative frequency to the median class.

f = Frequency of the median class

i = The class-interval of the median class.

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Example 8

The following data pertains to 1,500 workers working in an industrial establishment. Their
age is classified as follows:

Age (yrs) No. of workers Age (yrs) No. of workers

18 – 22 120 38 – 42 184

22 – 26 125 42 – 46 162

26 – 30 280 46 – 50 86

30 – 34 260 50 – 54 75

34 – 38 155 54 – 58 53

Calculate the median age.

Solution

Age (yrs) No. of workers Cumulative frequency

18 – 22 120 120

22 – 26 125 245

26 – 30 280 525

30 – 34 260 785

34 – 38 155 940

38 – 42 184 1124

42 – 46 162 1286

46 – 50 86 1372

50 – 54 75 1447

54 – 58 53 1500
th
N 1500
Median = size of   observation =  750th observation.
 
2 2

Hence median lies in the class 30 – 34.

Median  L 
N / 2  pcf   i  30   750  525   4  30  3.46  33.46
 
f  260 

Hence the median age of the workers is 33.46 years.

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Example 9

Calculate the median from the following data pertaining to the profits (in $) of 125
companies:

Profits ($) No. of companies Profits ($) No. of companies

Less than 10 4 Less than 50 96

Less than 20 16 Less than 60 112

Less than 30 40 Less than 70 120

Less than 40 76 Less than 80 125

Solution

Profits ($) No. of companies (f) Cumulative frequency

0 – 10 4 4

10 – 20 12 16

20 – 30 24 40

30 – 40 36 76

40 – 50 20 96

50 – 60 16 112

60 – 70 8 120

70 – 80 5 125
th
N 125
Median = size of   observation =  62.5th observation.
2 2

Hence median lies in the class 30 – 34.

L = 30, p.c.f. = 40, f = 36, i = 10.

 Median  L 
N / 2  pcf   i  30   62.5  40   10  30  6.25  36.25
 
f  36 

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Lower Quartile (Q1)

Divides the distribution into four.

Calculation of Lower Quartile – Grouped data

N
Determine the particular class in which the value of the lower quartile lies. Use   to locate
4
N
the lower quartile class because in the use of grouped data it is   which divides the area
4
of the curve into four equal parts. Apply the following formula for determining the exact
value of the lower quartile:

Lower Quartile (Q1 )  L 

N / 4  pcf   i
f where

L = Lower limit of the lower quartile class.

p.c.f. = Preceding cumulative frequency to the lower quartile class.

f = Frequency of the lower quartile class

i = The class-interval of the lower quartile class.

Upper Quartile (Q3)

Divides the distribution into three out of four parts.

Calculation of Upper Quartile – Grouped data

 3N 
Determine the particular class in which the value of the upper quartile lies. Use   to
 4 
 3N 
locate the upper quartile class because in the use of grouped data it is   which divides
 4 
the area of the curve into three out of four equal parts. Apply the following formula for
determining the exact value of the upper quartile:

Upper Quartile (Q3 )  L 

3N / 4  pcf   i
f where

L = Lower limit of the upper quartile class.

p.c.f. = Preceding cumulative frequency to the upper quartile class.

f = Frequency of the upper quartile class

i = The class-interval of the upper quartile class.

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Example 10

The profits earned by 100 companies during 2010 – 2011 periods are given below:

Profits ($) No. of companies Profits ($) No. of companies

20 – 30 4 60 – 70 15

30 – 40 8 70 – 80 10

40 – 50 18 80 – 90 8

50 – 60 30 90 – 100 7

Calculate Q1 and Q3.

Solution

Profits ($) No. of companies (f) Cumulative frequency

20 – 30 4 4

30 – 40 8 12

40 – 50 18 30

50 – 60 30 60

60 – 70 15 75

70 – 80 10 85

80 – 90 8 93

90 – 100 7 100
th
N 100
Lower Quartile, Q1 = size of   observation =  25th observation.
4 4

Hence Q1 lies in the class 40 – 50.

L = 40, p.c.f. = 12, f = 18, i = 10.

 Q1  L 
N / 4  pcf   i  40   25  12   10  40  7.22  47.22
 
f  18 

Hence 25% of the companies earn an annual profit of $47.22 or less.

3  100
th
 3N 
Upper Quartile, Q3 = size of   observation =  75th observation.
 4  4

Hence Q3 lies in the class 60 – 70.

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L = 60, p.c.f. = 60, f = 15, i = 10.

 Q3  L 
3N / 4  pcf   i  60   75  60   10  60  10  70
 
f  15 

Hence 75% of the companies earn an annual profit of $70 or less.

These values, i.e., Q1 , median and Q3 can also be obtained from the Ogive curve.

p
In general; the pth percentile, Xp is the value of x in the ogive corresponding to y  N
100
Note:

The median is the 50th percentile value.

The lower quartile is the 25th percentile value.
The upper quartile is the 25th percentile value.

The formula for evaluating Xp is given by:

P th percentile , X p  LX p 
 pN / 100  pcf   i
fX p

Mode (Mo)

Mode is defined as that value which occurs the maximum number of times, i.e., having the
maximum frequency. Graphically, it is the value on the X – axis below the peak, or highest
point, of the frequency curve. It is possible that a distribution may be bimodal.

Computation of the Mode – Ungrouped Data

For determining the mode, count the number of observations the various values repeat
themselves, and the value which occurs the maximum number of times is the modal value.
Example 11

The following figures relate to the preferences with regard to size of screen (in inches) of T.V.
sets of 30 persons selected at random from a locality. Find the modal size of the T.V. screen.

12 20 12 24 29

20 12 20 29 24

24 20 12 20 24

29 24 24 20 24

24 20 24 24 12

24 20 29 24 24

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Solution

Size in inches Frequency

12 5

20 8

24 13

29 4

Since size 24 occurs the maximum number of times, therefore, the modal size of T.V. screen
is 24 inches.
Calculation of Mode – Grouped Data

In the case of grouped data, the following formula is used for calculating mode:

 1 
Mode, Mo  L     i
 1   2  where

L = Lower limit of the modal class.

1 = The difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the post-
modal class, i.e.,preceding class.

2 = The difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the pre-
modal class, i.e., succeeding class.

i = The class-interval of the modal class.

Another form of this formula is:

 f1  f 0 
Mode, Mo  L     i
 2 f1  f 0  f 2  where

L = Lower limit of the modal class.

f1 = Frequency of the modal class.

f 0 = Frequency of the class preceding the modal class.

f 2 = Frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.

A distribution having only one mode is called unimodal. If it contains more than one mode, it
is called bimodal or multimodal. In the latter case, the value of the mode cannot be determined
by the above formula and hence mode is ill-defined when there is more than one value of
mode. Where mode is ill-defined, its value may be ascertained by the following approximate
formula based upon the relationship between mean, median and mode.

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Example 12

The following data relate to the sales of 100 companies:

Sales (in $) No. of companies Sales (in $) No. of companies

Below 60 12 66 – 68 10

60 – 62 18 68 – 70 3

62 – 64 25 70 – 72 2

64 – 66 30

Calculate the value of modal sales.

Solution

Since the maximum frequency 30 is in the class 64 – 66, therefore, 64 – 66 is the modal class.

 1 
Mode, Mo  L     i

 1   2  where

L = 64, 1  30  25  5 , 2  30  10  20 , i = 2.

 1   5 
Mode, Mo  L     i  64     2  64  0.4  64.4
 1   2   5  20 

Hence modal sales are $ 64.4.

Geometric Mean (G)

In business and economic problems, very often we are faced with questions pertaining to
percentage rates of change over time. Neither the mean, the median nor mode is appropriate
average to use in these instances. The correct average is obtained through the use of the
geometric mean or, what amounts to the same thing, through the use of the familiar
compound interest formula.

Geometric mean is defined as the Nth root of the product of N observations of a given

data. Symbolically;

 Geometric Mean (G.M .)  N X 1  X 2    X N

where X 1 , X 2 , , X N refer to the various observations of the data.

When the number of observations is three or more the task of multiplying the number and
of extracting the root becomes quite tedious. To simplify calculations logarithms are used.
Geometric mean is the calculated as follows:

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

Log (G.M .) 
log X 1  log X 2    log X N

 log X
N N
  log X 
 G.M .  anti log  

 N 

Calculation of Geometric Mean – Ungrouped Data

In ungrouped data, geometric mean is calculated with the help of the following formula

  log X 
G.M .  anti log  

 N 

In grouped data, for calculating geometric mean first we will find the midpoints and the
apply the following formula

  f  log X 
G.M .  anti log   where X is the midpoint.

 N 

Applications of Geometric mean

i. Used to find the average per cent increase in sales, production, population, e.t.c.
ii. It is considered to be the best average in construction of index numbers.

Example 13

Compared to the previous year the overhead expenses went up by 32% in 2006; they
increased by 40% in the next year and by 50% in the following year. Calculate the average
rate of increase in the overhead expenses over the three years.

Solution

In average ratios and percentages, geometric mean is more appropriate. Applying

geometric mean here;

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% Rise Expenses at the end of the year Log X

taking preceding year as 100 (X)

32 132 2.1206

40 140 2.1461

50 150 2.1761

 log X  6.4428
  log X 
  Anti log 
6.4428 
G.M .  Anti log     Anti log 6.4428  140.5
 N   3 

Average rate of increase in overhead expenses = 140.5 – 100 = 40.5%.

Example 14

The annual rates of growth of output of a factory in 5 years are 5.0, 7.5, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0
respectively. What is the compound rate of growth of output per annum for the period?
Solution

In average ratios and percentages, geometric mean is more appropriate. Applying geometric
mean here;

Annual rate Output relatives at the Log X

of growth end of the year (X)

5.0 105 2.0212

7.5 107.5 2.0314

2.5 102.5 2.0107

5.0 105.0 2.0212

10.0 110.0 2.0414

log X  10.1259
  log X 
  Anti log 
10.1259 
G.M .  Anti log     Anti log 2.0252   105.9
 N   5 

The compound rate of growth of output per annum for the period = 105.9 – 100 = 5.9%.

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Harmonic Mean (H)

Harmonic mean is based on the reciprocal of the numbers averaged. It is defined as the
reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocal of the individual observation. Thus, by
definition:

N N
Harmonic Mean  
 1 1  1
 
1
  X
 1
X X 2 X N 

where X 1 , X 2 , , X N refer to the various observations of the data.

N N
For grouped data; Harmonic Mean   where X is the midpoint
 f1 f   f 

f
 2    N    X 

 X1 X 2 XN 
of the various classes and f their corresponding frequencies.

Applications of Harmonic mean

Useful for computing the average rate of increase of profits or the average speed at which a
journey has been performed or the average price at which an article has been sold.
Example 15

(a) Calculate harmonic mean of numbers 10, 20, 25, 40, 50.

(b) Calculate harmonic mean from the following frequency distribution:

Marks 0 – 10 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50

No. of students 8 15 20 4 3

Solution

(a)

X 1/X

10 0.100

20 0.050

25 0.040

40 0.025

50 0.02

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1
X  0.235

N 5
Harmonic Mean    21.28
1
X 0.235

(b)

Marks X F f 1/ X

0 – 10 5 8 1.600

10 – 20 15 15 1.000

20 – 30 25 20 0.800

30 – 40 35 4 0.114

40 – 50 45 3 0.067

f
X  3.581

N 50
Harmonic Mean    13.96
 f  3.581
  X 
Measures of Variation
 The various measures of central tendency discussed in the previous chapter gives us
one single value that represents the entire data.
 But the average alone cannot adequately describe a set of observations, unless all
observations are alike. It is necessary to describe the variability or dispersion of
observations.
 of variation help us in studying the important characteristics of a distribution, i.e., the
extent to which the observations vary from one another from some average value.

Significance of measuring Variation

Measures of variation are needed for four basic purposes:

i. To determine the reliability of an average

Measures of variation point out as to how far an average is representative of the entire data.
When variation is small, the average is a typical value in the sense that it closely represents
the individual value and it is reliable in the sense that it is a good estimate of the average in
the corresponding universe. On the other hand, when variation is large, the average is not so
typical, and unless the sample is very large, the average may be quite unreliable.

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ii. To serve as a basis for the control of variability.

Another purpose of measuring variation is to determine nature and cause of variation in

order to control the variation itself.

iii. To compare two or more series with regard to their variability.

It may also be looked upon as a means of determining uniformity or consistency. A high

degree of variation would mean little uniformity or consistency whereas a low degree of
variation would mean greater uniformity or consistency.

iv. To facilitate the use of other statistical measures.

Many powerful analytical tools in statistics such as correlation analysis, the testing of
hypothesis, the analysis of fluctuations, e.t.c., are based on measures of variation of one kind
or another.

Properties of a Good Measure of Variation

A good measure of variation should possess, as far as possible, the following properties:

(i) It should be easy to understand.

(ii) It should be simple to compute.

(iii) It should be based on all observations.

(iv) It should be rigidly defined.

(v) It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.

(vi) It should have sampling stability.

(vii) It should not be affected by the presence of extreme values.

The following are the important methods of studying variation:

(a) The range,

(b) The Interquartile Range or quartile Deviation,

(c) The Average Deviation,

(d) The standard Deviation,

(e) The Lorenz Curve.

Of these, the first four are mathematical methods and the last is a graphical one.

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Absolute and Relative Measures of Variation

 Measures of variation may be either absolute or relative. Absolute measures of

variation are expressed in the same statistical unit in which the original data are given
such as kilograms, dollars, tonnes, etc.
 These values may be used to compare variation in two or more than two distributions
provided the variables are expressed in the same units and have almost the same
average value.
 In case the two sets of data are expressed in different units, such as quintals of sugar
versus tonnes of sugarcane, or if the average value is very much different, such as
manager’s salary versus worker’s salary, the absolute measures of variation are not
comparable.
 In such cases measures of relative variation should be used. A measure of relative
variation is the ratio of a measure of absolute variation to an average. It is sometimes
called a coefficient of variation, because “coefficient” means a pure number that is
independent of the unit of measurement.
 It should be remembered that while computing the relative variation the average used
as base should be the same one from which the absolute deviations were measured.

Range

Range is the simplest method of studying variation. It is defined as the difference between
the value of the smallest observation and the value of the largest observation. Symbolically;

Range = L – S where:

L = Largest value, and S = Smallest value.

The relative measure corresponding to range, called the coefficient of range, is obtained by
applying the following formula:
LS
Coefficient of Range 
LS

Example 1

The following are the prices of shares of a company from Monday to Saturday.

Day Price ($) Day Price ($)

Monday 200 Thursday 160

Tuesday 210 Friday 220

Wednesday 208 Saturday 250

Calculate range and coefficient of range.

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Solution

Range = L – S = 250 – 160 = 90

L  S 250  160 90
Coefficient of Range     0.219
L  S 250  160 410
In a frequency distribution, range is calculated by taking the difference between the lower
limit of the lowest class and the upper limit of the highest class.
Example 2

Calculate the coefficient of range from the following data:

Profits ($) No. of Companies Profits ($) No. of Companies

10 – 20 8 40 – 50 8

20 – 30 10 50 – 60 4

30 – 40 12

Solution

Range = L – S = 60 – 10 = 50
L  S 60  10 50
Coefficient of Range     0.714
L  S 60  10 70

Merits and Limitations of Range

Merits

i. It is the simplest to understand and easiest to compute

ii. It takes minimum time to calculate, hence if one is interested in getting a quick rather
than a very accurate picture of variability, one may compute range.

Limitations

i. It is not based on each and every observation of the distribution

ii. It is subject to fluctuations of considerable magnitude from sample to sample.
iii. Range cannot be computed in case of open-end distributions
iv. Range cannot tell us anything about the character of the distribution within two
extreme observations
Uses of Range

 Despite serious limitations range is used in the following cases:

 Quality Control: The object of quality control is to keep a check on the quality of the
product without 100% inspection. When statistical methods of quality control are

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used, control charts are prepared and in preparing these charts range plays a very
important role.
 Fluctuation in the share prices. Range is useful in studying the variations in the prices
of stocks and shares and other commodities.
 Weather forecasts. The meteorological department does make use of the range in
determining the difference between the minimum temperature and maximum
temperature.

The Interquartile Range or Quartile Deviation

 The interquartile range is the range which includes the middle 50% of the
observations. That is, one quartile of the observations at the lower end and another
quartile of the observations at the upper end of the distribution are excluded in
computing the inter-quartile range.
 In other words, inter-quartile range represents the difference between the upper
quartile and the lower quartile. Symbolically,
 Inter-quartile range = Q3  Q1 .
Very often the inter-quartile range is reduced to the form of semi-interquartile range or
quartile deviation by diving it by 2. Symbolically;
Q3  Q1
 Quartile Deviation (Q.D) =
2
Quartile deviation is an absolute measure of variation. The relative measure corresponding
to this measure, called the coefficient of quartile deviation, is calculated as follows:
Q3  Q1
 Coefficient of Q.D. = .
Q3  Q1
Coefficient of quartile deviation can be used to compare the degree of variation in different
distributions.

Example 3

You are given the frequency distribution of 292 workers of a factory according to their
average weekly income. Calculate the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the
following data:

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Weekly Income ($) No. of workers Weekly Income ($) No. of workers

Below 1350 8 1450 – 1470 22

1350 – 1370 16 1470 – 1490 15

1370 – 1390 39 1490 – 1510 15

1390 – 1410 58 1510 – 1530 9

1410 – 1430 60 1530 & above 10

1430 – 1450 40

Solution

Weekly Income ($) No. of workers Cumulative frequency

Below 1350 8 8

1350 – 1370 16 24

1370 – 1390 39 63

1390 – 1410 58 121

1410 – 1430 60 181

1430 – 1450 40 221

1450 – 1470 22 243

1470 – 1490 15 258

1490 – 1510 15 273

1510 – 1530 9 282

1530 & above 10 292

N = 292

th
N 292
Lower Quartile, Q1 = size of   observation =  73rd observation.
4 4

Hence Q1 lies in the class 1390 – 1410.

L = 1390, p.c.f. = 63, f = 58, i = 20.

Q1  L 
N / 4  pcf   i  1390   73  63   20  1390  3.448  1393.448
 
f  58 

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3  292
th
 3N 
Upper Quartile, Q3 = size of   observation =  219th observation.
 4  4

Hence Q3 lies in the class 1430 – 1450.

L = 1430, p.c.f. = 181, f = 40, i = 20.

Q3  L 
3N / 4  pcf   i  1430   219  181   20  1430  19  1449
 
f  40 
Q3  Q1 1449  1393.448 55.552
Quartile Deviation (Q.D) =    27.776
2 2 2
Q3  Q1 1449  1393.448 55.552
Coefficient of quartile deviation =    0.02
Q3  Q1 1449  1393.448 2842.448

Merits and Limitations of Quartile Deviation

Merits

i. In certain respects, it is superior than range as a measure of variation.

ii. It has a special utility in measuring variation in case of open-end distributions or one
in which the data may be ranked but measured quantitatively.
iii. It is also useful in erratic or highly skilled distributions, where the other of variation
would be warped by extreme value.
iv. It is not affected by the presence of extreme values.

Limitations

i. Quartile deviation ignores 50% of the items, i.e., the first 25% and the last 25%. As the
value of quartile deviation does not depend upon every observation it cannot be
regarded as a good method of measuring variation.
ii. It is not capable of mathematical manipulation
iii. Its value is very much affected by sampling fluctuations

The Average Deviation (A.D.)

 Average deviation is obtained by calculating the absolute deviations of each

observation from the median (or mean), and then averaging these deviations by taking
their arithmetic mean.
 The formula for average deviation may be written as:

A.D.( Med ) 
 X  Median
N
In case deviations are taken from mean the formula shall be written as:

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Kirinyaga University SPM 2104: Mathematics for Science

A.D. X  
XX
N
 The reason for taking absolute deviations, that is, deviations in which signs are
ignored, is that it is the amount of the differences of observations from median rather
than the direction of the difference which is of main interest.
 The relative measure corresponding to the average deviation, called the coefficient of
average deviation, is obtained, by dividing average deviation by the particular
average used in computing average deviation.
 If median has been used while calculating average deviation, then
A.D.
A.D.( Med ) 
Coefficient of Median

If mean has been used while calculating average deviation, then

A.D.
A.D. X  
Coefficient of X

In case of grouped data, the formula for calculating average deviation is:

If median has been used while calculating average deviation, then

A.D.( Med ) 
f X  Median
N
If mean has been used while calculating average deviation, then

A.D. X  
f XX
N

Example 4

Calculate the average deviation from the median and the coefficient of average deviation of
the two income groups of five and seven workers working in two different branches of a
firm.

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Branch I Branch II
Income ($) Income ($)

4000 3000

4200 4000

4400 4200

4600 4400

4800 4600

4800

5800

Solution

Branch I X  Median Branch II X  Median

Income ($) Median  4400 Income ($) Median  4400

4000 400 3000 1400

4200 200 4000 400

4400 0 4200 200

4600 200 4400 0

4800 400 4600 200

4800 400

5800 1400

N 5  X  Median  1200 N 7  X  Median  4000

Branch I

A.D.( Med ) 
 X  Median 
1200
 240
N 5
A.D. 240
A.D.( Med )    0.054
Coefficient of Median 4400

Branch II

A.D.( Med ) 
 X  Median 
4000
 571.43
N 7

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A.D. 571.43
A.D.( Med )    0.13
Coefficient of Median 4400

Example 5

Calculate the average deviation from mean from the following data:

Sales (in thousand $) No. of days Sales (in thousand $) No. of days

10 – 20 3 40 – 50 3

20 – 30 6 50 – 60 2

30 – 40 11

Solution

Sales No. of days Midpoint XX f XX

(in thousand $) f X fx

10 – 20 3 15 45 18 54

20 – 30 6 25 150 8 48

30 – 40 11 35 385 2 22

40 – 50 3 45 135 12 36

50 – 60 2 55 110 22 44

N   f  25  fx  825 f X  X  204

Mean  x 
 fx  825  33
N 25

A.D. X  
f XX

204
 8.16
N 25

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Merits and Limitations of Average Deviation

Merits

i. It is simple to understand and easy to compute.

ii. It is based on each and every observation of the data.
iii. It is less affected by the values of extreme observations.
iv. Since deviations are taken from a central value, comparison about formation of
different distributions can easily be made.

Limitations

i. The greatest drawback of this method is that algebraic signs are ignored while taking
deviations of the items.
ii. This method may not give us very accurate results
iii. It is not capable of further algebraic treatment.
iv. It is rarely used in sociological and business studies.

Because of these limitations its use is limited and it is overshadowed as a measure of variation
by the superior standard deviation.

The Standard Deviation

 The standard deviation is by far the most important and widely used measure of
studying variation. Its significance lies in the fact that it is free from those defects from
which earlier methods suffer and satisfies most of the properties of a good measure of
variation.
 It is a measure of how much “spread” or “variability” is present in the sample. If all
the numbers in the sample are very close to each other, the standard deviation is close
to zero.
 If the numbers are well dispersed, the standard deviation will tend to be large.
Standard deviation is known as the root mean square deviation for the reason that it is
the square root of the means of square deviations from the arithmetic mean.
 Standard deviation is denoted by the small Greek letter σ (read as sigma) and is
defined as:

 X  X 
2


N

If we square standard deviation, we get what is called Variance.

 X  X 
2

 2

Hence variance = N

 The standard deviation measures the absolute variation of a distribution; the greater
the amount of variation, the greater the standard deviation. A small standard
deviation means a high degree of uniformity of the observations as well as

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homogeneity of a series; a large standard deviation means a low degree of uniformity

of the observations as well as homogeneity of a series.
 Thus, if we have two or more comparable series with identical means, it is the
distribution with the smallest standard deviation that has the most representative
mean.

Calculation of standard deviation

For ungrouped data:

 X  X 
2

Standard deviation,   , which after simplification becomes:

N

X X X
2
2
 2

    or    X 
2

N 
 N  N
.
For grouped data:

 f X  X 
2

Standard deviation,   , which after simplification becomes:

N

 fX   fX   fX
2 2 2

    or    X 
2

N 
 N  N
.

Example 6

An analysis of production rejects resulted in the following figures:

No. of rejects per No. of No. of rejects per No. of

operator operators operator operators

21 – 25 5 41 – 45 15

26 – 30 15 46 – 50 12

31 – 35 28 51 – 55 3

36 – 40 42

Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

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Solution

Converting the discrete data into the continuous data, we get the following table:

No. of rejects Midpoint No. of operators X  X  2

f X  X 
2

per operator X f fx

20.5 – 25.5 23 5 115 194.8816 974.408

25.5 – 30.5 28 15 420 80.2816 1204.224

30.5 – 35.5 33 28 924 15.6816 439.0848

35.5 – 40.5 38 42 1596 1.0816 45.4272

40.5 – 45.5 43 15 645 36.4816 547.224

45.5 – 50.5 48 12 576 121.8816 1462.5792

50.5 – 55.5 53 3 159 257.2816 771.8448

N   f  120  fX  4435  f X  X 
2

5444.792

Mean  x 
 fx  4435  36.96
N 120

 f X  X 
2
5444.792
   45.3733  6.736
Standard deviation, N 120

Combined Standard Deviation

Just as it is possible to compute combined mean of two or more than two groups, similarly
we can also compute combined standard deviation of two or more groups.

Combined standard deviation of two groups is denoted by  12 and it is computed as follows:

N1 12  N 2 22  N1d12  N 2 d 22
 12 
N1  N 2
, where

 12 = Combined standard deviation, 1 = Standard deviation of the first group,

 2 = Standard deviation of the second group, d1  X 1  X 12 and d 2  X 2  X 12 .

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The above formula can be extended to find out the standard deviation of three or more
groups. For example, combined standard deviation of three groups is denoted by  123 and it
is computed as follows:

N1 12  N 2 22  N 3 32  N1d12  N 2d 22  N 3d 32
 123 
N1  N 2  N 3
, where

d1  X 1  X 123 d 2  X 2  X 123 d  X 2  X 123

, and 3

Example 7

The number of workers employed, the mean wage (in $) per week and the standard deviation
(in $) in each branch of a company are given below. Calculate mean wages and standard
deviation of all the workers taken together for company.

Branch No. of workers Weekly mean Standard deviation

employed wage (in $) (in $)

A 50 1413 60

B 60 1420 70

C 90 1415 80

Solution

Combined mean of the weekly wages =

N1 X 1  N 2 X 2  N 3 X 3 501413  601420  901415

X 12   
N1  N 2  N 3 50  60  90

70,650  85,200  127,350 283,200

   1416
200 200
Combined standard deviation of three branches is computed as follows:

N1 12  N 2 22  N 3 32  N1d12  N 2d 22  N 3d 32
 123 
N1  N 2  N 3

d1  X 1  X 123  1413  1416  3 d 2  X 2  X 123  1420  1416  4

, and
d 3  X 2  X 123  1415  1416  1

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50(60)2  60(70)2  90(80)2  50(3)2  60( 4)2  90(1)2

 123 
50  60  90
180,000  294,000  576,000  450  960  90 1,051,500
   72.51
200 200

Coefficient of Variation

The standard deviation discussed so far is an absolute measure of variation. The

corresponding relative measure is known as the coefficient of variation. This measure
developed by Karl Pearson is the most commonly used measure of relative variation. It is
used in such problems where we want to compare the variability of two or more than two
series. That series (or group) for which the coefficient of variation is greater is said to be more
variable or conversely less consistent, less uniform, less stable or less homogeneous. On the
other hand, the series (or group) for which the coefficient of variation is less is said to be less
variable or conversely more consistent, more uniform, more stable or more homogeneous.
Coefficient of Variation denoted by C.V. is obtained as follows:

C.V .   100
X
Coefficient of Variation is more useful when the two distributions are entirely different and
the units of measurement are also different.

Example 8

In the two factories A and B engaged in the same industry, the number of workers employed,
the monthly mean wage (in $) and the standard deviation (in $) are as follows:

No. of workers Monthly mean Standard deviation

Factory employed wage (in $) (in $)

A 100 4600 500

B 80 4900 400

(i) Which factory pays larger amount as monthly wages?

(ii) Which factory shows greater variability in the distribution of wages?

(iii) What is the mean and standard deviation of all the workers in two factories taken
together?

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Solution

(i) For finding out which firm pays out larger amount, we have to find out X ;

X 
X   X  NX
N

For factory A:  X  NX  100  4600  460,000

For factory B:  X  NX  80  4900  392,000

Hence factory A pays larger amount as monthly wages.

(ii) For finding out which factory shows greater variability in the distribution of wages,
we have to calculate coefficient of variation.

 500
C.V .  100  100  10.87
For factory A: X 4600

 400
C.V .  100  100  8.16
For factory B: X 4900

Since the coefficient of variation is greater in case of factory A, hence it shows greater
variability in the distribution of wages.

(iii) Combined mean of the monthly wages =

N X  N 2 X 2 1004600  804900
X 12  1 1  
N1  N 2 100  80

460,000  392,000 852,000

   4,733.33
180 180
(iv) Combined standard deviation of the monthly wages =
N1 12  N 2 22  N1d12  N 2 d 22
 12 
N1  N 2

where

d1  X 1  X 12  4600  4733.33  133.33 d 2  X 2  X 12  4900  4733.33  166.67

,

Hence;

100(500) 2  80(400) 2  100(133.33) 2  80(166.67) 2

 12 
100  80
25000000  1200000  1777688.89  2222311.11 42,192,486.335
 
180 180
 484.15

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Hence the combined standard deviation of the monthly wages = $ 484.15.

Merits and Limitations of Standard Deviation

Merits

i. It is based on each and every observation of the data.

ii. It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.
iii. It is less affected by fluctuations of sampling than most other measures of variation.
iv. It is possible to calculate the combined standard deviation of two or more than
groups. This is not possible with any other measure.
v. For comparing the variability of two or more distributions, coefficient of variation is
considered to be most appropriate and this measure is based on mean and standard
deviation.
vi. Standard deviation is most prominently used in further statistical work.

Limitations

i. As compared to other measures it is difficult to compute.

ii. It gives more weight to extreme values and less to those which are near the mean.

Lorenz Curve

The Lorenz Curve, devised by Max O. Lorenz, a famous economic statistician, is a graphical
method of studying variation. This curve was used by him for the first time to measure the
distribution of wealth and income. Now the curve is used to study the distribution of profits,
wages, turnover, etc. However, still the most common use of this curve is in the study of the
degree of inequality in the distribution of income and wealth between countries or between
different periods of time. While drawing Lorenz Curve the following procedure is adopted:

i. The size of items and frequencies are both cumulated and then percentages are
obtained for these various cumulative values.
ii. On the X-axis, start from 0 to 100 and take the per cent of variable.
iii. On the Y-axis, start from 0 to 100 and take the per cent of variable.
iv. Draw a diagonal line joining 0 with 100. This is known as line of equal distribution.
Any point on this line shows the same per cent on X as on Y.
v. Plot the various points corresponding to X and Y and join them. The distribution so
obtained unless it is exactly equal, will always curve below the diagonal line.

If two curves of distribution are shown on the same Lorenz presentation, the curve that is
farthest from the diagonal line represents the greater inequality. Clearly the line of actual
distribution can never cross the line of equal distribution.

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Example 9

In the following table is given the number of companies belonging to two areas A and B
according to the amount of profits earned by them. Draw in the same diagram their Lorenz
curves and interpret them.

Profits earned in No. of Companies No. of Companies

‘000 $ Area A Area B

6 6 2

25 11 38

60 13 52

84 14 28

105 15 38

150 17 26

170 10 12

400 14 4

Solution

Profits Area A Area B

Profits Cum. Cum. No. of Cum. Cum. No. of Cum. Cum.

Companies
profits percentage Companies Number percentage Number percentage

6 6 0.6 6 6 6 2 2 1

25 31 3.1 11 17 17 38 40 20

60 91 9.1 13 30 30 52 92 46

84 175 17.5 14 44 44 28 120 60

105 280 28 15 59 59 38 158 79

150 430 43 17 76 76 26 184 92

170 600 60 10 86 86 12 196 98

400 1000 100 14 100 100 4 200 100

Since curve B is farther from the diagonal line, it represents greater inequality.

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WEEK 13: PROBABILITY

What is Probability?
Probability theory is the branch of mathematics that studies the possible outcomes of given
events together with the outcomes' relative likelihoods and distributions. In common usage,
the word “probability" is used to mean the chance that a particular event (or set of events)
will occur expressed on a linear scale from 0 (impossibility) to 1 (certainty).
Factually, It is the study of random or indeterministic experiments e.g, tossing a coin or
rolling a die. If we roll a die, we are certain it will come down but we are uncertain which
face will show up. Ie the face showing up is indeterministic. Probability is a way of
summarizing the uncertainty of statements or events. It gives a numerical measure for the
degree of certainty (or degree of uncertainty) of the occurrence of an event.

We often use P to represent a probability Eg P(rain) would be the probability that it

rains. In other cases Pr(.) is used instead of just P(.).

Definitions
 Experiment: A process by which an observation or measurement is obtained. Eg
tossing a coin or rolling a die.
 Outcome: Possible result of a random experiment. Eg a 6 when a die is rolled once or
a head when a coin is tossed.
 Sample space: Also called the probability space and it is a collection or set of all
possible outcomes of a random experiment. Sample space is usually denoted by S or
Ω or U
 Event: it’s a subset of the sample space. Events are usually denoted by upper case
letters.

Suppose the sample space S consists of n(S) equally likely outcomes and n(E) of those are
favorable for an event E then probability of an event E is the ratio of the number of
favorable outcomes n(E) to the total number of all possible outcomes n(S) ie,

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛(𝐸)

𝑝( 𝐸 ) = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛(𝑆)

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Approaches to Probability
There are three ways to define probability, namely classical, empirical and subjective
probability.

Classical probability
Classical or theoretical probability is used when each outcome in a sample space is equally
likely to occur. The underlying idea behind this view of probability is symmetry. Ie if the
sample space contains n outcomes that are fairly likely then P(one outcome)=1/n.
The classical probability for an event A is given by

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑛(𝐴)

𝑝( 𝐴 ) = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝑛(𝑆)
1
Eg Roll a die and observe that 𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 3) = 6

Example
A fair die, with faces numbered 1 to 6, is rolled once, write down the sample space S hence
find the probability that the score showing up is ; a) a multiple of 3 b) a prime number.

Solution
𝑺 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔} Multiples of 3 are 3 and 6 while prime numbers are 2, 3 and 5
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
Thus 𝑷(𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝟑) = 𝟔 = 𝟑 and 𝑷(𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) = 𝟔 = 𝟐
Frequentist or Empirical probability
When the outcomes of an experiment are not equally likely, we can conduct experiments to
give us some idea of how likely the different outcomes are. For example, suppose we are
interested in measuring the probability of producing a defective item in a manufacturing
process. The probability could be measured by monitoring the process over a reasonably long
period of time and calculating the proportion of defective items.
In a nut shell Empirical (or frequentist or statistical) probability is based on observed data.
The empirical probability of an event A is the relative frequency of event A, that is

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴
𝑝 (𝐴) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

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Example 1

The following are the counts of fish of each type that you have caught before.
Fish Types Blue gill Red gill Crappy Total
No of times caught 13 17 10 40
Estimate the probability that the next fish you catch will be a Blue gill.
13
𝑝(𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑙𝑙) = = 0.325
40
Remark: The empirical probability definition has a weakness that it depends on the results
of a particular experiment. The next time this experiment is repeated, you are likely to get a
somewhat different result. However, as an experiment is repeated many times, the empirical
probability of an event, based on the combined results, approaches the theoretical probability
of the event.

Subjective Probability
Subjective probabilities result from intuition, educated guesses, and estimates. For example:
given a patient's health and extent of injuries a doctor may feel that the patient has a 90%
chance of a full recovery. Subjectivity means two people can assign different probabilities to
the same event.
Regardless of the way probabilities are defined, they always follow the same laws, which we
will explore in the following Section.

EXERCISE
1. What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11, when two dice are rolled?
2. Two cards are drawn from a pack, without replacement. What is the
probability that both are greater than 2 and less than 8?
3. A permutation of the word "white" is chosen at random. Find the
probability that it begins with a vowel. Also find the probability that it
ends with a consonant.
4. Find the probability that a leap year will have 53 Sundays.
5. Two tetrahedral (4-sided) symmetrical dice are rolled, one after
the other. Find the probability that;
a) both dice will land on the same number.
b) each die will land on a number less than 3.
c) the two numbers will differ by at most 1.
Will the answers change if we rolled the dice simultaneously?

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Ways to Represent Probabilities

1) Venn diagram: We may write the probabilities inside the elementary pieces within a Venn
diagram. For example, 𝑷(𝑨𝑩′ ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 and 𝑷(𝑨) = 𝑷(𝑨𝑩) + 𝑷(𝑨𝑩′) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 [why?] The
relative sizes of the pieces do not have to match the numbers.

2) Two-way table: This is a popular way to represent statistical data. The cells of the table
correspond to the intersections of row and column events. Note that the contents of the
table add up across rows and columns of the table. The bottom-right corner of the table
contains P(S) = 1
B B' Total
A 0.26 0.32 0.58
A' 0.11 ? 0.42
Total 0.37 0.63 1
4. Tree diagram: Tree diagrams or probability trees are simper clear ways of
representing probabilistic information. A tree diagram may be used to show the
sequence of choices that lead to the complete description of outcomes. For example,
when tossing two coins, we may represent this as follows

A tree diagram is also often useful for representing conditional probabilities

Rules of Probability
1. For an experiment with a sample space 𝑆 = {𝐸1 , 𝐸2, … , 𝐸𝑛 } we can assign probabilities
𝑃(𝐸1 ), 𝑃(𝐸2 ), … , 𝑃(𝐸1 ) pr o vi d ed t ha t0 ≤ 𝐸𝑖 ≤ 1 a nd 𝑃(𝑆) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 ) = 1
R e m a rk s:
a. If a set (event), A, consists of outcomes 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … , 𝐸𝑛 , t he n 𝑃(𝐴) = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 )
b. I f 𝐸 = 𝑆 t h e n 𝑃(𝐸) = 𝑃(𝑆) = 1 an d i f E h a s no el e me n t s, t hen 𝑃(𝐸) = 0

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2. If E is an event in the sample space S, then E' (called the complement of E) is an event in
S but outside E. 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃(𝐸′) = 1 i m pl y i ng 𝑃 (𝐸 ′ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸)

3. If the sample space S contains n disjoint events 𝐸1, 𝐸2 , . . . , 𝐸𝑛 , then

𝑛

𝑃(𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑃(𝐸𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 ) = 1

𝑖=1
4. Let A and B be two events such that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, then 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 𝑃(𝐵)

Conditional Probability and Independence

Humans often have to act based on incomplete information. If your boss has looked at you
gloomily, you might conclude that something's wrong with your job performance. However,
if you know that she just suffered some losses in the stock market, this extra information may
change your assessment of the situation. Conditional probability is a tool for dealing with
additional information like this.
Conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring given the knowledge that
another event has occurred. The conditional probability of event A occurring, given that
event B has occurred is denoted by P(A/B) and is read “probability of A given B” and is
given by
𝑃(𝐴𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑃 (𝐵) > 0 similarly, 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑃(𝐴) > 0 Hence
𝑃(𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴)
𝑃 (𝐴𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) × 𝑃(𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐴)
Remark: Another way to express independence is to say that the knowledge of B occurring
does not change our assessment of P(A). This means that if A and B are independent then
𝑃 (𝐴/𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)

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Example
In a large metropolitant area, the probability of a family owning a colour T.V, a computer or both
0.86, 0.35 and 0.29 respectively. What is the probability that a family chosen at random during a
survey will own a colour T.V and/or a computer? Given that the family chosen at random during
a survey owns a colour T.V, what is the probability that it will own a computer?
Solution
Let T and C be the event of owning a colour T.V and a computer respectively. Then
𝑃(𝑇⋃𝐶 ) = 𝑃 (𝑇) + 𝑃 (𝐶 ) − 𝑃(𝑇𝐶 ) = 0.86 + 0.35 − 0.29 = 0.92
𝑃(𝑇𝐶) 0.29
𝑃(𝐶/𝑇) = = ≃0
𝑃(𝑇) 0.86

Tree Diagrams in conditional probability

Suppose we are drawing marbles from a bag that initially contains 7 red and 3 green marbles.
The drawing is without replacement that is after we draw the first marble, we do not put it back.
Let's denote the events 𝑹𝟏 = {𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅},
𝑹 𝟐 = {𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒅} 𝑮𝟏 = {𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 } and so on. Let's fill
out the tree representing the consecutive choices.

The conditional probability P(R2 /R1 ) can be obtained directly from reasoning that after we
took the first red marble, there remain 6 red and 3 green marbles. On the other hand, we could
𝑷(𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 ) 𝟒𝟐⁄ 𝟐
𝟗𝟎
use the formula to get 𝑷(𝑹𝟐 /𝑹𝟏 ) = = 𝟕⁄ = 𝟑 where the probability 𝑷(𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 )
𝑷(𝑹𝟏 ) 𝟏𝟎
𝟕𝑪 𝟕
{𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝑷(𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 )} can be obtained from counting the outcomes 𝑷(𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) = 𝟐 =
𝟏𝟎𝑪 𝟏𝟓 𝟐

Question: Find 𝑷(𝑹𝟐 ) and 𝑷(𝑹𝟏 /𝑹𝟐 )

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Remark: The tree diagram may become tedious especially when the tree grows beyond 4 stages.
In such a case we can make use of binomial formula which is applicable when:
i) The experiment’s outcome can be classified into 2 categories success and
failure with probabilities p and 1-p respectively
ii) The experiment is to be repeated n independent times
iii) Our interest is the number of successes

The probability of observing x successes out of n trials is given by: -

𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝐶𝑥 × 𝑝 𝑥 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛
Example
A fair coin is tossed 10 times. What is the probability of observing exactly 8 heads?

Solution
n=10, p=0.5 and x =8 successes. Therefore,
𝑃(𝑋 = 8) = 10𝐶8 × 0.58 (1 − 0.5)10−8 = 10𝐶8 × 0.510 ≃ 0.044

EXERCISES
1) A pair of fair dice is rolled once. If the sum of the scores showing up is 6, find the probability
that one of the dice shows a 2.
2) A consumer research organisation has studied the services and warranty provided by 50
new car dealers in a certain city. Its findings are as follows

In Business for Good services and Poor services and

a warranty a warranty
At least 10 yeras 16 4
Less than 10 years 10 20

If a person randomly selects one of these new car dealers;

a) What is the probability that he gets one who provides good services and a warranty?
b) Who has been in business for at least 10 years, what is the probability that
he provides good services and a warrant?
c) What is the probability that one of these new car dealers who has been in business for less
than 10 years will provide good services and a warranty?
3) Three machines A, B and C produces 50%, 30% and 20% respectively of the
total number of items in a factory. The percentage of defective outputs of
these machines are 3%, 4% and 5% respectively. If an item is selected at
random: -
a) Find the probability that it is defective

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b) And found to be defective, what is the probability that it was produced by machine
A?
4) A year has 53 Sundays. What is the conditional probability that it is a leap year?
5) The probability that a majority of the stockholders of a company will attend a special meeting
is 0.5. If the majority attends, then the probability that an important merger will be approved
is 0.9. What is the probability that a majority will attend and the merger will be approved?

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WEEK 14: Revision /Examination week

Revision Questions
1. In how many ways can a class of 20 children be split into two groups of 8 and 12,
if there are twins in the class who must not be separated?
2. The roots of the quadratic equation 2 x 2  7 x  4  0 are α and β. Find an equation
 
whose roots are and .
 
3. Determine the specified term in the expansion of 5 x  2 y 8
4. x 2 y 6 term ii. Fourth term.
5. Find the set of values for which 2 x 2  5 x  3  0

6. The first, tenth and twenty eighth terms of an A.P. are three successive terms of a G.P.
Find the common ratio of the G.P. Given that the sum of the first 28 terms of the A.P. is
210. Find its first term.
7. The first and last terms of an A.P. are -4 and 146 respectively and the sum of the A.P. is
7171. Find the number of terms of the A.P. and the common difference.
8. Prove that when a polynomial f u  is divided by au  b where a  0 , the remainder is
 
f  b . Hence find the remainder when 4u 3  6u  5 is divided by 2u  1 .
a

9. In how many ways can a class of 20 children be split into two groups of 8 and 12,
if there are twins in the class who must not be separated?
10. The roots of the quadratic equation 2 x 2  7 x  4  0 are α and β. Find an equation
 
whose roots are and .
 
11. Determine the line of symmetry, minimum or maximum values, x and y - intercepts of
the function f x   2  3x  4 x 2 .

12. Evaluate
6! 2!
8!

13. How many even numbers greater than 2000 can be made from the integers 1,2,3,4 if each
integer is used only once?
14. A boy wants to invite 8 friends but there is only a room for 4 of them. In how many ways
can he choose whom to invite if two of them are brothers and must not be separated?
15. Determine the specified term in the expansion of 5 x  2 y 8

i. x 2 y 6 term ii. Fourth term.

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16. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand and simplify the expression x  2 y 7

n n  12
1 2
17. Using proof by mathematical induction, show that 13  2 3  33  ...  n 3 
4
where n  1, 2, 3, 4, ...
18. The first, tenth and twenty-eight terms of an A.P. are three successive terms of a G.P.
Find the common ratio of the G.P. Given that the sum of the first 28 terms of the A.P. is
210. Find its first term.
19. The first and last terms of an A.P. are -4 and 146 respectively and the sum of the A.P. is
7171. Find the number of terms of the A.P. and the common difference.
20. In how many ways can 3 men and 3 women be seated at a round table if each woman is
to be seated between two men?
21. If nCx = 56 and nPx = 336, find n and x.
22. A personnel manager must select 5 clerks from a pool of 14 applicants. How many
selections are possible?
23. Use binomial theorem to write down the first four terms in the expansion of (1  x) 8 .
24. i. Write down the simplified expansion of 1  x 6
ii. Use the expansion up to the fourth terms to find the value of 1.036 to the nearest
one thousandth

n n  12
1 2
25. Using proof by mathematical induction, show that 13  2 3  33  ...  n 3 
4
where n  1, 2, 3, 4, ...

Example of a theorem to use:

Theorem: For any positive integer n, 1 + 2 + ... + n = n(n+1)/2.

Proof. (Proof by Mathematical Induction) Let's let P(n) be the statement "1 + 2 + ... + n = (n
(n+1)/2." (The idea is that P (n) should be an assertion that for any n is verifiably either
true or false.) The proof will now proceed in two steps: the initial step and the inductive
step.

Initial Step. We must verify that P (1) is True. P (1) asserts "1 = 1(2)/2", which is clearly true.
So we are done with the initial step.

Inductive Step. Here we must prove the following assertion: "If there is a k such that P(k) is
true, then (for this same k) P(k+1) is true." Thus, we assume there is a k such that 1 + 2 + ...
+ k = k (k+1)/2. (We call this the inductive assumption.) We must prove, for this same k, the
formula 1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) = (k+1)(k+2)/2.

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26. Then, this is 1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) = k(k+1)/2 + (k+1) = (k(k+1) + 2 (k+1))/2 =

(k+1)(k+2)/2. The first equality is a consequence of the inductive assumption.
27. Prove the following by Mathematical Induction. For all positive integers n,
12 + 22 + ... + n2 = (n)(n+1)(2n+1)/6.
28. Distinguish between a permutation and a combination.
29. From a group of 10 male students and 6 female students, a committee comprising of 5
male students and 2 female students is to be chosen. Find how many different
committees can be formed?
30. Evaluate (a) 10P6 (b) 6C3 (c) 9C 7
31. From a group of 10 male students and 6 female students, a committee comprising of 5
male students and 2 female students is to be chosen. Find how many different
committees can be formed?
32. How many different committees of 2 men and 1 woman can be formed from 7 men and
4 women?
33. The nth term of an arithmetic series is 3  4n . Find the least number of terms for which
the sum of this series exceeds 400?
34. How many arrangements will be possible if 5 men and 4 women are to be seated in a
row so that the women occupy even places?

35. If the polynomial x3  5 x 2  ax  b is divided by x 2  3 x  2 , the remainder is 2 x  3 .

Determine the values of a and b.
5
 x
36. Use binomial theorem to write down the first four terms in the expansion of  1   .
 5
Hence find the approximate value of  0.99  to the nearest 5 decimal places.
5

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