SOURCES- ARPIT MAURYA ‘ADVAIT’

 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
 Examine the characteristics and significance of Persian and vernacular sources for
reconstructing the history of Delhi Sultanate.
 Bring out the salient features of Ziauddin Barani’s theory of history and evaluate
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi as a source of history for the Sultanate period.
 Critically assess the significance of the Persian Tarikh tradition in the history writing of
the Delhi Sultanate.
 Describe the various sources for the Delhi Sultanate with special reference to
Premakhyan and Malfuzat literature.
 Critically assess the Persian Tarikh tradition as a source for history writing of Delhi
Sultanate with special reference to Minhaj-i-Siraj’s Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
 Evaluate Ziauddin Barani’s contribution to history writing in the Delhi Sultanate.
 Critically analyse the varied historiographical perceptions of Barani’s Tarikh-i-
Firuzshahi. Was it the most vigorous Persian Tarikh of all?
 The Malfuzat texts emerge as an important genre of Sufi literature. Are they valuable
to reconstruct aspects of social and political history?

1. INTRODUCTION
The Delhi Sultanate, spanning 1206 to 1526, left a rich legacy in India. Unraveling the Delhi
Sultanate necessitates a multifaceted approach to historical sources. Literary works like
Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Fatwa-i-jahandari offer valuable insights into the period.
Minhaj-i-Siraj’s Tabaqat-i-Nasiri is another important source. Additionally, Malfuzat
literature provides a window into the religious and intellectual life of the time.
Premakhyans, captivating love stories, can shed light on social customs.
There is abundance of Persian texts which are self-reflectively Historical in character
during this period. These texts according to Sunil Kumar introduces a perspective into
past seldom evaluated historiographically, but at the same time they differ from each
other in terms of narrative style, techniques and subject matter. Similarly, Peter Hardy
emphasize that the ‘Turks made possible the introduction of historiography as a
deliberately form of culture expression with a conscious interest in what actually
happened in the past, into Hindustan proper’.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF PERSIAN SOURCES
Modern historians for the sake of better understanding have divided the texts into
Historical, religious, and literary sources. Sources are not considered as historical just by
their self-avowed claim, but if they follow, chronological sequence and their subject
matter include concern for state crafts, court and its culture, events and politics for kings
and their subordinates.
Peter hardy divides historical sources on the basis on the historiography into 4 categories:
1. Tarikh or general histories

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2. Manaqib or normative literature
3. Furstenspiegel didactic history (Adab)

4. Artistic forms of history writing

Sunil Kumar follows this division but clubs Manaqib and Artistic forms of historical writing
into one and he also introduces Malfuzat genre as important source of evidence.
 Tarikh or general histories
According to Sunil Kumar these were ‘histories written as a long narrative of human
experience, a general history, commencing either with Adam the first prophet, or
Muhammad the last prophet, and terminating in the lifetime of the respective authors
with a eulogy to their patron’. These were influenced by the Tarikh tradition in Islamic
World from 8th to 10th Century CE. It is significant to note that this Tarikh tradition uses
a wide range of evidence and adopt a critical approach while evaluating sources. They
used to give Isnad or chain of transmitters for his reports, and set down different
testimony about the same event. They also employed Hadith criticism.
These traditions inspired three general histories of Islam; Fakhr-I-Mudabbir’s Shajra-I-
Ansab-Mubarak Shahi, Minhaj Al-Siraj Tabaqat-I-Nasiri and Muhammad Bihamad Khani’s
Tarikh-I-Muhammadi and one regional history of Islam in northern India; Sirhindi’s
Tarikh-I-Mubarak Shahi.
Shajra-I-Ansab-Mubarak Shahi (1208) epitomized the state of Muslim historiography in
the outside world at that time Fakhr-I -Mudabbir Mubarak Shah was a native of Multan,
then moved to Lahore when it was conquered by Ghorids in 1186, there he compiled a
volume of genealogical tables. Later he wrote an introduction to the tables which is extant
in 1208, and dedicated his work to Aibak, his patron.
In the introduction he follows the basics of Tarikh tradition by describing the journey of
umma from prophet’s Muhammad. Then he described ousting of Ghuzz Turkoman by
Muizzudin Muhammad from Ghazni in AD 1173, Ghorid victories from 1192 to 1206 AD,
career of Qutbuddin Aibak and celebrates conservation of Infidels into Islam.
From his work we get information on Aibak about his administrative reforms ,abolition of
unorthodox practices during previous rule, generous provisions for widows ,orphans and
Turkish followers . Aibak is presented as the possessor of all moral values and therefore
following the path of rightly guided caliphs. He also gave the description and data of
Turkistan. Simon Digby Points to the ritual performances which were carried out during
and after campaigns ,which had symbolic importance which under Qutbuddin Aibak reign
acquired cultural importance.
Sunil Kumar criticizes that Shajra-I-Ansab-Mubarak Shahi was brief and served as an
introduction to his genealogical tables. Its coverages, details, only slightly denser. Peter
Hardy held hadith – criticism and critical approach to be absent.
Tabaqat – I – Nasiri by Minhaj -i – Siraj. Minhaj was a Qazi also he was respected for his

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scholarship. According to Sunil Kumar, his work is not structured chronologically but
organized by group of people having some people having some common social bonding,
which may be due to kingship, service or region. Tabaqat was completed in 1259 -60, and
was dedicated to Nasiruddin Mahmud.
It is divided into 23 tabaqats or sections, which acc. to Peter Hardy are collections of
biological notes, superimposed within a dynastic framework. It covered history of
Shansabid Sultan of Ghor, Bamiyan and Ghazni, Shami and Muizzi sultan and Shamsi malik
and account of Mongol invasion. It is particularly important for the details of Turkan -i-
Chahalgani and Shamsi Bandan-I- Khas.
Particularly important is his details on Iltutmish’s reign as Siraj accompanied him on many
battles and was a Qazi under him. The Tabaqat covered events from the perspective of
different personalities and geographical regions. In spite of this Sunil Kumar, maintains
that is it was a testament to the glory and might sultans of Delhi. In Tabaqat-I-Nasiri
occasionally different dates for the same event in different contexts are given.
Muhammad Bihamad Khani, author of Tarikh-i- Mohammadi completed in 1438 -39, was
a member of Muslim military muqta class of Erich under sultan of Kalpi. Beginning with
usual description of Tarikh tradition, it furnishes history of Delhi sultanate, stereotyped
eulogy of Sufi saints, timer and history of sultan of kalpi, his patron. Peter hardy remarks
that there is no change in the idioms when event concerning khani occurs. For khani there
appears no need
These Persian historian works concern only with umma, their elites and their enemies.
According to them in rest of communities are of no significance. there is no attempt to
assess the reliability of resources. By inclusion of miraculous elements, Hadith criticism is
absent.
 Manaqib and Artistic forms of writing
Manaqib according to peter hardy is a prose eulogy, which need not necessarily to be of
a rulerArtistic forms of writing are the use of poetry and rhymed prose in writing history.
Due to their florid use of language, these came to be highly commissioned not only by
rulers but others as well.
Tajul Masir by Hasan Nizami was written in 1217-29 and was dedicated to Iltutmish.
According to peter hardy his account was full of, florid descriptions and less of actual
details. Melody and rhyme, art and architecture are preferred to economy and precision
on its statements. Simon Digby highlights that, so much was the obsession with the
greatness of ghorid conqueror that he does not mention 1191 AD Tarain defeat.
Amir Khusrou follows Hasan nizami in the style of writing and he was a court poet from
1289 until his death. According to Peter hardy from Amir Khusrou’s works are full of great
deeds of his exemplary patron. He wrote both poems and rhymed prose. His poems were
generally in Masanvi style (poem written in rhyming in couplet ) and historical content.
Isami, wrote Futuh-al-Salatin in 1349 -50. He was very much influenced by Firdausi’s

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Shahnama and wanted to imitate him. He left Delhi to Daulatabad, Peter hardy see it as
form of protest against Mohammad Bin Tughluq. He found patron in Bahmanid sultan
Allauddin Bahman shah. He praises Mahmud Ghazni’s invasion of India and destruction of
temples and Alauddin Khilji for defeating Hindu princess. Everything happens in his view
is according to god’s will, but nobody can predict god’s will except Sufis. He criticizes
Mohammad bin Tughlaq for his reforms which had affected sultanate.
Sunil Kumar says that although modern historians have appreciated the literary skills of
the writers but have bemoaned the scarce historical information, they provide. Peter
hardy is even more critical, he comment that these authors have ‘subordinate history to
art and treats the past as raw material for poetic imaginations.
Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Afif praises sultan Alauddin Khilji, Ghiyasuddin Tughluq,
Mohammad Tughluq and Firoz Shah Tughluq, he wanted to portray golden age of Delhi
Sultanate before Timur invasion. A particularly important was the information on Iqta
system. Peter hardy suggests that Afif, author of Sirat -I-Firuz shahi and Barani praises
Firoz and present him as an ideal ruler, was due to Firoz being patron of Sunni ulama class
and disciple of Christi mystics from whom all three were connected.
 Adab Literature
These are didactic texts emphasizing ideal norms of conduct. Within this wider
framework, can be included peter Hardy’s furtenspiegel didactic history, which according
to him in the whole Delhi sultanate was Tarikh-I- Firoz written by Ziauddin Barani.
According to Muzaffar Alam, barani said something radically different from his
predecessors as well as his contempories, Barani was able to see their history as a story
of change of process, of becoming but accordingly to peter hardy his contemporary saw
history as a succession of “time instants”, of untouching moments.
His works, Tarikh-i-firozshahi (History of Firuz Shah) and Fatawa-i-jahandari (Political
Theory of Delhi Sultanate), are chief sources for most of the 13th and 14th centuries and
have been widely studied and commented on by various historians. Ziauddin Barani
(1285-1357 AD) was a powerful individual and close companion of Mohammad bin
Tughlaq. While he was imprisoned, he wrote narratives of sultanates and made
observations of history to win back the favour of the sultan, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, so he also
named his book Tarikh-i-Firozshahi after him. In which he mentions his concept of an ideal
muslim king like how the sultan must enforce sharia, suppress the unorthodoxy, etc.
However, in Fatawa-i-Jahandari (mirror of crown prince), he gave a manual for
governance.
Prior to this period, the writing of history was confined to the chronicles and his work was
in sharp contrast to this. Barani articulated a history that was conscious of its own
importance. He conceived history as a ‘science’ and as a guide to practical action. In his
work, he lists seven advantages that the study of history confers upon readers. Peter
Hardy sees these formulations as indicative of assigning a didactic religious purpose to
history.

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Historian, I H Siddiqui opined that Barani added a new dimension to history writing. He
focused not only on political events but also took note of ‘social and economic changes
that resulted from behaviour of a ruler of strong personality.’ While much of Barani’s work
laid emphasis on the ruling class and its nuances. Muzaffar Alam argues that according to
Barani, there should be a centralised authority and despotic ruler who must keep
performing religious duties in an exaggerated manner in order to atone for his
(shortcoming or lacuna) offence and to ensure his own salvation.
In Peter Hardy’s understanding of Barani, sultan should be a mixture of contradictory
qualities and should know when to apply them. Ziauddin Barani believed that a sultan
must enforce the holy law, humiliate the infidels, appoint only god fearing officials,etc. He
thought this cruelty was inevitable for regulation and administration, and even goes
further to legitimise an institution that was unislamic. He recognised the principle of
heredity, and was against appointments based on merit which is contradictory to his
writing that mention need for loyalty and competence while appointing officials to court.
Therefore, Irfan Habib cogently comments that the main context of political history of the
Delhi sultanate as seen by Barani consists of the three simultaneous developments such
as the growth of despotic power, greater use of terror, and changing composition of the
nobility. However, we need to note that Barani’s views, biases and prejudices are also
lucid in his writing. So it cannot be taken objectively. His work still remains valuable as he
was able to critically analyse and cover a large period in history, while cementing his own
distinctive theory of understanding history.
3. MALFUZAT LITERATURE
Sufi literary activity in India expanded in the thirteenth and fourteenth century. The first
Chistis wrote nothing about themselves, it was in the time of Nizam-al-din Awliya that a
new genre of writing Mulfuzat came about.
Malfuz is an Arabic word, which means ‘what has been said’, and refers to texts written,
mostly in Persian by the disciple of Sufi shaykh. Until 19th century, they were written in
Persian and also included quoted material in Arabic and Vernacular languages but then
onwards they are written in Urdu. Sunil Kumar emphasizes the unique authorship of
Malfuzat. While the Sufi master provides the material – their wisdom and experiences –
it's the disciple who shapes it into a written record. This collaborative effort captures both
the essence of the shaykh's message and the disciple's interpretation.
Around 13th-14th centuries, Tadhkiras were written. They provided a significant
information about saints and are retrospective in nature. It contains memorials of
biographical notices of saints.
Amina Steinfeils views them as an Independent genre since they foucs on a single figure.
She further argues that Malfuzat goes beyond chishti order and gives the example of
Sayyid Jalal-al-din Husayn Bukhari’s Malfuzat who belonged to Suharwadi Sufi order. She
also brought “the question of authorship” and says it was a collaborative project where
the master spoke and disciple wrote.

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Fawaid-al-faud written by Amir hassan Sizji, serves as a prime example of a Malfuzat. This
text delves into the life of the revered Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya. Carl Ernst calls fawaid
al-fuad a beautifully written account of the Sufi teachings of nizam al din Awliya and one
of the most popular Sufi works in India.
Most malfuzat written before Fawaid al-fuad largely consisted of monologues but this one
was interactive. The Fawaid al-fuad was tremendously successful as an account on chishti
sufis. Its success can be attributed to amir Hassan’s skill as a writer and his close
relationship with the Sufi.
When Amir Hassan presented the complete version of Fawaid al-fuad in front of Nizam -
al-din, the Sufi drew a comparison between this and the Hadith literature. This underlined
the role of the malfuzat as a nearly sacred text that served as a religious standard.
The impact of Fawaid al-fuad was such that it led to reconstruction of readier chishti
tradition this was done by fabricating malfuzat, nizam-al-din Awliya had made people
curious about the teachings of earlier sufis like Farid-al-din and qutb-al-din. Among those
who wrote these fabricated malfuzats is Shaykh Hamid-al-din nagori.
In the time of Nizam-al-din Awliyas successor, Nasiru-al-din Mahmud, Chirag-i dilli
mafuzat gained an imitative character, Fawaid al-fuad was considered as a model. Hamid
Qalander wrote Khayr al-majalis recording the teachings of Chirag-i-dihli who approved of
this text. the text was telegraphic in manner Due to the shortcoming of Hamid Qalander
who did not understand the shayks teaching.
In Hamid Qalanders first encounter with Chirag-i-dihli he mentions he wrote a malfuzat
recording Burhanuddin Gharib teaching who was an old friend of Chirag-i-dilli from this
we can see that malfuzat had been established as a model for Deccan chishti sufis.

Carl Ernst, remarks that “the oral teachings of chishtis or the malfuzat literature took on
a canonical textual form and soon became authoritative and the normative genre for both
the members of the order and their lay followers. And since, the chishti master,
Nizamuddin Auliya made such a profound impact on his contemporaries that the malfuzat
emerged to embody his teachings.”
While Malfuzat primarily focus on moral and religious matters, they also offer valuable
insights into the everyday lives and conditions of the common people. This information
acts as a corrective to the often one-sided narratives presented in official chronicles,
which tend to focus on the political sphere. We also see a chain of Transmission of sufi
teachings via Malfuzats.
However, as Carl Ernst points out, there are nuances to consider. Malfuzat do illuminate
aspects of social history ignored by dynastic chronicles. However, their initial popularity
likely stemmed from their success in expounding Sufi teachings.
Ernst further highlights a shift in the genre after 1400 CE. Oral tradition faded, replaced
by a diary-like structure. To maintain popularity, some Malfuzat began to emphasize

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supernatural powers and the charisma of saints. This trend coincided with a rise in
inauthentic Malfuzat being produced.

4. PREMAKHYANS

Premakhyans were a unique literary genre which basically means the saga of love. It
flourished in medieval India, specifically during the late 14th to mid-16th centuries.
However, Writing of Premakhyan was not a new phenomenon as sufi premakhyan can be
traced to Maulana Daud’s Chandayan (1379). Daud was the disciple of Sufi Shaikh
Jainuddin and his patron was Firuz-shah-Tughlaq’s Wazir. Major poets of this genre were
Malik Mohammed Jayasi (Padmavat) and Mrigavati by Qutuban which he dedicated to
Hubsain Shah, Jagirdar of Jaunpur. He used the word Indra for Hubsain Shah.

Chandayan and migravati belong to the Katha genre which is rendered by wandering
musicians. These ballads were orginally written in persian script and in Masnavi form (
with rhyming couplet) like Maulana daud mentions that chandayan is written in turkic and
rendered in hindavi.

These are Vernacular sources of information and are allegorical works, which basically
means they are symbolic in nature. It focuses upon the mystical love. It also tells about
the assimilation of Hindus and muslisms. In Premakhyans, the narrative revolves around
women, Madhu Trivedi points out.

From the titles of these poems we can understand that women play a very important role
in them , chandayana was a beautiful young princess so are mirgavati and Padmavati. All
these narrative poems are not just tales of love their portrayal of love is based on concept
of mystical love. The central figure is a women who is a symbol of divine love eg. the union
of Padmavati and Ratan sen is shown as the union of son and moon. The heroines of these
poems are princesses who have lavish lifestyles They are shown to be quite bold.

Premakhyans offer a rich tapestry of social and cultural life during the Sultanate period.
Unlike official chronicles, they delve into the personal lives of ordinary people, revealing
details about polygamy, marital customs, Dhai (wet nurses) and Nayaks of Tanda
(Transporters of grains)

Madhu Trivedi states that the corpus adopts the muslim form, but themes, idioms and
metaphors remain distinctively indigenous. She believes that premakhyan literature
‘echoes the spirit of the age’. Aditya Behl on the other hand believes that this genre is
representative of a distinct Islamic literary tradition. What is important to note is that the
historicity of the content is however dubious. And these texts may or may not dwell on
distortion of facts.

Trivedi concludes, these sufi premakhyans, thus projected varied images of women as
beloved in all its shades- as an ideal women, a parkiya, and also as a women trained in the
tradition of skilled entertainments. However, aspects of her family life are not portrayed

5. CONCLUSION

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Although these texts claim to be written with a historical approach, but modern historians
find them treating like peter Hardy held them treating ‘history as a branch of Muslim
Theology’. There are several drawbacks. First these are written from the perspective of
Delhi, except Isami’s Futuha-Al-Salatin rest of the outside world features only in
connection with Delhi. These works focus less on common people they are only interested
in the grandees and upper class.

Almost All works are dedicated to a particular patron. Sunil Kumar finds extreme
unevenness in the details on the affairs of Delhi Sultanate. There are periods where there
is complete silence for example, no chronicle covers the period 1260-66. For Qutbuddin
Aibak reign only two events are recorded, first is his death and second is the disastrous
campaign to annex Ghazni. It is also very difficult to establish a reliable chronology for the
Delhi Sultanate. Nevertheless, the diversity of information that has extant as a result of
these texts is considerable and it allows a historian to produce many different varieties of
histories.

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