MODULE 3B

- Components of Special and

and Inclusive Education

INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter, policies and practices on how to make schools inclusive to all
learners have been presented. Such school-wide changes in policy and culture are
essential to provide the support and resources needed by the teacher and process
involved in identifying children through assessment and providing varied means of
support.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this module you should

be able to :

a. Enumerate the processes involved in Child

Find through the pre-referral process
b. Identify the assessment tools, methods, and
principles in working wit children with
additional needs
c. Identify the different placement within a
continuum
d. Compare accommodations and curriculum
modifications
e. Identify ways how to involve parents as part of the home-schas collaboration

LEARNING APPROACH

I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying
students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental
disabilities. School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school
teachers, and community-based daycare workers are often the first to notice such
developmental delays in children. In other instances, the parents themselves notice
the delays and seek consultation with pediatricians and other specialists.
A. Pre-referral Process. Parents and teachers may refer a child with serious
developmental delays for observation and assessment. A pre-referral team
comprising special education teachers, counselors, administrators, and
psychologists investigates observed issues (Hallahan et al. 2014). They work
together to help developmental delay youngsters.
Taylor (2009) proposed a pre-referral assessment methodology. Children with
developmental delays and challenges are diagnosed through observations and
norm- and criterion-referenced examinations. Before receiving special education

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testing, they get academic and behavioral support to address their issues. Taylor
(2009) stated in his evaluation model that the first stage is to identify teaching
areas where a student needs further support in various ways.
Community-based screening can identify at-risk or special-needs young pupils. The
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD Checklist) is used by child
development and social workers to screen for typical development.

B. Pre-referral Strategies Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-

referral strategies that are designed to provide immediate instructional and/or
behavior management support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the number
of cases referred for special education and makes efficient use of time and financial
resources that could have been spent for special education assessment (Heward
2013). This will also lessen the tendency of over-referrals to special education and
wasting time as children wait to be tested rather than receive the instructional and
behavioral support they need. Examples of pre-referral strategies are: observation
of the child's behavior, including interactions with parents, teachers, and
peers; interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about
the child; review of school records; and analysis of the child's academic
output through error analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-
referenced and curriculum-based assessment (Taylor 2009). Depending on the
information gathered, corresponding changes can be made to manage the child's
needs, such as modification of the classroom environment (e.g., seating
arrangement, group change, and teacher's proximity in class), instructional support,
and relevant classroom and behavior management (Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).

II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process of collecting information[ about a child’s
strengths and needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves a
systematic collection as well as interpretation of data gathered. Teachers and
administrators make instructional decisions based on the assessment results.

A. Assessment Purposes
There are several uses for
assessment in inclusive and
special education. It starts with
initial identification, which
was covered in Child Find and
the pre-referral procedure in the
previous section.
The outcomes of an evaluation
are used to determine a child's
educational placement and to create lesson plans for children who
have been identified as having special needs. Another is progress

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 monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs and services, with
the aim of assessing how well programs support special education and
inclusive teachers (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012). Regular and special
education teachers can employ a range of assessment techniques. The
following topics are covered in this section: (1) observations; (2)
checklists or rating scales; (3) tests; and (4) interviews.

B. Methods of Assessment Tests.

To assure validity and reliability, school psychologists, educational
diagnosticians,
and other professionals employ many evaluation instruments.
Formal Assessment. Standardized norm-referenced tests evaluate a child's
performance to a representative sample of pupils their age. A team conducts
rigorous exams. Results are presented as percentile ranks and age and grade
equivalent scores to help professionals assess class and individual performance.
Quantitative reporting makes it easier to compare class exam scores, but it limits
instructional preparation. Norm-referenced assessments include intelligence and
achievement tests like the . Criterion-referenced assessments evaluate a child's
performance to standards and competences and can explain student achievement
(Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012). Simple numerical scores, percentage
of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score reports are usually presented.
Assessment data that show which abilities a kid has mastered and which need more
teaching are more informative and relevant (Gargiulo 2012).
Informal Assessment. Professionals also use informal or non-standardized
assessments, which are considered more authentic and thus can be used primarily
to describe performance and inform instruction. Such assessments can be
curriculum-based or performance-based, such as the teacher-made instruments
used in classrooms and portfolio assessments. For example, the use of reading
inventories where a teacher listens to a child read while counting for accuracy and
speed is an example of an informal assessment.

Authentic Assessment. The use of tests, whether formal or informal, is only

one method of assessment. There are other ways of assessing students considered
at-risk for developmental delays or have additional needs. One that is highly
recommended by professionals is the use of authentic assessment methods and
tools. Authentic assessments provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge
and skills in meaningful, real-world settings (e.g., classroom, playground, etc.)
rather than in an artificial and contrived setting (Dennis et al. 2013). Assessment
tasks that are more real-life are considered more authentic.

An example of authentic assessment is observation of young students as

they interact with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring
activities. across settings (e.g., home, school, playground, etc.), and routines.

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During observations, teachers and specialists can use running records which
focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially.

Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to

be included in a running record:

 Date and time of the observation

 Names of children involved
 Location of the incident
 Verbatim recording of what the children said
 Actual events that occurred

Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that

teachers and specialists can use to analyze a student's behavior and plan strategies
for a specific child or group of children. Other examples of authentic assessment for
young children are play-based assessment and portfolio assessment.

C. Assessment Principles
Assessment Principles Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as
provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student
(DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered practices, a team-based approach,
application of individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine and
meaningful communication that adhere to ethical and legal practices are the
recommendations provided by the DEC. Thus, a variety of assessment methods and
tools, use of authentic measures, as well as involvement of the family are necessary
to make decisions for placement and instructional planning (DEC 2014). III.

III. PLACEMENT

Assessment results are used to decide a child's appropriate education

placement within a continuum from the least to the most restrictive settings. During
the evaluation, student performance is assessed and the team determines if there
would be any changes in the educational placement within the continuum. Teams
will base this on their observations, assessment results, and other factors, with the
goal to move toward the least restrictive learning environment. Sound decisions are
made to allow for fluidity in the child's placement based on the child's strengths,
abilities, and needs.

A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment

for a child with additional needs. Access to the same learning experiences and
opportunities is provided as to typically developing students. Thus it is considered
as the "most normalized or typical setting" (Gargiulo, 2012). Additional support in
the form of accommodations or changes in expectations through curriculum
modifications may be provided but still within the same classroom as
peers within the year level.

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 Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but the
child receives supplementary instruction and services such as speech,
physical, and occupational therapy or counseling services during the
school day. Options may be provided when such sessions are conducted, either
during school or as an after-school service.
In a resource room, general education students are taught by a
specialist. Such a placement assumes that the child will benefit better from small-
group or customized instruction with a professional instructor who can more
intensively target his learning requirements. Some kids need more intensive
support than general education provides. Teams may advocate placing a kid in a
self-contained special education class in a general education school. All children get
customized and group teaching from a special education instructor with classmates
with disabilities and other needs. School community-building activities may allow
kids to interact with typically developing peers, depending on program aims. Some
students need more extensive instruction and supports and are placed in a special
education class or school. Professional teams and the special education teacher
work with students with disabilities and special needs in a specialized setting. The
most restrictive or isolated environment is a residential facility where students
live and get educational support 24/7. Finally, children with severe multiple
disabilities receive home- or hospital-based programs to manage their medical
condition and learn as much as possible. Inclusive education advocates to give all
kids access to general education classrooms and support to overcome hurdles to
achievement. Figure 4.2 shows this educational placement continuum (Spinelli
2012).

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IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS
Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an
inclusive general education classroom may need accommodations in the form of
instructional support and other supplementary services. Others who need more
intensive support are provided with curricular modifications.

A. Accommodations. Accommodations are supports provided to students to

help gain full access to class content and instruction, without altering the curriculum
standards and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what they
know. When accommodations are provided in a general education classroom for
children with disabilities, barriers are removed from accessing education. As a
result, children can work around the effect of their disabilities. Examples of
accommodations are altering instruments, toys or materials, changing the room
during specific activities, providing time extensions or allowances for tests and
tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets. Accommodations may be
provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile
and needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, setting, and
scheduling (Beech 2010).
1. Presentation Accommodations

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 Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation formats especially
those with sensory impairments so they can learn the same content alongside
typically developing peers. Table 4.1 presents examples of accommodations in
presentation.

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Visual Support Minimize visual distraction
Visual cues (e.g., use color-coded text, highlighting)
Use of larger print materials (font size, illustrations)
Use of sign language
Videos with closed captioning

Auditory and Read aloud by a peer

comprehension support Audio books
Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words
Text-to-speech software
Advance organizer or story guide
Highlighting or color coding

Listening and Focusing Advance organizer

Explicit verbal or visual cues; physical prompts
Repeat/Clarify directions and important information
Note-taking support
Copy of directions

2. Response Accommodations
Response accommodations allow students with disabilities and additional needs
a variety of ways to complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and
other activities. Providing such instructional and assessment supports allows them
to access the same learning experiences as other students in a general education
classroom. Table 4.2 summarizes examples of response accommodations for
students with disabilities and additional needs.

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Writing Difficulty Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, or crayon
Pencil or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
Scribe to record dictated responses
Finger spacer Handwriting template/guide on the
student's desk
Visual cues on paper
Different types and sizes of paper

Written expression Electronic dictionary with spell check

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 Online dictionary
Word processor with spelling and grammar check
Writing cue cards
List of sight words
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers

Math Difficulty Calculator

Concrete models and manipulatives
Visual representation
Problem-solving guides
Graphic organizers
Special paper - graphing paper for computation

3. Setting Accommodations
Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting or
environment may be necessary for students who need support in terms of behavior,
attention, and organization of space and materials. Accommodation in a setting
may allow a child who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the
classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be sidetracked by
environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be allowed
to take a silent reading comprehension test in another room with a supervising
adult just so she could hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand
the story.
4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments, and
management of time are some types of scheduling accomodations. Students with
slower ability in processing information and directions well as with focusing issues
may need these types of accommodation. Some examples of accommodation that
can modify scheduling are: 1. Extending time for assignments and assessments; 2.
Providing breaks in between tasks; 3. Providing an visual calendar or a checklist of
individual responsibilities; and 5. Providing an e;ectronic device with alarms and
cues.

B. Modifications
Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or severe
disabilities where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes
are changed in relation to what are expected of typically developing students of the
same age (DEC 2007). When instruction and assessment are modified, a student
with disability is still given the right to access the same learning opportunities as
other students in the general education class, but the tasks are more respectful and
appropriate to the student's abilities and needs.
Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and
performance criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being learned by

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students. Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or
different content and resource materials altogether. They may also be assessed
using different standards that are more appropriate to the student's needs and
abilities, such as being provided with fewer objectives, shorter lessons, or a smaller
number of vocabulary words to learn.
Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate
curricular modifications in the student's Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Such
modifications are needed so that students also have access to the general
education curriculum.

V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT

Another component of an inclusive

and special education is parent
involvement. It has long been established
that parent involvement in education,
planning, and management of children
with disabilities and additional needs is
essential as they are the primary
caregivers and have direct influence on
their children. This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory,
which states that there are five environmental systems that comprise a child's
social context. For the purposes of this book, focus is given on the microsystem,
where the child and his/her family belong, along with peers school, and the
immediate community (i.e., neighborhood). Within these microsystems, a child has
direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, others; while the mesosystem
refers to the linkages or relationships betwee microsystems such as the connections
between family experiences and schoc experiences and between family and peers
(Santrock 2011).
A. Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a student's developmental and
academic progress and achievement, it is essential that there is a close home
and school collaboration and communication. To establish partnerships,
problem-solving, two-way communication, and shared decision making are some
of the practices needed. Communicating with parents may be done in several
ways.

1. Parent-Teacher Conferences are in-person sessions between parents and

teachers. Such meetings are necessary so parents of students with disabilities and
additional needs can discuss their child's background, strengths and abilities,
history of difficulties, home practices, and specialist interventions. They can work
with teachers to support their child at home and school.
Different schools have different parent-teacher ratios.

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A meeting with parents at the start of the school year to define goals for a disabled
student is best. Thus, parents and teachers can create year-long expectations and
child goals. Teachers can also build rapport
with parents. After each quarter, trimester, and
semester, parents are invited to conferences to
discuss progress, improvements, and results
and agree on action plans.

2. Written Communication Home-school

communication may also be conducted
through written messages, such as the use of a home-school communication
notebook, where teachers and parents write homework-assignments, the student's
behavior in the classroom, as well as progress on program goals. A written
communication may be time consuming, but some parents prefer this form of
collaboration as the messages are documented and they can provide a copy to a
developmental specialist when needed.
3. Digital communication With the influx of mobile devices, many parents
and families are more able to communicate through electronic and digital means
such as email, text messages, and social network messaging systems. A study
found that parents and teachers perceive technology as an effective tool to promote
parent involvement and thus value its use for communication (Olmstead 2013).
Because it is instant and real-time, parents and teachers are immediately able to
receive messages and updates about the student. However, drawbacks can also
occur such as when both parties are not mindful of parameters in communication;
hence, it is necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be
respectful of everyone's time and personal space.
4. Home-School Contracts A home-school contract contains an agreement
between teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or academic goals for a
student with disability. Just like any formal contract, this is a written agreement
between teachers, parents, and students.

B. Other Ways to Involve Parents

Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and the
commitment to help their own child. They become advocates of their own children.
To maximize their involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as parent
education training, workshops, and parent support groups.
a. Parent education may take the form of providing seminars and workshops
to parents to equip them with a better understanding of their child's disability and
accompanying strengths, uniqueness, as well as specific techniques and strategies
that they can practice at home. Such training sessions can be for a few hours done
on a quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as every Saturday, depending on
the needs of the parents and the training capacity of the school. In this way, parents

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become educated in evidence-based approaches so that there will be continuity in
the practices implemented between the home and school.
b. Parent support groups are also helpful as parents are able to ask other
parents about tips and techniques to work with their children. Parents should be
empowered so that they can participate in planning and organizing parent support
groups. Through such groups, parents can draw support from one another during
meetings as they share techniques and strategies, even frustrations and successes
about their children.

SUMMARY
In summary, this chapter has presented the different components of
inclusive and special education, which include the following: pre-referral,
assessment, placement, accommodations
curricular modifications, and parent involvement. Across these components, a team
approach is highly recommended where each member-the child, parents, general
education teacher, special education teacher, therapists, and other specialists-
coordinate and collaborate in planning and making decisions for the child with
disabilities.

REFERENCES
K.Eileen Allen and Ilene S. Schawrtz, The Exceptional Child. Inclusion in Early
Childhood Education.

Booth, T. and Ainscow, M.(2013). Inclusion: developing learning and participation in

schools.

Inciong, T., Quijano, Y., Capulong, Y. & Gregorio, J. (2007). Introduction to Special
Education. Quezon City: Rex Printing Press Company, Inc.
Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the
Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Childhood Education.
Handbook on Inclusive Education,SPED Division
Handbook in Special Education SPED Division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HPh4RoV63s- Inclusive Education - Education
Equity Now
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/475903885594757807/
https://www.understood.org/articles/en/universal-design-for-learning-what-it-is-and-
how-it-works

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https://www.understood.org/articles/en/understanding-universal-design-for-learning

Excerpted from: Tomlinson, C. A. (August, 2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the

Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Childhood Education.

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