TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

IOE CENTRAL CAMPUS, PULCHOWK

A LAB REPORT ON

Data Communication

Submitted to:
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering

Submitted by:
Samip Neupane (077BCT073)
Sandesh Pokhrel (077BCT074)
Sandesh Pyakurel (077BCT075)
Sandhya Baral (077BCT076)
Sardul Khanal (077BCT077)
Satyasa Khadka (077BCT078)
Saurav Kumar Mahato (077BCT079)
Shuvangi Adhikari (077BCT080)

August 19, 2023

DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2023 1

Lab on Data communication:

Introduction to Digital Signalling
Samip Neupane(077BCT073), Sandesh Pokhrel(077BCT074), Sandesh Pyakurel(077BCT075), Sandhya
Baral(077BCT076), Sardul Khanal(077BCT077), Satyasa Khadka(077BCT078), Saurav Kumar
Mahato(077BCT079) and Shuvangi Adhikari(077BCT080)

Abstract—Introduction to Digital Signalling is presented.This IV. THEORY

report provides an overview of transmitting digital data by
line encoding into ’NRZ’ format. The aim is to delve into the
fundamental principles of digital transmission and coding tech-
niques. Furthermore, the report investigates converting analog
signal into digital and transmitting by line coding.The report
encompasses outcomes obtained from a hands-on laboratory
session. Through a combination of theoretical knowledge and
hands-on experimentation, this lab equips students with valuable
skills to tackle real-world communication challenges in today’s
digital age.
Index Terms—Digital Signal, Line coding, NRZ, etc.
Fig. 1. Carrier Signal

I. O BJECTVES
When a pulse is used to represent each bit, it is called binary
A. Line Encoding. communication. If a pulse is used to represent multiple bits it
is called m-ary communication.
• To show how data represented by data words can be sent Some desirable properties of line code are
as a digital stream, one bit at a time and reconstructed at
1) Error detection capability: The receiver needs to be
a distant receiver.
able to distinguish the waveform associated with a
• To show that the analog signals can be converted to data
“high” from the waveform associated with a “low”, even
word and sent by this process.
if there is a considerable amount of noise and distortion
• To show communication can be accomplished in this way.
in the channel.
2) DC content: Many telecom channels are AC coupled
i.e. DC blocking, so it is desirable to have zero DC in
II. I NTRODUCTION the waveform produced by a given line code. If a signal
with significant DC content is used in AX coupled lines,
Line encoding is the process of converting digital data to
it will cause DC wanter (received signal baseline will
digital signals. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a
vary with time). Furthermore, it is not possible to pass
digital signal. At the sender, digital data are encoded into a
DC through transformers and DC-blocking capacitors.
digital signal and at the receiver, the digital data are recreated
Unipolar encoding has average non-zero amplitude i.e.
by decoding the digital signal. The basic types of line encoding
a DC component. While other coding schemes either
are polar, unipolar, and bipolar.
reduce or have no DC component.
3) Power Spectrum and Bandwidth: The power spec-
trum and bandwidth of the transmitted signal should be
III. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED matched to the frequency response of the channel to
avoid significant distortion. The bandwidth should be
The equipment required for the successful completion of minimized as much as possible to improve efficiency.
the experiment of Digital Signalling are listed below: 4) Self-synchronization: The waveform produced by the
• U-2970A Data Source line code should contain enough timing information such
• U-2970H Data Receiver that the receiver can synchronize with the transmitter
• U-2970K Audio Module and decode the received signal properly. This can be
• U-2970M Power Supply achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert
• U-2970N Set of connecting leads the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
• Function Generator Non-return to zero schemes have less synchronization as
• Two channel oscilloscope the receiver cannot determine the beginning and end of a
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2023 2

bit when the signal is unvarying. Other coding schemes

improve on this limitation
The following line codes are provided in the Data Format
(ED-2970 B) module:
1) Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
• Bit 1 = Positive voltage for the whole bit interval
• Bit 0 = Zero voltage for the whole bit interval

2) Return to Zero (RZ)

• Bit 1 = Positive voltage for half of the bit interval, Fig. 3. Bit pattern using the data sources and observed in data receiver
then returns to zero voltage for 2”1 half of bit
interval
• Bit 0 = Zero voltage

3) Bi-phase (Manchester) - (According to C.E. Thomas)

• Bit 1 = High to low transition in the middle of the
bit interval
• Bit 0 = Low to high transition in the middle of the
bit interval
4) Bipolar NRZ - (As per ED - 2970 B Module)
• Bit 1 = Positive voltage for the whole bit interval
• Bit 0 = Negative voltage for the whole bit interval

5) Bipolar RZ- (As per ED - 2970 B Module)

• Bit 1 = Negative voltage for 1st half of the bit
interval, then returns to zero voltage for 2nd half
of the bit interval
• Bit 0 = Positive voltage for 1st half of the bit
interval, then returns to zero voltage for 2nd half
of the bit interval
6) Ternary — (As per ED — 2970 B Module) Fig. 4. Output at Data receiver

• Bit 1 = Consecutive ones are represented by an

alternating positive and negative voltage for 1st half
of the bit interval, then returns to zero voltage for
2nd half of the bit interval
• Bit 0 = Zero voltage B. Audio Sampling

V. OBSERVATION
A. Line Encoding

Fig. 2. Function Generator Fig. 5. Setup for Audio sampling

DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 1. AUGUST 2023 3

VII. D ISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

During the lab experiments, we successfully generated the
required signals and observed them using an oscilloscope.
Initially, we connected the data source and data receiver to
verify if the entered bit pattern in the data source matched the
output in the data receiver. We then linked the probes of the
data receiver to the oscilloscope to visualize the data.
To achieve this, we utilized the audio module to provide
analog input to the data source, which was then converted
into a digital signal. This digital data was transmitted to both
the data receiver module and the oscilloscope. At the data
receiver, the digital signal was converted back into analog
form, producing an audio signal that we could also observe on
the oscilloscope. We could identify the frequency by speaking
into the audio module, and during periods with no input to the
Fig. 6. Sampling Output audio module, we observed noise in the oscilloscope readings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We, the students of department of Electronics and Computer
Engineering, wish to acknowledge Dr. Nanda Bikram Adhikari
Sir, Anila Kansakar Mam and other contributors for helping
complete this part of the lab with accuracy, either in a direct
or an indirect way. Their class lectures proved to be quite
handy in solving the exercises of this part of the lab. We wish
to acknowledge our classmates, discussions with whom, made
the concepts on certain topics even more clear.

R EFERENCES
[1] Stallings,W. Data and Computer Communications,
Eight Edition.

[2] Forouzan, Behrouz A. Data Communications and

Fig. 7. Sampling Output
Networking, Fourth Edition.

The U-2970K Audio module gives audio information as

analog input to the U-2970A Data Source module which
converts the input into digital signal which can be sent to
either the oscilloscope or the U-2870H Data Receiver Module
which converts the digital signal to back to analog and sends it
to U-2970K audio module where we receive audio information
as output.

VI. RESULTS
The U-2970K Audio module receives the analog signal
given as an input given to the data source module. U-2970A
converts the received analog signal to digital signal along with
a redundant bit added for error detection by the means of
ADC. After the conversion, the output was observed in the
dual channel oscilloscope. The noises were seen mixed with
digitized signals due to many reasons such as the interference
in the U-2879N leads and the connecting wires, and due to
the oscilloscope as well. The output from the U-2970A was
sent to the U-2970H receiver module. The data received is
converted back to analog signal and fed into U-2970K Audio
Module where the analog output is converted to the sound.
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2023 1

Lab on Data communication:

Amplitude Modulation And Demodulation
Samip Neupane(077BCT073), Sandesh Pokhrel(077BCT074), Sandesh Pyakurel(077BCT075), Sandhya
Baral(077BCT076), Sardul Khanal(077BCT077), Satyasa Khadka(077BCT078), Saurav Kumar
Mahato(077BCT079) and Shuvangi Adhikari(077BCT080)
[email protected], [email protected], 077bct080,[email protected]

Abstract—Introduction to amplitude modulation and demod- long distances. Though newer modulation techniques like fre-
ulation is presented.This report provides an overview of am- quency modulation (FM) and digital modulation have gained
plitude modulation (AM) and the corresponding demodulation prominence in certain applications, AM is still used in various
process. The aim is to delve into the fundamental principles
and methods of AM, highlighting its benefits and practical areas, including broadcasting, aviation, and two-way radio
uses. Furthermore, the report investigates demodulation, the communication.
technique employed to retrieve the initial information from the In this experiment, we will explore the principles and
modulated signal.The report encompasses outcomes obtained
from a hands-on laboratory session. Grasping the concepts of
mechanisms behind amplitude modulation and demodulation,
AM and demodulation is imperative to grasp the operation of delve into the advantages and disadvantages of this technique,
diverse radio communication systems, playing a pivotal role in and examine its relevance in modern communication systems.
contemporary telecommunications. Understanding AM and demodulation is crucial in compre-
Index Terms—amplitude, modulation, carrier, etc. hending the evolution of telecommunication technology and
its impact on our daily lives.
I. O BJECTVES
A. Modulation
To produce a DSB-FC-AM (Double Sideband-Full Carrier- III. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Amplitude Modulated) signal

B. Demodulation The equipment required for the successful completion of

To demodulate a DSB-FC-AM signal and extract the mes the experiment of Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation
sage (modulating) signal are listed below:

• ED - 2900: Power Supply Module

II. I NTRODUCTION
• ED - 2950 A: Signal Source Module
A. Amplitude Modulation • ED - 2950 D: Balanced Modulator Module
Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a • ED - 2950 C: Detector Module
carrier signal with a certain frequency. The input signal may • U - 2970A Data Source
be analog or digital and is called the modulating signal or • U - 2970H Data Receiver
baseband signal. The result of modulating the carrier signal • U - 2970H Audio Module
is called the modulated signal. Modulation techniques involve • U - 2970M Power Supply
changes in one or more of the three fundamental frequency • Set of connecting leads
domain parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase of the • Two-Channel Oscilloscope
carrier signal with respect to the message signal. The carrier • Signal (Function) Generator
signal is represented by:
xc = Vc sin(fc t)

B. Amplitude Demodulation IV. THEORY

Demodulation, on the other hand, is the reverse process of
modulation. It is the technique used to extract the original A. Amplitude modulation
modulating signal from the modulated carrier wave at the
receiver end. The demodulation process is essential to retrieve The carrier signal is represented by:
the transmitted information accurately and faithfully.
Amplitude modulation was widely employed in early radio
broadcasting, allowing audio signals to be transmitted over xc = Vc sin(fc t)
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2023 2

• The carrier component with amplitude VDC Vc

• The upper sideband component with amplitude Vm Vc /2
• The lower sideband component with amplitude Vm Vc /2
The degree of modulation(modulation depth) is measured
by the modulation index(m) and is defined as:
Vm
m=( )
VDC
In the above expression, Vm is the amplitude of the mes-
sage(modulating) signal and VDC is the value of the DC bias.
An alternate way of defining the modulation depth is as
Fig. 1. Carrier Signal
follows:
Vmax − Vmin
m=( )
The message (modulating) signal is represented by: Vmax + Vmin
xm (t) = VDC + Vm sin(ωm t) In the above expression, Vmax is the maximum value of
the DSB-FC-AM signal and Vmin is the minimum value of
the DSB-FC-AM signal. The modulation index can also be
expressed in percent form as:
Vmax − Vmin
m=( ) × 100%
Vmax + Vmin
Let,
V = Vc VDC

Then,

Fig. 2. Message(Modulating) Signal

If these two signals are multiplied the output is given by:

x(t) = xm (t)×xc (t) = {VDC +Vm sin(ωm t)}×{Vc sin(ωc t)} From the above expression, it can be seen that the message
signal is contained within the upper and lower sidebands. This
x(t) = VDC Vc sin(ωc t) + Vm Vc sin(ωm t) sin(ωc t) implies that greater the amplitude of the sidebands, the better
Using Trigonometric identities, the output can be expressed the transmitting efficiency. Thus, greater the modulation index,
by: greater the amplitude of the sideband signals and better the
transmitting efficiency. In practice, the modulation index is
Vm Vc
x(t) = VDC Vc sin(ωc t)+ {cos(ωc −ωm )t−cos(ωc +ωm )t} usually:
2
0 < m <= 1

Note: If the modulation index is greater than 1 (i.e. m

¿ 1), it is called over-modulation and this causes distortion.
The bandwidth requirement for DSB–FC–AM signal can be
calculated as follows: The upper frequency component is given
by:
fU SB = fc + fm

Lower frequency component is given by:

fLSB = fc − fm

The bandwidth required for a DSB–FC–AM signal is:

Fig. 3. Amplitude Modulated Signal
BW = fU SB − fLSB = 2fm

From the above expression it can be seen that the output The power required for the transmission of a DSB–FC–AM
consists of three components: signal can be calculated as follows:
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2023 3

V. O BSERVATIONS

The modulation efficiency for a DSB–FC–AM signal can

be calculated as follows:

Fig: U-2970A data-source module

A. Amplitude Modulation

1) Over-Modulation: .

Fig. 4. Output signal wave at over-modulation

Calculation:
Vmax = 0.875
Vmin = −0.422
Modulation-index(m)= 2.86
efficiency=0.80
2) 100%-Modulation: .
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2023 4

B. Amplitude Demodulation

Fig. 5. Output signal wave at 100%-modulation

Fig. 7. Output signal wave after demodulation

Calculation:https://www.overleaf.com/project/64c255bfbbe93c20901fd585 VI. RESULTS

Vmax = 7.102 The modulated signal was seen in three different conditions.
In case of under modulation, the modulation index was found
= Vmin = 7.024 to be 0.51 with 11% efficiency. In case of over modulation, the
Modulation-index(m)= 1 modulation index was found to be 2.86 with 80% efficiency.
On demodulating the signal, a square wave and triangular
3) Under-Modulation: . modulating signal was observed.
Hence, we were able to study the properties of the DSB-FC-
AM signal by visualizing the signals in the oscilloscope and
also calculating various characteristics of the signal like the
modulation index and efficiency through the observed data.

VII. D ISCUSSION AND C ONCLUSION

Hence in these labs, we were successfully able to generate
the required signals and observe them using the oscilloscope.
In the this lab experiment, the properties of Double Side
Band Full Carrier signals were studied. A 300 Hz signal was
generated from a signal generator which acted as a modulating
signal(V 5.01 V) and for carrier signals, a signal functional
generator was used. After varying the knob ‘a’, the variation
in modulated signal was noted and by varying the knob ‘b’
of the modulator, the symmetry modulated skewed signal was
observed. As the carrier signal is artificially generated, the
variation of signal in an oscilloscope was noted by varying the
carrier signal. In this process, the three types of modulation
Fig. 6. Output signal wave at under-modulation
were observed and their modulation indices were calculated.
Similarly,for the same modulated signal it was passed through
a demodulator then to a oscilloscope.The previous modu-
lating/message signal was obtained in the oscilloscope with
Calculation: a minor deviation only.In this way,amplitude modulation/de-
modulation of a signal was successfully conducted.
Vmax = 0.875
Vmin = 0.282 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Modulation-index(m)= 0.51 We, the students of department of Electronics and Computer

Engineering, wish to acknowledge Dr. Nanda Bikram Adhikari
efficiency=0.11 Sir, Anila Kansakar Mam and other contributors for helping
DATA COMMUNICATION. LAB. REPORT 2. AUGUST 2023 5

complete this part of the lab with accuracy, either in a direct

or an indirect way. Their class lectures proved to be quite
handy in solving the exercises of this part of the lab. We wish
to acknowledge our classmates, discussions with whom, made
the concepts on certain topics even more clear.

R EFERENCES
[1] Stallings,W. Data and Computer Communications,
Eight Edition.

[2] Forouzan, Behrouz A. Data Communications and

Networking, Fourth Edition.
 1

Delta Modulation
Samip Neupane(077BCT073), Sandesh Pokhrel(077BCT074), Sandesh Pyakurel(077BCT075),
Sandhya Baral(077BCT076), Sardul Khanal(077BCT077), Satyasa Khadka(077BCT078),
Saurav Kumar Mahato (077BCT079) and Shuvangi Adhikari(077BCT080)

Department of Computer and Electronics

Tribhuwan University
Lalitpur, Nepal

Abstract— The Data Communication Delta Modulation Lab converted to digital signals by modulation technique and then
delves into the fundamental principles and practical transferred to receiver. The receiver receives modulated signal
implementation of delta modulation - an uncomplicated pulse code and convert back to original form by demodulation.
modulation technique widely employed for analog-to-digital
conversion. Throughout this lab, participants will grasp the process
of quantizing the difference between consecutive samples of an
analog signal, converting the quantized delta into a digital format,
and transmitting or storing the resultant digital data. Emphasis will
be placed on comprehending the strengths and limitations of delta
modulation, its application in low bit rate scenarios, and its
susceptibility to noise and abrupt signal changes. By engaging in
hands-on experiments and simulations, students will acquire
valuable insights into the trade-offs associated with delta
modulation and explore alternative techniques to enhance
performance in diverse communication systems.
Index Terms—Delta Modulation, Modulation
Fig. 1. Delta Modulation
I. INTRODUCTION

D ELTA modulation and demodulation is a simple form

of analog to digital (ADC) and digital to analog (DAC)
conversion and a type of pulse code modulation (PCM) A. Instrument Setup
II. PROCEDURE

technique used to encode analog signals into digital form 1) Equipment required
and decode back digital signal to analog signal. It works • Double-beam oscilloscope, 5MHz bandwidth
by quantizing the difference (or delta) between the current • Audio-frequency signal generator
sample of the analog signal and the previous sample.
• Delta-modulation module, 2960G
• Power Supply: ED-2900P
A delta modulation (DM or ∆-modulation) technique used
2) Examination of pulse generator
for conversion and transmission of voice information where
quality is not of primary importance.DM is the simplest form • 2960G module was supplied power by switching

of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where the on the power supply. Y-channel of the oscilloscope
difference between successive samples is encoded into n-bit was connected to the output of the pulse genera- tor.
data streams. In delta modulation, the transmitted data are ’Clock input’ and ’Clock output’ sockets were
reduced to a 1-bit data stream representing either up (↑) or linked. Finally, ’data input’ socket was linked to
down (↓). ’+7.5V’ as shown in figure below:

Most of the natural signals available in nature are

analog signals but in modern communication system
and electronic devices digital signals are preferred form
of representation. By converting analog to digital signals
compatibility is ensured, noise is reduced, signal can be
easily processed and transmitted. Converting to digital signal
allows for advanced filtering, compressing, encryption and Fig. 2. Setup Diagram of
other signal transformations that enhance communication and Delta Modulation
data processing capabilities.

The time variant analog signals are first sent to the sender
which then sent for conversion where analog signals are
 2

• Setting up the Y sensitivity to 2V/division and the C. Demodulation

time-base scale to 5µs/division we were able to see Demodulation is done by demodulator. The demodulator
a train of positive pulses. The rate at which they takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the
occurred were adjustable by means of the clock delay unit, creates the analog signal. The created analog signal,
frequency. however, needs to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.
Transferring ’data input’ lead from the “+7.5V” to
the “-7.5V” socket. Instead of positive pulses we
sawnegative pulses.
Thus, a sequence of alternate positive and negative
input produced the integrator waveform as shown
below:

Fig. 5. Block Diagram of Demodulation

III. RESULTS

Fig. 3. Integrator Waveform

B. Modulation
Modulation is done by modulator. The modulator is used at
the sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal.
The process records the small positive or negative changes,
called deltas. If the delta is positive, the process records a 1;
if it is negative, the process records a 0. However, the process
needs a base against which the analog signal is compared. The
modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.
Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the input
signal with the gradually made staircase signal. Figure 4.
shows a diagram of the process.

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of Modulation Fig. 6. Original Signal

Before modulation the original signal was seen as shown in

figure above, which is smooth analog signal of nearly 300Hz.
 Fig. 7. Signal pulse Fig. 10. Delta Demodulated Signal 1

Fig. 8. Delta Modulated Signal

Fig. 11. Delta Demodulated Signal 2

Above figure shows the original and demodulated

signals which differ a little in phase. The output
signal and original signal aren’t exactly the same
probably due to losses occurring during modulation
and demodulation.

Fig. 9. Delta Modulated Signal with high amplitude and high

signal pulse

Above figure 7. And 8. shows the stepping of the

signals forming positive deltas(Δ).
 IV. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

During the lab session, we engaged in delta

modulation to convert an analog signal into a digital
one. At the sender side, we created a stream of bits by
recording small changes known as deltas. Positive
deltas were represented as 1, and negative deltas as 0,
effectively converting the analog signal into digital
form (comprising 1's and 0's). We visualized the
stepping using an oscilloscope based on the type of
delta (+ve or -ve). Moving to the receiver side, we
performed demodulation using the demodulator to
retrieve the original signal. The demodulator utilized
the digital data, combined with the staircase maker
and the delay unit, to recreate the analog signal. To
achieve a smoother analog signal, we passed it
through a low-pass filter. However, during
modulation and demodulation, some losses occurred,
resulting in slight phase differences between the
output signal and the original analog signal.

V. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the delta modulation lab provided

valuable insights into the process of analog-to-digital
conversion using a simple pulse code modulation
technique. By recording small changes (deltas) and
representing them as 1's and 0's, we successfully
converted the analog signal into a digital format. The
oscilloscope visualization allowed us to observe the
stepping based on the type of delta, offering a visual
representation of the process.
The demodulation process at the receiver side was
effective in reconstructing the original signal using
the staircase maker, delay unit, and low-pass filter.
However, we observed slight phase differences
between the output signal and the original analog
signal due to some losses during modulation and
demodulation.