MATHEMATICS PROJECT WORK

Project work report submitted as Pre-required for the Partial Fulfillment of

Mathematics grade XII

Submitted by:

Arjina Adhikari

Roll no. : 04 (2080/2081)

Submitted to:

Department of Mathematics
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This project work entitled "Mathematics Project Work" by Miss. Arjina Adhikari, of Nepal
APF School, Kirtipur, Nepal prepared under the supervision of Surrendra Adhikari submitted
for the partial fulfillment of Mathematics of class 12 has been accepted.

…………………………….. ……………………..........
Supervisor Head of department
Surrendra Adhikari Surya Kant Lal
Karna
........................................
Principal
Mr. Yuba Raj Parajuli

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 RECOMMENDATION LETTER

This project work entitled "Mathematics Project Work" submitted by Arjina

Adhikari of Nepal APF School, Kirtipur, Nepal has been prepared under my
supervision as a partial fulfillment of Mathematics grade XII. I therefore,
recommend the project work report for evaluation. This work has not been
submitted to any other degree in this institution.

……………………………..
Supervisor
Surrendra Adhikari

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 DECLARATION

I, Arjina Adhikari hereby declare that the work presented herein is genuine work
carried originally by me and has not been published or submitted elsewhere for the
requirements of any degree program. Any literature, data or works done by others
and cited in this dissertation has been given due acknowledgment and listed in the
reference section.

.......................................
Name of the student: Arjina Adhikari
Email: [email protected]
Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mr. Surrendra

Adhikari, whose valuable guidance has been the ones that helped me patch this
project and make it full proof success his suggestions and his instructions has
served as the major contributor towards the completion of this project.
I would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finishing this
project within the limited time. I am making this project not only for marks but to
also to increase my knowledge.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Chapter Name Page
Num. Num.
1 Permutation and Combination 7-9

2 Binomial Theorem 10-11

3 Sequence and Series 12-14

4 System Of Linear Equation 15-17

5 Derivatives 18-20

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 CHAPTER-1
Permutation and Combination
 Project Report on the Difference Between Permutation and
Combination taking some examples.
Abstract
This report examines the fundamental differences between permutations and combinations, two
essential concepts in combinatorial mathematics. By defining each term, presenting their
mathematical formulations, and providing illustrative examples, we aim to clarify when to use
each method and their practical applications.

Introduction
In the study of mathematics, particularly in probability and combinatorics, the concepts of
permutations and combinations are critical for counting and arrangement problems.
Understanding these concepts allows us to make informed decisions in fields ranging from
statistics to computer science.

Definitions

Permutation

A permutation is an arrangement of objects in a specific order. The order of selection matters.

The formula for calculating permutations is given by:
n!
P(n,r)=
( n−r ) !

Where:

 n = total number of items

 r = number of items to arrange
 n! = factorial of n
Combination
A combination is a selection of items without regard to the order of selection. The formula for
combinations is:
n!
C(n,r)=
r ! ( n−r ) !

where:
 C(n,r)= number of combinations
 r = number of items to choose
Key Differences
Feature Permutation Combination

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Definition Arrangement of items Selection of items
Order Order matters Order does not matter
Formula n! n!
P(n,r)= C(n,r)=
( n−r ) ! r ! ( n−r ) !

Example scenario Arranging books on a shelf Choosing books to take on a

trip
results More possible outcomes Fewer possible outcomes

Examples

Example of Permutation
Scenario: Arranging Books Suppose you have 5 different books, and you want to arrange 3 of
them on a shelf.
 Calculation:
5! 5 ! 5× 4 × 3 ×2 !
P(5,3)= = = =60
( 5−3 ) ! 2 ! 2!
 Interpretation: There are 60 different ways to arrange 3 books out of 5.

Example of Combination
Scenario: Selecting Books Using the same 5 books, if you want to choose 3 to take on a trip, the
order of selection does not matter.
 Calculation:
5! 5 ×4 ×3 ×2 ×1
C(5,3)= = =10
3! (5−3 ) ! 3 × 2× 1× 2× 1
Interpretation: There are 10 different ways to choose 3 books out of 5, regardless of the
order.
Further Clarification
 Permutation Example: In a race where the order of finishing matters, the first, second,
and third positions would be different permutations.
 Combination Example: In a lottery where you choose 6 numbers from a set of 49, the
order of the numbers does not matter, making it a combination.

Applications
 Permutations are often used in scenarios where the sequence is essential, such as
scheduling, arranging, and coding.
 Combinations are used in cases where the selection matters more than the arrangement,
such as forming committees, lottery selections, and choosing teams.
Conclusion
Understanding the difference between permutations and combinations is essential in various
fields, including mathematics, computer science, and decision-making processes. By applying

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the correct method, one can accurately solve problems involving arrangement and selection,
enhancing the effectiveness of analysis and predictions.

CHAPTER-2
Binomial Theorem

 Project Report on Various Properties of Binomial Coefficients

Introduction
Binomial coefficients are integral to combinatory and probability theory, represented as C(n,k) or
n
( ¿ which denote the number of ways to choose k elements from a set of nnn elements. This
k
report explores various properties of binomial coefficients, their significance, and applications.
Definition
n
The binomial coefficient of is defined as:
k
n n!
=
k k ! ( n−k ) !
where:
 n! is the factorial of nnn
 k is the number of selected items
 n is the total number of items

Properties of Binomial Coefficients

1. Symmetry Property
One of the fundamental properties of binomial coefficients is their symmetry:

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n n!
=
k ( n−k ) !

Explanation:
This property indicates that choosing k items from n is the same as excluding n−k items. For
example, in a set of 5 elements, choosing 2 elements is equivalent to excluding 3 elements.
2. Sum of Binomial Coefficients
The sum of the binomial coefficients for a fixed nnn can be expressed as:
n

∑ nk = 2n
k=0

Explanation:
This property shows that the total number of subsets (including the empty set and the set itself)
of a set with n elements is 2n .
3. Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem states that:
n
n n-k k
(a+b) =∑
n
a b
k=0 k

Explanation:
This theorem expresses the expansion of a binomial raised to a power n in terms of binomial
coefficients. Each term in the expansion is weighted by the corresponding binomial coefficient,
representing the number of ways to choose k successes in n trials.
Applications
1. Combinatorial Counting: Binomial coefficients are used extensively in counting
problems, such as forming committees or selecting teams.
2. Probability: They appear in binomial distributions, which model the number of
successes in a fixed number of independent Bernoulli trials.
3. Computer Science: In algorithms involving combinatorial logic, such as generating
subsets or combinations, binomial coefficients are frequently utilized.
4. Algebra: In algebra, the coefficients in polynomial expansions and combinatorial
identities often rely on binomial coefficients.
Conclusion
Binomial coefficients are a cornerstone of combinatorial mathematics, possessing numerous
properties that facilitate counting, probability, and algebraic expansions. Their symmetrical
nature, relationships through Pascal’s Rule, and application in the Binomial Theorem make them
essential tools in various mathematical and real-world contexts.

CHAPTER-3
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 Sequence and Series

 Project Report on Various Sums of Natural Numbers

Introduction
Natural numbers, the set of positive integers starting from 1, have been studied extensively in
mathematics. One of the fundamental topics in number theory is the sum of natural numbers,
which can be explored through various formulas, techniques, and applications. This report
focuses on different methods of summing natural numbers, including arithmetic series, geometric
series, and specific formulas for calculating sums.
Definitions
Natural Numbers
Natural numbers are defined as the set of positive integers:
N={1,2,3,4,…}

Sum of First nnn Natural Numbers

The sum of the first n natural numbers is given by the formula:
n(n+1)
Sn=
2

Where Sn represents the sum of the first n natural numbers.

Methods of Summation
1. Arithmetic Series
An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence, where the difference
between consecutive terms is constant. The sum of the first n terms can be calculated using the
formula:
n
Sn= (a+l)
2

where:
 Sn = sum of the first nnn terms
 a = first term
 l= last term
For the series of natural numbers 1,2,3,…,n, the first term a=1 and the last term l=n.
Example:
Calculate the sum of the first 10 natural numbers.
10
S10= (1+10)=5×11=55
2

2. Sum of Even and Odd Natural Numbers

Sum of First n Even Numbers:
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The sum of the first n even numbers can be expressed as:
Seven=n(n+1)

Example: Calculate the sum of the first 5 even numbers.

Seven=5(5+1)=5×6=30

Sum of First n Odd Numbers:

The sum of the first n odd numbers is:
Sodd=n2
Example: Calculate the sum of the first 5 odd numbers.
Sodd=52=25
3. Sum of Squares of Natural Numbers
The sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers can be calculated using the formula:
n(n+1)(2 n+1)
Sn, squares=
6

Example: Calculate the sum of the squares of the first 3 natural numbers.
3(3+1)(2.3+1) 3.4 .7
S3,squares= = =14
6 6

4. Sum of Cubes of Natural Numbers

The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is given by:
n(n+1) 2
Sn, cubes=( ¿
2

Example: Calculate the sum of the cubes of the first 3 natural numbers.
3(3+1) 2 2
S3,cubes=( ¿ =6 =36
2

Applications
1. Mathematics: Understanding the properties of natural numbers and their sums is
fundamental in algebra, calculus, and number theory.
2. Computer Science: Algorithms often utilize summation techniques to solve problems
efficiently, especially in data processing and analysis.
3. Statistics: Summing natural numbers plays a crucial role in calculating averages, variances,
and other statistical measures.
Conclusion
The study of sums of natural numbers reveals a rich field of mathematical exploration, with
various formulas and applications. From simple arithmetic series to more complex calculations
involving squares and cubes, the sums of natural numbers provide foundational concepts that are
essential in many areas of mathematics and science.

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 CHAPTER-4
System of Linear Equation
 Project Report: Well-Conditioned and Ill-Conditioned Systems of
Linear Equations
Abstract
This report explores the concepts of well-conditioned and ill-conditioned systems of linear
equations, highlighting their significance in numerical analysis and computational mathematics.
We define the terms, discuss the implications for solution stability and accuracy, and provide
examples to illustrate each condition.

1. Introduction
In the study of linear equations, the condition of a system greatly influences the stability and
accuracy of solutions. A system is classified as well-conditioned if small changes in the input
(coefficients or constants) result in small changes in the solution. Conversely, an ill-conditioned
system exhibits high sensitivity, where small variations in the input can lead to large deviations
in the solution.

2. Definitions
 Well-Conditioned System: A system of linear equations is well-conditioned if the
condition number is low, indicating that solutions are stable and small perturbations do
not significantly affect the results.
 Ill-Conditioned System: A system is ill-conditioned if the condition number is high,
meaning that small changes in the coefficients or constants can lead to substantial
changes in the solution.

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3. Condition Number
The condition number of a matrix A, denoted as κ(A)\, is defined as:
κ(A)=∥A∥∥A−1∥

where ∥A∥ is a norm of the matrix. A low condition number (close to 1) indicates a well-
conditioned system, while a high condition number indicates an ill-conditioned system.

4. Examples

4.1 Well-Conditioned System

Consider the following system:
2x+3y=54
x+6y=10
Coefficient Matrix:

A= ( )
2 3
4 6
Determinant:
det(A)= 2(6)−3(4)= 0
This system has dependent equations and does not represent a well-conditioned system.
Instead, consider a different system:
x+2y=3
3x+4y=7
Coefficient Matrix:

A= ( )
1 2
3 4
Determinant: det(A)= (1)(4)−(2)(3)= 4−6= −2 (non-zero)
Condition Number:
Calculate the inverse:
A−1=
1
( 4 −2
det ⁡( A) −3 1 )(=
−2 1
1.5 −0.5 )
The condition number κ(A) is reasonably small, indicating a well-conditioned system.
4.2 Ill-Conditioned System
Now, consider:
x + y= 1

x + y= 1+ϵ

where ϵ is a small perturbation (e.g., ϵ=0.0001).

Coefficient Matrix:

A= (11 11)
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 Determinant:
det(A)=(1)(1)−(1)(1)=0
This is not a valid coefficient matrix for a unique solution.
Now consider:
1.0001x + y= 2
x + 1.0001y= 2
Coefficient Matrix:

A= (1.0001
1
1
1.0001 )
Determinant:
det(A)= (1.0001)(1.0001) − (1)(1)≈ 0.00020001(very small)
Condition Number: The condition number will be high, indicating an ill-conditioned
system where small changes in ϵ can drastically change the solution.

5. Implications
 Well-Conditioned Systems: Solutions are reliable and robust. Numerical methods yield
accurate results.
 Ill-Conditioned Systems: Solutions may be unstable. Small errors can lead to large
deviations, complicating numerical solutions.

6. Conclusion
Understanding the distinction between well-conditioned and ill-conditioned systems is crucial for
numerical analysis. While well-conditioned systems provide stable and reliable solutions, ill-
conditioned systems pose challenges that require careful consideration and alternative numerical
strategies. Recognizing and addressing these conditions can greatly enhance the effectiveness of
computational methods.
CHAPTER-5
Derivatives
 Project Report on Hyperbolic Functions and Their Derivatives with
Applications
Abstract
Hyperbolic functions, analogous to trigonometric functions, arise in various branches of
mathematics and applied sciences. This report delves into the definitions, properties, derivatives
of hyperbolic functions, and their applications across different fields, including physics,
engineering, and architecture.

1. Introduction
Hyperbolic functions are defined using exponential functions and are crucial in solving various
mathematical problems involving hyperbolas. The primary hyperbolic functions are:
 Hyperbolic sine (sinh)
 Hyperbolic cosine (cosh)

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  Hyperbolic tangent (tanh)
 Hyperbolic cotangent (coth)
 Hyperbolic secant (sech)
 Hyperbolic cosecant (cosech)
These functions have unique properties and derivatives that make them useful in both theoretical
and practical applications.

2. Definitions and Basic Properties

Definitions:
x −x
e −e
 sinh(x)=
2
x −x
e +e
 cosh(x)=
2
sinh x
 tanh(x)=
cosh x
cosh x
 coth(x)=
sinh x
1
 sech(x)=
cosh x
1
 cosech(x)=
sinh x
Basic Properties:
o cosh2(x)−sinh2(x)=1
o The functions are even and odd:
 sinh(−x)=−sinh(x) (odd)
 cosh(−x)=cosh(x) (even)

3. Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

 Derivatives:
d
o sinh x =cosh(x)
dx
d
o cosh x=sinh(x)
dx
d
o tanh x =sech2(x)
dx
d
o coth(x )=−cosech2(x)
dx
d
o sech( x )=−sech(x)tanh(x)
dx
d
o cosech(x) =−cosech(x)coth(x)
dx
These derivatives are essential in solving differential equations and modeling various physical
phenomena.

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4. Applications of Hyperbolic Functions
1. Physics:
o Special Relativity: Hyperbolic functions are used to describe the relationship
between space and time in relativistic physics. For example, the rapidity in special
relativity can be expressed using hyperbolic tangent.
o Wave Equations: Solutions to the wave equation in hyperbolic geometry often
involve hyperbolic sine and cosine.
2. Engineering:
o Structural Analysis: In civil engineering, hyperbolic functions describe the shape
of arches and bridges. The catenary curve, representing a hanging cable, is
defined by a hyperbolic cosine function.
o Heat Transfer: The temperature distribution in certain materials can be modeled
using hyperbolic functions, especially in problems involving steady-state heat
conduction.
3. Architecture:
o Design of Structures: Hyperbolic functions aid in designing structures with
specific shapes, such as hyperbolic paraboloids, which are common in modern
architecture for roofs and shells.
4. Mathematics:
o Differential Equations: Hyperbolic functions are solutions to many differential
equations, including those arising in mechanics and physics.
o Complex Analysis: Hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of complex
exponentials, leading to applications in Fourier analysis and signal processing.

5. Conclusion
Hyperbolic functions play a significant role in mathematics and its applications across various
fields. Their derivatives and unique properties facilitate modeling complex phenomena in
physics, engineering, and architecture. Understanding hyperbolic functions not only enhances
mathematical knowledge but also provides practical tools for solving real-world problems.

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