LECTURE 4: Fundamental Antenna Parameters

(Radiation pattern. Pattern beamwidths. Radiation intensity. Directivity. Gain.

Antenna efficiency and radiation efficiency. Frequency bandwidth. Input
impedance and radiation resistance. Antenna effective area. Relationship
between directivity and antenna effective area. Other antenna equivalent areas.)

The antenna parameters describe the antenna performance with respect to space
distribution of the radiated energy, power efficiency, matching to the feed
circuitry, etc. Many of these parameters are interrelated. There are several
parameters not described here, in particular, antenna temperature and noise
characteristics. They are discussed later in conjunction with radio-wave
propagation and system performance.

1. Radiation Pattern
Definitions:
The radiation pattern (RP) (or antenna pattern) is the representation of a
radiation property of the antenna as a function of the angular coordinates.

The trace of the angular variation of the received/radiated power at a

constant radius from the antenna is called the power pattern.
The trace of the angular variation of the magnitude of the electric (or
magnetic) field at a constant radius from the antenna is called the amplitude
field pattern.
RPs are measured in the far-field region, where the angular distribution of the
radiated power does not depend on the distance. We measure and plot either the
field intensity, ∼| E(θ ,ϕ ) | , or the power ∼| E(θ ,ϕ ) |2 /η = η | H(θ ,ϕ ) |2 . Usually,
the pattern describes the normalized field (or power) values with respect to the
maximum value.
Note: The power pattern and the amplitude field pattern are the same when
computed and plotted in dB.
The pattern can be a 3-D plot (both θ and ϕ vary), or a 2-D plot. A 2-D plot
is obtained as an intersection of the 3-D RP with a given plane, usually a
θ = const. plane or a ϕ = const. plane that must contain the pattern’s maximum.

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 θ

elevation plane

ϕ = 90

azimuth plane
θ = 90
ϕ

3-D pattern of a dipole 2-D elevation & azimuth patterns of a dipole

Illustration of azimuth and elevation

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Plotting the pattern: the trace of the pattern is obtained by setting the distance
from the origin in the direction (θ ,ϕ ) to be proportional to the strength of the
field | E(θ ,ϕ ) | (in the case of an amplitude field pattern) or proportional to the
power density | E(θ ,ϕ ) |2 (in the case of a power pattern).

Elevation Plane: ϕ = const

z
θ = 45 sinθ
| r |= 1/ 2

| r |= 1

Some concepts related to the pattern terminology

a) Isotropic pattern is the pattern of an antenna having equal radiation in all
directions. This is an ideal concept, which, strictly speaking, is achievable
only approximately in a narrow frequency band. However, it is used to
define other antenna parameters. It is represented simply by a sphere whose
center coincides with the location of the isotropic radiator.
b) Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much more
efficiently in some directions than in others. Usually, this term is applied to
antennas whose directivity is much higher than that of a half-wavelength
dipole.
c) Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has a non-directional
pattern in a given plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane
(e.g. single-wire antenna). The pattern in the figure below is that of a dipole
– it is omnidirectional.

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 Omnidirectional 3-D pattern

d) Principal patterns are the 2-D patterns of linearly polarized antennas,

measured in the E-plane (a plane parallel to the E vector and containing
the direction of maximum radiation) and in the H-plane (a plane parallel to
the H vector, orthogonal to the E-plane, and containing the direction of
maximum radiation).

[Balanis, 3rd ed.]

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 2-D patterns can be polar or rectangular, depending on the way the angle is
depicted, and linear or logarithmic (in dB), depending on the chosen pattern
scale. The plots below show the same 2-D pattern in 4 different formats.

01 00
30 30 30 30
0.75 -15

60 0.5 60 60 -30 60
0.25 -45

90 90 90 90

120 120 120 120

150 150 150 150

180 180
Polar Pattern (linear scale) Polar Pattern (dB scale, min @-60 dB)

1 0

-10
0.8
normalized field pattern, dB
normalized field pattern

-20

0.6 -30

-40
0.4
-50

0.2
-60

0 -70
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
θ, degrees θ, degrees

Rectangular Pattern (linear scale) Rectangular Pattern (dB)

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 e) Pattern lobe is a portion of the RP with a local radiation-intensity
maximum and limits defined by neighboring nulls. Lobes are classified as:
major, minor, side lobes, back lobes.

J.D. Kraus and R.J. Marhefka, Antennas, 3rd. ed., Fig. 2-3

2. Pattern Beamwidth
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors,
originating at the pattern’s origin and passing through these points of the major
lobe where the radiation intensity is half its maximum.

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 First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating
at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its base. Often, the
approximation FNBW ≈ 2⋅HPBW is used.
The HPBW is the best parameter to describe the antenna resolution
properties. In radar technology as well as in radioastronomy, the antenna
resolution capability is of primary importance.

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3. Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna.

a) Solid angle
One steradian (sr) is the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere
of radius r, which is subtended by a spherical surface of area r2. In a closed
sphere, there are 4π steradians. A solid angle is defined as
S
Ω = Ω2 , sr (4.1)
r
Note: The above definition is analogous to the definition of a 2-D angle in
radians, ω = lω / ρ , where lω is the length of the arc segment supported by the
angle ω in a circle of radius ρ .

The infinitesimal area ds on a surface of a sphere of radius r in spherical

coordinates is
ds = r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ , m2. (4.2)
Therefore,
d Ω = sin θ dθ dϕ , sr, (4.3)
and
ds = r 2 d Ω . (4.4)

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b) Radiation intensity U
The radiation intensity is the power radiated within unit solid angle:
∆Π rad d Π rad
U = lim = , W/sr. (4.5)
∆Ω→0 ∆Ω dΩ
The expression inverse to that in (4.5) is
Π rad =  Ud Ω , W. (4.6)
4π
From now on, we will denote the radiated power simply by Π . There is a direct
relation between the radiation intensity U and the radiation power density P (that
is the time-average Poynting vector magnitude in the far zone). Since
dΠ dΠ 1
P= = 2 = 2 U , W/m2 (4.7)
ds r d Ω r
then
U = r2 ⋅ P (4.8)
It was already shown that the power density of the far field depends on the
distance from the source as 1/r2, since the far field magnitude depends on r as
1/r. Thus, the radiation intensity U depends only on the direction (θ ,ϕ ) but not
on the distance r.

The power pattern is a trace of the function | U (θ ,ϕ ) | usually normalized to

its maximum value. The normalized pattern will be denoted as U (θ ,ϕ ) .

In the far-field zone, the radial field components vanish, and the remaining E
and H transverse components are in phase and have magnitudes related by
| E |= η | H | . (4.9)
This is why the far-field Poynting vector has only a radial component and it is a
real number showing the radiation power-flow density:
1 2 1 | E |2 1
Prad = P = η | H | = ∼ 2. (4.10)
2 2 η r
Then, for the radiation intensity, we obtain in terms of the electric field
r2
U (θ ,ϕ ) = | E |2 . (4.11)
2η
Equation (4.11) leads to a useful relation between the power pattern and the
amplitude field pattern:

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 r2 2 1  2
U (θ ,ϕ ) = [ Eθ (r ,θ ,ϕ ) + Eϕ2 (r ,θ ,ϕ ) ] = Eθ p (θ ,ϕ ) + Eϕ2p (θ ,ϕ )  . (4.12)
2η 2η  
Here, Eθ p (θ ,ϕ ) and Eϕ p (θ , ϕ ) denote the far-zone field patterns for the two
orthogonal polarizations.

Examples:
1) Radiation intensity and pattern of an isotropic radiator:
Π
P ( r ,θ , ϕ ) =
4π r 2
Π
U (θ ,ϕ ) = r 2 ⋅ P = = const.
4π
 U (θ , ϕ ) = 1 .
The normalized pattern of an isotropic radiator is simply a sphere of a unit
radius.

2) Radiation intensity and pattern of an infinitesimal dipole:

From Lecture 3, the far-field term of the electric field is:
β ⋅ ( I ∆l ) ⋅ e− j β r
Eθ = jη ⋅ sin θ  E (θ ,ϕ ) = sin θ ,
4π r
2 ⋅ I ∆l 2
r2
U = ⋅ | E |2 = η
β ( ) ⋅ sin 2 θ ,
2η 32π 2
 U (θ ,ϕ ) = sin 2 θ .

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4. Directivity

4.1. Definitions and examples

Directivity of an antenna (in a given direction) is the ratio of the radiation

intensity in this direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions. The radiation intensity averaged over all directions is equal to the
total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π . If a direction is not
specified, then the direction of maximum radiation is implied.

It can be also defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity (RI) of the antenna in
a given direction and the RI of an isotropic radiator fed by the same amount of
power:
U (θ ,ϕ ) U (θ ,ϕ )
D(θ ,ϕ ) = = 4π , (4.13)
U av Π
and
U
Dmax = D0 = 4π max .
Π
The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always
≥ 1.

Examples:

1) Directivity of an isotropic source:

U (θ ,ϕ ) = U 0 = const.
 Π = 4π U 0
U (θ ,ϕ )
 D (θ ,ϕ ) = 4π =1
Π
 D0 = 1 .

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2) Directivity of an infinitesimal dipole:
2
β 2 ⋅ ( I ∆l )
U (θ ,ϕ ) = η 2
⋅ sin 2 θ
32π
 U (θ ,ϕ ) = sin 2 θ ; U (θ ,ϕ ) = M ⋅ U (θ ,ϕ ) = M sin 2 θ
As per (4.6),
π 2π
8π
Π =  Ud Ω = M ⋅   sin 2 θ ⋅ sin θ dϕ dθ = M ⋅
4π
0 0
3
U (θ ,ϕ ) M sin 2 θ 3
D(θ ,ϕ ) = 4π = 4π ⋅ 3 = sin 2 θ
Π M ⋅ 8π 2
 D0 = 1.5 .

Exercise: Calculate the maximum directivity of an antenna with a radiation

intensity U = M sin θ . (Answer: D0 = 4 / π ≈ 1.27 )

The partial directivity of an antenna is specified for a given polarization of the

field. It is defined as that part of the radiation intensity, which corresponds to
a given polarization, divided by the total radiation intensity averaged over all
directions.

The total directivity is the sum of the partial directivities for any two orthogonal
polarizations:
D = Dθ + Dϕ , (4.14)
where:
Uθ
Dθ = 4π ,
Πθ + Π ϕ
Uϕ
Dϕ = 4π .
Πθ + Π ϕ

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4.2. Directivity in terms of normalized radiation intensity U (θ ,ϕ )
U (θ ,ϕ ) = M ⋅ U (θ ,ϕ ) (4.15)
π 2π
Π=  Ud Ω = M ⋅  U (θ ,ϕ )sin θ dϕ dθ (4.16)
4π 0 0
U (θ ,ϕ )
D(θ ,ϕ ) = 4π π 2π (4.17)
  U (θ ′,ϕ ′)sin θ ′dϕ ′dθ ′
0 0
For the maximum directivity D0 , we have U (θ 0 ,ϕ0 ) = 1; therefore,
1
D0 = 4π π 2π . (4.18)
  U (θ ,ϕ )sin θ dϕ dθ
0 0

This expression is used to compute the directivity of an antenna from its

measured and normalized power pattern. In this computation, the integral in the
denominator is represented as a discrete sum.

4.3. Beam solid angle Ω A

The beam solid angle Ω A of an antenna is the solid angle through which all
the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity were constant and
equal to the maximum radiation intensity U 0 for all angles within Ω A .

π 2π
Ω A =   U (θ ,ϕ )sin θ dϕ dθ (4.19)
0 0
The relation between the maximum directivity and the beam solid angle is
obvious from (4.18) and (4.19):
D0 = 4π / Ω A . (4.20)
In order to understand how (4.19) is obtained, follow the derivations below
(they reflect the mathematical meaning of the definition above):
Π =  Ud Ω =  U 0 d Ω = U 0Ω A
4π ΩA
assumed constant
radiation intensity

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  Ud Ω π 2π
 ΩA = 4π
U0
=  Ud Ω =   U (θ ,ϕ )sin θ dϕ dθ .
4π 0 0

4.4. Approximate expressions for directivity

The complexity of the calculation of the antenna directivity D0 depends on
the power pattern U (θ ,ϕ ) , which has to be integrated over a spherical surface.
In most practical cases, this function is not available in closed analytical form
(e.g., it might be a data set). Even if it is available in closed analytical form, the
integral in (4.18) may not have a closed analytical solution. In practice, simpler
although not exact expressions are often used for approximate and fast
calculations. These formulas are based on the two orthogonal-plane half-power
beamwidths (HPBW) of the pattern. The approximations for the directivity are
usually valid for highly directive (pencil-beam) antennas such as large reflectors
and horns.

a) Kraus’ formula
For antennas with narrow major lobe and with negligible minor lobes, the
beam solid angle Ω A is approximately equal to the product of the HPBWs in two
orthogonal planes:
Ω A = Θ1Θ 2 , (4.21)
where the HPBW angles are in radians. Another variation of (4.21) is
41000
D0 ≃ , (4.22)
Θ1Θ2
where Θ1 and Θ1 are in degrees.

b) Formula of Tai and Pereira

32ln 2
D0 ≃ (4.23)
Θ12 + Θ22
The angles in (4.23) are in radians. For details see: C. Tai and C. Pereira, “An
approximate formula for calculating the directivity of an antenna,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-24, No. 2, March 1976, pp. 235-236.

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5. Antenna Gain

The gain G of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity U in a given

direction and the radiation intensity that would be obtained, if the power fed
to the antenna were radiated isotropically.
U (θ ,ϕ )
G (θ ,ϕ ) = 4π (4.24)
Π in
The gain is a dimensionless quantity, which is very similar to the directivity D.
When the antenna has no losses, i.e. when Π in = Π , then G (θ ,ϕ ) = D (θ ,ϕ ) .
Thus, the gain of the antenna takes into account the losses in the antenna system.
It is calculated using the input power Πin, which can be measured directly. In
contrast, the directivity is calculated via the radiated power Π .
There are many factors that can worsen the transfer of energy from the
transmitter to the antenna (or from the antenna to the receiver):
• mismatch losses,
• losses in the transmission line,
• losses in the antenna: dielectric losses, conduction losses, polarization
losses.
The power radiated by the antenna is always less than the power fed to it, i.e.,
Π ≤ Π in , unless the antenna has integrated active devices. That is why, usually,
G ≤ D.
! According to the IEEE Standards, the gain does not include losses arising
from impedance mismatch and from polarization mismatch.
Therefore, the gain takes into account only the dielectric and conduction losses
of the antenna itself.
The radiated power Π is related to the input power Πin through a coefficient
called the radiation efficiency e:
Π = e ⋅ Π in , e ≤ 1 , (4.25)
 G (θ ,ϕ ) = e ⋅ D (θ ,ϕ ) . (4.26)
Partial gains with respect to a given field polarization are defined in the same
way as it is done with the partial directivities; see equation (4.14).

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6. Antenna Efficiency
The total efficiency of the antenna et is used to estimate the total loss of
energy at the input terminals of the antenna and within the antenna structure. It
includes all mismatch losses and the dielectric/conduction losses (described by
the radiation efficiency e as defined by the IEEE Standards):
et = e p er ec ed = e p er ⋅ e . (4.27)
e
Here: er is the reflection (impedance mismatch) efficiency,
ep is the polarization mismatch efficiency,
ec is the conduction efficiency,
ed is the dielectric efficiency.
The reflection efficiency can be calculated through the reflection coefficient Γ
at the antenna terminals:
er = 1− | Γ |2 . (4.28)
Γ can be either measured or calculated, provided the antenna impedance is
known:
Z − Zc
Γ = in . (4.29)
Zin + Z c
Z in is the antenna input impedance and Z c is the characteristic impedance of the
feed line. If there are no polarization losses, then the total efficiency is related to
the radiation efficiency e as
et = e ⋅ (1− | Γ |2 ) . (4.30)

7. Beam Efficiency

The beam efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated in a cone of angle 2Θ1
and the total radiated power. The angle 2Θ1 can be generally any angle, but
usually this is the first-null beam width (the FNBW of the main lobe).
2π Θ1 2π Θ1

  U (θ ,ϕ ) sin θ dθ dϕ   U (θ , ϕ ) sin θ dθ dϕ Ω beam

0 0 0 0
BE = 2π π
= = (4.31)
ΩA ΩA
  U (θ , ϕ ) sin θ dθ dϕ
0 0

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If the antenna has its main beam directed along the z-axis (θ = 0 ) and if Θ1 is the
angle where the first null occurs in two principal planes, formula (4.31) defines
the main-beam efficiency and the BE will show what part of the total radiated
power is channeled through the main beam.
Very high beam-efficiency antennas are needed in radars, radiometry and
radioastronomy.

8. Frequency Bandwidth (FBW)

This is the range of frequencies, within which the antenna characteristics

(input impedance, pattern) conform to certain specifications.

Antenna characteristics, which should conform to certain requirements, might

be: input impedance, radiation pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side-lobe level,
gain, beam direction, beamwidth, radiation efficiency. Separate bandwidths may
be introduced: impedance bandwidth, pattern bandwidth, etc.
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the
lower frequencies, where the antenna performance is acceptable:
FBW = f max / f min . (4.32)
Broadband antennas with FBW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such
antennas are referred to as frequency independent antennas.
For narrowband antennas, the FBW is expressed as a percentage of the
maximum and minimum frequency difference over the center frequency:
f − f min
FBW = max ⋅100 %. (4.33)
f0
Usually, f0 = ( f max + f min ) / 2 or f 0 = f max f min .

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9. Input Impedance
Z A = RA + jX A (4.34)
Here, RA is the antenna resistance and X A is its reactance. Generally, the antenna
resistance has two terms:
RA = Rrad + Rloss , (4.35)
where Rrad is the radiation resistance and Rloss is the loss resistance.
The antenna impedance is related to the radiated power Π ≡ Π rad , the
dissipated (loss) power Π loss , and the stored reactive energy as:
Π + Π loss + 2 jω (Wm − We )
Z A = rad . (4.36)
0.5 I 0 I 0*
Here, I 0 is the current phasor at the antenna terminals; Wm is the time-average
(stored) magnetic energy, and We is the time-average electric energy, both stored
in the near-field region. When the stored magnetic and electric energy values are
equal, a condition of resonance occurs and the reactive part of Z A vanishes. For
a thin dipole antenna, this occurs when the antenna length is close to a multiple
of a half wavelength.

9.1. Radiation resistance

The radiation resistance relates the radiated power to the voltage (or current)
at the antenna terminals. For example, in the Thevenin equivalent of the antenna,
the following holds:
Rrad = 2Π / | I |2 , Ω . (4.37)

Example: Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole in terms of the

ratio (∆l / λ ) .

We have already derived the radiated power of an infinitesimal dipole in Lecture

3, as:
2
π  I ∆ l 
Π id = η   (4.38)
3 λ 
2
2π  ∆l 
 Rrad
id =η   . (4.39)
3 λ 

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9.2. Equivalent circuits of the transmitting antenna

Xg Rl

Rg Rr

Vg XA

Ig Gg Bg BA Gl Gr

In the above model, it is assumed that the generator is connected to the antenna
directly. If there is a transmission line between the generator and the antenna,
which is usually the case, then Z g = Rg + jX g represents the equivalent
impedance of the generator transferred to the input terminals of the antenna.
Transmission lines themselves often have significant losses.

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Reminder: The impedance transformation by a long transmission line is given
by
 Z + Z 0 tanh(γ L) 
Zin = Z 0  L . (4.40)
 Z 0 + Z L tanh( γ L ) 
Here, Z 0 is the characteristic impedance of the line, γ is its propagation constant,
Z L is the load impedance, and Z in is the input impedance. In the case of a loss-
free line,
Z + jZ 0 tan( β L)
Zin = Z 0 L , (4.41)
Z 0 + jZ L tan( β L)
since γ = j β . To avoid infinite values of the tangent function in case β L = π / 2
+ nπ , the input-impedance formula is often used in the form
Z cos( β L) + jZ 0 sin( β L)
Z in = Z 0 L . (4.42)
Z 0 cos( β L) + jZ L sin( β L)

Maximum power is delivered to the antenna when conjugate matching of

impedances is achieved:
RA = Rloss + Rrad = Rg ,
(4.43)
XA = −Xg .
Using circuit theory, we can derive the following formulas in the case of matched
impedances:
a) power delivered to the antenna
| Vg |2
PA = (4.44)
8 ( Rrad + Rloss )
b) power dissipated as heat in the generator
| Vg |2 | Vg |2
Pg = PA = = (4.45)
8Rg 8 ( Rrad + Rloss )
c) radiated power
| Vg |2 Rrad
Π = Prad = (4.46)
8 ( Rrad + Rloss )2
d) power dissipated as heat in the antenna
| Vg |2 Rloss
Ploss = . (4.47)
8 ( Rrad + Rloss )2

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9.3. Equivalent circuits of the receiving antenna

antenna

load Z L

a
Rl

XL IA Rr

RL VA

XA
b
(a) Thevenin equivalent

GL BL BA Gl Gr IA

(b) Norton equivalent

The incident wave induces voltage VA at the antenna terminals (measured

when the antenna is open circuited). Conjugate impedance matching is required
between the antenna and the load (the receiver) to achieve maximum power
delivery:
RL = RA = Rloss + Rrad ,
(4.48)
XL = −XA .

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For the case of conjugate matching, the following power expressions hold:
a) power delivered to the load
| VA |2 | VA |2
PL = = (4.49)
8 RL 8RA
b) power dissipated as heat in the antenna
| V |2 Rloss
Ploss = A (4.50)
8 RA2
c) scattered (re-radiated) power
| VA |2 Rrad
Prad = (4.51)
8 RA2
d) total captured power
| VA |2 | VA |2
Pc = = (4.52)
4 ( Rrad + Rloss ) 4 RA
When conjugate matching is achieved, half of the captured power Pc is
delivered to the load (the receiver) and half is antenna loss. The antenna losses
are heat dissipation Ploss and reradiated (scattered) power Prad . When the antenna
is non-dissipative (loss-free), half of the power is delivered to the load and the
other half is scattered back into space. Thus, a receiving antenna is also a
scatterer.
The antenna input impedance is frequency dependent. Thus, it is
! matched to its load in a certain frequency band. It can be influenced by
the proximity of objects, too.

9.4. Radiation efficiency and antenna losses

The radiation efficiency e takes into account the conductor and dielectric
dissipative losses of the antenna. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna and the total power delivered to the antenna terminals (in transmitting
mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters,
Rrad
e= . (4.53)
Rrad + Rloss
Some useful formulas to calculate conduction losses are given below:
a) dc resistance per unit length

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 1
′ =
Rdc , Ω/m (4.54)
σA
σ - specific conductivity, S/m
A – conductor’s cross-section, m2.

b) high-frequency surface resistance

At high frequencies, the current is confined in a thin layer at the conductor’s
surface (skin effect). This thin layer, called the skin layer, has much smaller
cross-section than that of the conductor itself. Its effective thickness, known as
the skin depth or penetration depth, is calculated as
1
δ≈ , m, (4.55)
π f σµ
in the case of very good conductors, where f is the frequency in Hz, and µ is
the magnetic permeability in H/m. Remember that (4.55) holds for very good
conductors only (σ / ωε >> 1). The exact definition of the skin depth is δ = 1 / α ,
where α = Re(γ ) , i.e., it is inverse proportional to the attenuation constant of the
conducting medium. Here, γ = jω µε , ε = ε ′ − j ( ε ′′ + σ / ω ) . Due to the
exponential decay of the current density in the conductor as ∼ e −α x , where x
denotes the distance from the surface, it can be shown that the total current I
flowing along the conductor (along z) is
∞
1
I =  J ⋅ ds =   J 0 e −α x dxdc =  J 0 dc = δ  J 0 dc =  J s dc (4.56)
S C0
αC C C
where J 0 is the current density at the conductor surface (in A/m2), J s = J 0δ is
the equivalent surface current density (in A/m), and C is the contour of the
conductor’s cross-section. If the equivalent surface current density J s is
distributed uniformly on the contour of the conductor’s cross-section, then
I = J s p , where p is the perimeter of the conductor (or the length of its cross-
sectional contour).
The surface resistance Rs (in Ω ) is defined as the real part of the intrinsic
impedance of the conductor ηc , which in the case of very good conductors can
be found to be
µω µπ f 1
Rs = Reηc ≈ = = ,Ω. (4.57)
2σ σ σδ

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For the case where the current density is uniformly distributed on the conductor’s
cross-sectional contour, we can find a simple relation between the high-
frequency resistance per unit length Rhf′ of a conducting rod, its cross-sectional
perimeter p and its surface resistance Rs :
1 1 R
Rhf′ = = = s , Ω/m . (4.58)
σ Ahf σδ p p
p
Here the area Ahf = δ p is not the actual cross-
sectional area of the conducting rod but the δ
effective area through which the high-frequency
current flows.
Ahf = δ p

If the surface current distribution is not uniform over the contour of the
′ appears as a function of Rs and this distribution.
conductor’s cross-section, Rhf
The surface density of the loss power in a good conductor is
1
pℓ = Rs | J s |2 W/m2. (4.59)
2
Then, the power loss per unit length is
2
Rs 1 1  
Pℓ =  pℓ dc =  | J s | dc = Rhf I = Rhf   | J s | dc  W/m.
′ 2
′ 2
′ (4.60)
2C 2 2  
C C 
It then follows that
 | Js |
2
dc
C
Rhf′ = Rs 2
Ω/m . (4.61)
 
  | J s | dc 
C 
The above expression reduces to (4.58) if J s is constant over C.

Example: A half-wavelength dipole (fed at its center) is made of copper

(σ = 5.7 × 107 S/m). Determine the radiation efficiency e , if the operating
frequency is f = 100 MHz, the radius of the wire is b = 10−4 λ , and the radiation
resistance is Rrad = 73 Ω .

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 c λ
f = 108 Hz  λ = ≈ 3 m  l = ≈ 1.5 m
f 2
p = 2π b = 2π 10−4 λ = 2π 10−4 × 3 = 6π × 10−4 , m.
If the current along the dipole were uniform, the high-frequency loss power
would be uniformly distributed along the dipole. However, the current has
approximately a sine distribution along a dipole as we will discuss in Lecture 9:
 l  l l
I ( z ) = I 0 sin  β  − | z |   , − ≤ z ≤ . (4.62)
  2  2 2
Equation (4.58) can be now used to express the high-frequency loss resistance
per wire differential element of infinitesimal length dz :
dz µ0π f
dRhf = Rhf′ dz = .
p σ
Rs
The high-frequency loss power per wire element of infinitesimal length dz is
then obtained as
1 dz µ0π f
dPhf ( z ) = I 2 ( z ) ⋅ .
2 p σ
dRhf
The total loss power is obtained by integrating along the dipole’s length. The
symmetry in the current distribution along z means that the two arms of the dipole
dissipate the same amount of power. Thus,
l /2 2
I  l   1 µ0π f
Phf = 2  0 sin 2  β  − z   ⋅ dz ,
0
2   2   p σ
l /2
I 02 µ0π f  l 
 Phf = ⋅  sin 2  β  − z  dz .
p σ 0  2 
Changing variable as
l 
x = β  − z
2 
results in
β l /2
 l µ0π f  1 1 1 − cos 2 x
Phf = I 02 
 p σ
⋅ ⋅
 l β
 2
dx ,
0
Rhf

Nikolova 2023 25
 1 l  sin( β l )  I 02 Rhf  sin( β l ) 
 Phf = I 02 Rhf ⋅ ⋅ 1 −  = 1−  . (4.63)
l 4 βl  4  βl 
Since Phf = 0.5I 02 Rloss ( Rloss being the loss resistance of the dipole), we obtain
1  sin( β l )  1 l µ0π f  sin( β l ) 
Rloss = Rhf 1 − =2 p 1 − β l  . (4.64)
2  β l  σ  
In the case of l = λ / 2 , β l = π and sin( β l ) = 0 , which leads to
l π f µ0
Rloss = 0.5Rhf = 0.5 = 0.349 Ω .
p σ
The antenna efficiency is:
Rrad 73
e= = = 0.9952 (99.52%)
Rrad + Rloss 73 + 0.349
e[dB] = 10log10 0.9952 = −0.02 .

The formula (4.64) that we derived in the example above assumed that the
loss power depends on the current as Phf = 0.5I 02 Rloss , which in turn implies that
the current at the center-feed point has a value of I 0 . This may not always be the
case. Note that I 0 is the magnitude of the sinusoidal current distribution in (4.62)
assumed for the dipole. What if the dipole is shorter than half-wavelength,
l < λ / 2 ? The current at the center of the dipole (the feed point) will be smaller
than I 0 . From (4.62), it follows that this feed-point current is
I ( z = 0) = I c = I 0 sin(0.5β l ) . (4.65)
Note that in the case of a half-wavelength dipole, β l = π and, indeed, I c = I 0 .
For the case where l ≠ λ / 2 , the case of l < λ / 2 included, we can employ the
expression (4.63) for Phf , where we replace I 0 with the expression for I c in
(4.65):
1 2 1 2 2 I 02 Rhf  sin( β l ) 
Phf = I c Rloss = I 0 sin (0.5β l ) Rloss = 1− , (4.66)
2 2 4  β l 
where
l µ0π f
Rhf = . (4.67)
p σ
It follows that the loss resistance is now
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 Rhf  sin( β l ) 
Rloss = 2 1−  . (4.68)
2sin (0.5β l )  βl 
The above formula is general as it applies for any length l of a dipole as long as
the dipole is center-fed.

10. Effective Area (Effective Aperture) Ae

The effective antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the
terminals of the antenna (operating in receiving mode) to the power flux
density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, where the plane wave is
matched to the antenna polarization. If no direction of incidence is specified,
the direction of the antenna’s maximum radiation is implied, which is also this
antenna’s direction of best reception.
Ae = PA / Wi , (4.69)
where
Ae is the effective aperture, m2,
PA is the power delivered from the antenna to a matched load, W,
Wi is the power flux density (Poynting vector) of the incident wave, W/m2.

Using the Thevenin equivalent of a receiving antenna, we can show that

equation (4.69) relates the antenna impedance and its effective aperture as
| I A |2 RL / 2 | VA |2 RL
Ae = = ⋅ . (4.70)
Wi 2Wi ( Rr + Rl + RL )2 + ( X A + X L )2 
 
Under conditions of conjugate matching ( RA = Rr + Rl = RL , X A = − X L ),
| V |2 1
Ae = A . (4.71)
8Wi ( Rr + Rl )
RA = RL
For aperture type antennas, the effective area is smaller than the physical area
of their aperture. Antennas with constant field amplitude and phase distribution
across their aperture have the maximum possible effective area, which, in the
case of aperture antennas, is practically equal to their physical aperture area. The
effective aperture of wire antennas is much larger than the surface of the wire
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itself. Sometimes, the aperture efficiency of an antenna is provided as the ratio
of the effective antenna aperture and its physical area:
A
ε ap = e . (4.72)
Ap

Example: A uniform plane wave is incident upon a very short dipole. Find the
2
effective area Ae assuming that the radiation resistance is Rr = 80 (π l / λ ) Ω
and that the field is linearly polarized along the axis of the dipole. Compare Ae
with the physical surface of the wire if l = λ / 50 and d = λ / 300 , where d is the
wire’s diameter.

Since the dipole is very short, we can neglect the conduction losses. Wire
antennas do not have dielectric losses. Therefore, we assume that Rl = 0 . Under
conjugate matching (which is implied unless specified otherwise),
| V |2
Ae = A .
8Wi Rr
The dipole is very short and we can assume that the E-field intensity is the same
along the whole wire. Then, the voltage created by the induced electromotive
force of the incident wave is
VA =| E | ⋅l .
The Poynting vector has a magnitude of Wi =| E |2 /(2η ) . Then, under conditions
of conjugate matching, see (4.71),
| E |2 ⋅l 2 ⋅ 2η 3λ 2
Ae = 2
= = 0.119 ⋅ λ 2 .
8⋅ | E | ⋅Rr 8π
The physical surface of the dipole is
λ λ π
Ap = π dl = π = 10−3 λ 2 = 2.1 × 10−4 ⋅ λ 2 .
300 50 15
The aperture efficiency of this dipole is then
A 0.119
ε ap = e = = 568.2 .
Ap 2.1 × 10−4

It is evident from the above example, that the aperture efficiency is not a suitable
parameter for wire antennas, which have very small surface area. However, the
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effective area is still a useful parameter for wire antennas as it has direct relation
with the directivity, as discussed next.

11. Relation Between Directivity D0 and Effective Aperture Ae

The simplest derivation of this relation goes through two stages.
Stage 1: Using reciprocity, prove that the ratio D0 / Ae = γ is the same for any
antenna.
Consider two antennas: A1 and A2. Let A1 be the transmitting antenna, and A2
be the receiving one. Let the distance between the two antennas be R. The power
flux density generated by A1 at A2 is
DΠ
W1 = 1 12 .
4π R
Here, Π1 is the total power radiated by A1 and D1 is the directivity of A1. The
above follows directly from the definition of directivity:
U (θ , ϕ ) 4π R 2W (θ , ϕ ) ΠD(θ , ϕ )
D(θ , ϕ ) = 4π =  W (θ , ϕ ) = .
Π Π 4π R 2
The power received by A2 and delivered to its load is
DΠ
P1→ 2 = Ae2W1 = Ae2 1 12 ,
4π R
where Ae2 is the effective area of A2.
P
 D1 Ae2 = 4π R2 1→2 .
Π1
Now, let A1 be the receiving antenna and A2 be the transmitting one. We can
derive the following:
P
D2 Ae1 = 4π R2 2→1 .
Π2
If Π1 = Π 2 , then, according to the reciprocity principle in electromagnetics♣,
P1→ 2 = P2→1 . Therefore,
D D
D1 Ae2 = D2 Ae1  1 = 2 = γ .
Ae1 Ae2

♣
Reciprocity in antenna theory states that if antenna #1 is a transmitting antenna and antenna #2 is a receiving antenna, then the
ratio of transmitted to received power PTx / PRx will not change if antenna #1 becomes the receiving antenna and antenna #2
becomes the transmitting one.

Nikolova 2023 29
We thus proved that γ is the same for every antenna.

Stage 2: Find the ratio γ = D0 / Ae for an infinitesimal dipole.

The directivity of a very short dipole (infinitesimal dipole) is D0id = 1.5 (see
Examples of Section 4, this Lecture). The effective aperture of an infinitesimal
dipole is Aeid = 3λ 2 / (8π ) (see the Example of Section 10, this Lecture). Then,
D 1.5
γ = 0 = 2 ⋅ 8π ,
Ae 3λ
D 4π
γ = 0= 2. (4.73)
Ae λ
Equation (4.73) is true if there are no dissipation, polarization mismatch, and
impedance mismatch in the antenna system. If these are present, then
 λ2 
Ae = (1− | Γ |2 ) | ρˆ w ⋅ ρˆ a |2   eD0 . (4.74)
 4π  G0
From (4.20) and (4.73), we can obtain a simple relation between the antenna
beam solid angle Ω A and Ae:
λ2 λ2
Ae = D0 = . (4.75)
4π ΩA

12. Other Antenna Equivalent Areas

Before, we have defined the antenna effective area (or effective aperture) Ae
as the area, which when multiplied by the incident wave power density Wi,
produces the power delivered to the load (the terminals of the antenna) PA . In a
similar manner, we define the antenna scattering area As . It is the area, which
when multiplied with the incident wave power density, produces the re-radiated
(scattered) power:
Ps | I A |2 Rr
As = = , m2. (4.76)
Wi 2Wi
In the case of conjugate matching,
| VA |2 Rr | VA |2 Rr
As = 2
= 2
, m2. (4.77)
2Wi 4( Rr + Rl ) 8Wi RA
RA

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 The loss area is the area, which, when multiplied by the incident wave power
density, produces the dissipated power of the antenna.
Pl | I A |2 Rl
Al = = , m2. (4.78)
Wi 2Wi
In the case of conjugate matching,
| VA |2 Rl | VA |2 Rl
Al = 2
= 2
, m2. (4.79)
2Wi 4( Rr + Rl ) 8Wi RA
The capture area is the area, which when multiplied with the incident wave
power density, produces the total power intercepted by the antenna:
Pt | I A |2 ( Rr + Rl + RL )
Ac = = . (4.80)
Wi 2Wi
In the case of conjugate matching,
| VA |2 ( Rr + Rl + RL ) | VA |2 ( RA + RL ) | VA |2 1
Ac = = = . (4.81)
8Wi ( Rr + Rl )2 8Wi RA2 4Wi RA
The capture area is the sum of the effective area, the loss area and the
scattering area:
| VA |2  1 Rl Rr 
Ac = Ae + Al + As = + + . (4.82)
8Wi  RA RA2 RA2 
When conjugate matching is achieved, we have from (4.71) that
| VA |2 1
Ae = . (4.83)
8Wi RA
Comparing (4.83) with (4.77), (4.79) and (4.82), we see that
Ae = Al + As = 0.5 Ac . (4.84)
If conjugate matching is achieved for a loss-free antenna, then
Ae = As = 0.5 Ac . (4.85)
The results in (4.84) and (4.85) suggest that even under optimal conditions for
delivering power to the receiver (conjugate match), only one-half of the power
captured by the antenna is delivered. The other half is simply scattered back into
space if the antenna is loss-free. If the antenna has loss, a portion of this other
half of the captured power (corresponding to 0.5Ac) is scattered back into space
and the other portion is dissipated.

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