Department of Mathematics and Statistics

College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Math 102 - Calculus 1

Instructional Materials (Notes and Exercises)

Unit 1

Prepared by:
John Patrick B. Sta. Maria
[email protected]
Lesson 1.1 Math 102

Lesson 1.1 Limits of Functions

NOTES:

• INFORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMITS.

Let f be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a. We say that
f (x) has a limit L as x approaches a, and write

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

if we can make the value of f (x) as close as we wish to the number L by taking the value of
x sufficiently near a, but not equal to a. We sometimes use the notation f (x) → L as x → a,
whenever it is convenient.

• REMARK: The limit of a function is unique if it exists.

• LIMIT THEOREMS.

1. If f (x) = c is a constant function, then for any a ∈ R,

lim f (x) = lim c = c.

x→a x→a

2. For any a ∈ R, lim x = a.

x→a
3. If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then
x→a x→a
(a) lim c · f (x) = c · lim f (x), for all c ∈ R.
x→a x→a
(b) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM = lim f (x) lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
f (x) L
(d) lim = , provided that M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) M
(e) for any integer n, h in
n n
lim [f (x)] = L = lim f (x) ,
x→a x→a

provided that the powers exist.

(f) for any integer n ≥ 2,
p
n
√
n
q
lim f (x) = L = n lim f (x),
x→a x→a

provided that the radicals exist.

(g) lim |f (x)| = |L| = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a

• COROLLARY. If f is either a polynomial function or a rational function, and a is in the domain

of f , then lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

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Lesson 1.1 Math 102

• INDETERMINATE FORM 0/0.

Suppose that lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0. We say that the limit
x→a x→a

f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

0
takes the indeterminate form .
0
f (x) 0
• REMARK: If lim takes the indeterminate form , the limit may or may not exist.
x→0 g(x) 0
• THEOREM. Let f and g be functions defined on I \ {a}, where I is an open interval containing
a. If f (x) = g(x), for all x ∈ I \ {a} and lim g(x) = L, then lim f (x) = L.
x→a x→a

• FORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMITS.

Let f be a function defined on I \ {a}, where I is an open interval containing a. We write

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

if for every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε holds whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

• ONE SIDED LIMITS.

(Right-hand Limit) Let f be a function defined on an open interval (a, c) for some c > a. We
say that f (x) has a right-hand limit L as x approaches a from the right, and write

lim f (x) = L (alternatively: f (a+ ) = L),

x→a+

if for every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε holds whenever 0 < x − a < δ.

(Left-hand Limit) Let f be a function defined on an open interval (c, a) for some c < a. We say
that f (x) has a left-hand limit L as x approaches a from the left, and write

lim f (x) = L (alternatively: f (a− ) = L),

x→a−

if for every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε holds whenever 0 < a − x < δ.

• THEOREM. Let f be a function defined on I \ {a}, where I is an open interval containing a.

The following are equivalent statements:

1. lim f (x) = L.
x→a
2. f (a− ) = L = f (a+ ).

• REMARK. If f (a− ) 6= f (a+ ), then lim f (x) does not exist.

x→a

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Lesson 1.1 Math 102

EXERCISES:

I. Evaluate each of the following limits below using the following graph as reference:

4
1. lim f (x) 5. lim f (x)
x→−3 x→2
2 f
2. lim f (x) 6. f (−1+ )
x→0
−4 −2 2 4
3. f (2+ ) 7. f (−1− )
−2

−4 4. f (2− ) 8. lim f (x)

x→−1

II. Given that lim f (x) = 2, lim g(x) = −3 and lim h(x) = 0. Evaluate the following or explain why
x→a x→a x→a
the limit does not exist.
p
1. lim [3f (x) − 2g(x) + 4h(x)] 4. lim [g(x) + h(x)][g(x) − h(x)]
x→a x→a

2. lim [f (x)g(x)]2
p
5. lim 4 g(x)
x→a x→a

f (x) f (x)g(x)
3. lim 6. lim
x→a 2g(x) x→a h(x)

III. Use the limit theorems to evaluate the following or explain why the limit does not exist.

1. lim (2x − 1)(4x − x2 ) x−5

x→2 12. lim √
√ x→5 x−1−2
2. lim (3x − 2) x2 + 2x
x→4 x+8
13. lim √
3. lim (2t − 3) |t − 4| x→−8 3 x + 2
t→0
  √
2x 4
x−1
4. lim 14. lim
x→−3/2 4x − 2 x→1 x − 1

y−2 1
− 1
5. lim √ 2+h 2
y→2 y+2 15. lim
h→0 h
√ √
r
√
q
6. lim x + 10x2 − x x2 − 1 − 2x + 2
x→1 16. lim
x→3 x2 − 7x + 12
x3 + x4 √ √
7. lim x + 1 − 2x − 5
x→−1 x2 + x3 17. lim √
4−r x→4 2− x
8. lim 2 √
r→4 2r − 32
t−1
2s2 + s − 3 18. lim √
3
9. lim t→1 t−1
s→1 s−1 √
5x2 + 7x − 6 s+2−2
10. lim 19. lim √
4
x→−2 4x3 + 5x2 − 7x − 2
s→2 s−1−1
√
w+4−2 |3x + 1| − |3x − 1|
11. lim 20. lim
w→0 w x→0 x

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Lesson 1.1 Math 102

IV. Find a δ > 0 such that each of the following statements is true.

1. If 0 < |x − 2| < δ, then |(x + 1) − 3| < 2.

2. If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(2x + 1) − 3| < 0.1.
3. If 0 < |x + 3| < δ, then |x2 − 9| < 1.
 
1
4. If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then 2 − − 1 < 0.1
x
√
5. If 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then 2 − x − 2 < 0.01

V. Use the formal definition of limits to prove the following statements.

1. lim (4x − 10) = −2. 1 1

x→2 4. lim = .
x→4 x 4
√
2. lim (x2 + 1) = 5. 5. lim x + 1 = 2.
x→−2 x→3
 
x2 − x 1
3. lim = −1. 6. lim x cos = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x2

VI. Evaluate the following one-sided limits.

√
(1) lim− x2 − 4 x |x + 1| |x + 1| − |2x − 1|
x→4 (8) lim − (15) lim+
√ x→−1 x+1 x→0 x
(2) lim+ x2 − 4
x→4 (9) lim+ J2x − 1K (16) lim− (J2xK + Jx − 2K)
x→ 12 x→0
3−x
(3) lim+ 2 2x2 − x − 1
x→3 x − 9 (10) lim− J2x − 1K
√ (17) lim−
x−x x→ 21 x→1 JxK − 1
(4) lim+ √
x→0 x (11) lim− (x − JxK) 2x2 − x − 1
x x→3 (18) lim+
(5) lim− p x→1 JxK − 1
x→0 2
x + |x| (12) lim+ (x − JxK)
x→3
x |x| − 1
(6) lim+ p (13) lim+ (J2xK + Jx − 2K) (19) lim−
x→0 x2 + |x| x→0
x→1 JxK − 1
x |x + 1| |x + 1| − |2x − 1| |x| − 1
(7) lim + (14) lim− (20) lim+
x→−1 x+1 x→0 x x→1 JxK − 1

VII. Do as instructed in each problem.

1. If lim [f (x) + g(x)] = 9 and lim [f (x) − g(x)] = 1, calculate lim [f (x)g(x)].
x→a x→a x→a
2. Give explicit examples of functions f and g such that lim [f (x) + g(x)] exists but neither the
x→0
limits lim f (x) nor lim g(x) exists.
x→0 x→0
3. Let O be the origin, A be the point (0, 1) and B be the point (0, 1). Let P be any point on
the line y = 2x, different from O. Let r(P ) be defined as the ratio of the area of 4AOP to
the area of 4BOP . Find the limit of r(P ) as the P is approaching the origin O along the
line y = 2x.

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Lesson 1.1 Math 102

O B

y = 2x

4. How close must the length of one side of a square be from 4 centimeters to ensure that the
area of the square is within 0.1 cm2 from 16 cm2 .
5. If lim f (x) = L and L > 0, prove that there exists an open interval (c, d) such that a ∈ (c, d)
x→a
and f (x) > 0, for all x ∈ (c, d) but x 6= a.
6. Prove that lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (a + t) = L.
x→a t→0



 ax + b if x < −3;
√
7. Let f (x) = 9 − x2 if −3 < x < 3;


x2 + ax + b if x > 3.


Determine the values of the constants a and b so that both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist.
x→−3 x→3
8. Use calculators and table of values to guess the value of the following limits:
√
(a) lim+ csc x − cot x. (b) lim (1 + x)1/x
x→0 x→0

9. Let a function f be defined by


x if x is rational;
f (x) =
x 2 if x is irrational.

Calculate lim f (x). Explain your reasoning.

x→0

Page 6 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.2 Math 102

Lesson 1.2 Limits Involving Infinity

• INFINITE LIMITS.
Let f be defined on I \ {a}, where I is an open interval containing a. We write

lim f (x) = ∞,
x→a

if for every M > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that f (x) > M holds whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ. We
also write
lim f (x) = −∞,
x→a

if for every M < 0, there exists δ > 0 such that f (x) < M holds whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

• REMARKS. The notation lim f (x) = ±∞ does not mean that the limit of f (x) exists. In
x→a
fact, the limit does not exist since the value of f (x) increases in magnitude without bound as x
approaches a.

• NOTATION. If f is a function, we write lim f (x) = L+ to mean that f (x) → L as x → a and

x→a
that f (x) > L for all x near a, but not equal to a. Similarly, we write lim f (x) = L− to mean that
x→a
f (x) → L as x → a and that f (x) < L for all x near a, but not equal to a.

• THEOREM. Suppose that lim f (x) = L is finite.

x→a

1. If L > 0,
f (x)
(a) and lim g(x) = 0+ , then lim = ∞.
x→a x→a g(x)

f (x)
(b) and lim g(x) = 0− , then lim = −∞.
x→a x→a g(x)

2. If L < 0,
f (x)
(a) and lim g(x) = 0+ , then lim = −∞.
x→a x→a g(x)

f (x)
(b) and lim g(x) = 0− , then lim = ∞.
x→a x→a g(x)

• THEOREM. (Combination of Functions with Infinite Limits)

1. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
2. If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a x→a
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) exists, then lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
4. If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) exists, then lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a x→a
5. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = L > 0, then lim [f (x)g(x)] = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
6. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = L < 0, then lim [f (x)g(x)] = −∞.
x→a x→a x→a

• MNEMONICS. ∞ + ∞ = ∞, −∞ + (−∞) = −∞, ∞ + a = ∞, −∞ + a = −∞, ∞ · (+) = ∞,

∞ · (−) = −∞.

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Lesson 1.2 Math 102

• WARNING! The following are indeterminate forms: ∞ − ∞, ∞/∞, 0 · ∞.

• LIMITS AT INFINITY.
Let f be defined on (a, ∞), for some a. We write

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

if for every ε > 0, there exists N > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε holds whenever x > N .

Let f be defined on (−∞, b), for some b. We write

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

if for every ε > 0, there exists N < 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε holds whenever x < N .

• THEOREM. Suppose that lim f (x) = L, where L is a real number and that lim g(x) = ±∞.
x→∞ x→∞
Then
f (x)
lim = 0.
x→∞ g(x)

• THEOREM. Let n be a positive integer.


∞, if n is even;
n
1. lim x =
x→±∞ ±∞, if n is odd.

1
2. lim = 0.
x→±∞ xn
• DEFINITION (ASYMPTOTES).
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if either f (a+ ) = ±∞ or f (a− ) =
±∞. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if lim f (x) = b. The
x→±∞
graph of y = g(x) is an asymptote to the graph of y = f (x) if lim [f (x) − g(x)] = 0.
x→±∞

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Lesson 1.2 Math 102

EXERCISES:

I. Evaluate the following limits.

7x − 1 x2 + 1
1. lim+ 6. lim+
x→2 2−x x→ 12 2x − 1
5 − 2x 4x
2. lim+ 7. lim−
x→0 x x→2 4 − x2
x2 + 6x + 8 2x − 7
3. lim − 8. lim+
x→−2 x2 + 4x + 4 x→2 8 − x3
 
2 − 7x 1 1
4. lim 9. lim+ −
x→3 x2 − 6x + 9 x→4 x2 − 4x x2 − 16
 
x2 − 2x + 1 x+1 2x + 1
5. lim− 10. lim− −
x→1 x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 x→3 x2 − 7x + 12 x2 − 6x + 9

II. Evaluate the following limits.

√
1. lim (2x3 + x2 − 3x + 1) x − 4x2 − x
x→∞ 6. lim
3 2
x→∞ 2x − 1
3x + 2x − x + 4
2. lim 2x2 + 1
x→∞ 2 − x3 7. lim √
x(x − 4)
x→−∞ x2 + 2x − 2x
3. lim √
x→−∞ |x2 − 4x + 3| x2 − 4x + x4
8. lim
2x2 + 5x − 4 x→∞ 3x − 1
4. lim √ √
x→−∞ x+4 9. lim ( x2 + 4x − x2 − 2x)
x→−∞
3
x + 3x √
5. lim 5 10. lim (2x − x2 + 2x)
x→∞ x + 5x2 + 1 x→∞

III. Do as instructed.
 3x − 4

 √ if x > 5 ;
1. Let f (x) = x − 1 + 4x2
√
 √
4x + x2 − 1 + x2 if x ≤ 5.

Determine lim f (x) and lim f (x).

x→∞ x→−∞
2. Determine all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph of the function

x3 + x2/3
f (x) = .
x3 + 2x2 − x − 2

3. Assuming that the population P (t) in the city of Manila, t years from today can be modeled
by the function 
2
15 + (1/10)t

 if 0 ≤ t ≤ 10;
P (t) =
 30t

 if t > 10,
t+2
where t is measured in millions of people.

Page 9 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.2 Math 102

(a) What is the population in Manila today?

(b) What is the population in Manila 10 years from now?
(c) What is lim P (t)? What does this limit tell us?
t→∞
4. Prove the following, provided the limits involved exist.
(a) lim f (x) = lim+ f (1/t).
x→∞ t→0
(b) lim f (x) = lim− f (1/t).
x→−∞ t→0
 x  2x  x
1/t 1 1 1
5. Assuming that lim(1+t) = e exists, what is lim 1 + ? lim 1 + ? lim 1 + ?
t→0 x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ 2x
 2x
1
lim 1 + ?
x→∞ 2x

Page 10 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.3 Math 102

Lesson 1.3 Continuity of Functions

NOTES:

• DEFINITION. A function f is continuous at a point x = a if the following conditions hold:

1. f is defined at a.
2. lim f (x) exists.
x→a
3. lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Otherwise, we say f is discontinuous at x = a.

• REMARK. Polynomial and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domains.

• DEFINITION (TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY). Let f be discontinuous at a.

1. If lim f (x) exists, we say that f has a removable discontinuity at x = a.

x→a
2. If lim f (x) does not exist, we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a. In
x→a
addition,
(a) if f (a+ ) and f (a− ) both exists but not equal, we say f has a jump discontinuity at
x = a.
(b) if either f (a+ ) = ±∞ or f (a− ) = ±∞, we say f has an infinite discontinuity at x = a.

• THEOREM. Let f and g be functions continuous at x = a. Then f ± g, c · f (for any c ∈ R),

and f g are continuous at x = a. Furthermore, if f (a) 6= 0, then f /g is continuous at x = a.

• THEOREM. Suppose that lim g(x) = b and that f is continuous at b. Then

x→a

 
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = lim f (g(x)) = f (b) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a x→a

Furthermore, if g is continuous at a, then f ◦ g is continuous at a.

• DEFINITION (CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL). We say f is continuous on

1. (a, b) if f is continuous at every point on (a, b). (a and b can be ±∞)

2. [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and f (a+ ) = f (a).
3. (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and f (b− ) = f (b).
4. [a, b] if f is continuous on [a, b) and on (a, b].

• INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM (IVT). Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] and

that f (a) 6= f (b). For every number y0 between f (a) and f (b), there exists a number x0 between
a and b such that f (x0 ) = y0 .

• COROLLARY (LOCATION OF ROOTS THEOREM). Let f be a function continuous on

[a, b]. If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there exists x0 ∈ (a, b) such that f (x0 ) = 0.

Page 11 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.3 Math 102

EXERCISES:

I. Determine if the given function f is continuous at the given point. If f is discontinuous at the given
point, classify the discontinuity as either, removable, jump essential or infinite essential. To those f
having a removable discontinuity, redefine f at the given point so that f becomes continuous.

1. f (x) = 3x3 + 2x − 1 at x = 5
3x
2. f (x) = 2 at x = 1
x − 3x − 4
√3
x−2
3. f (x) = at x = 8
x−8
4. f (x) = sgn(x2 − 1) at x = −1
5. f (x) = J2 − 3xK at x = 1/3
6. f (x) = |4 − x2 | at x = −2

x2 − 3x + 2 if x ≤ 2;
7. f (x) = √ at x = 2
 x−2 if x > 2
x2 − 1

if x < −3;


 2
x + 2x − 3
8. f (x) = at x = −3
 2x
if x ≥ −3


x2 + 1
II. Let a function f be defined by

x2 − 1


 , if x < −2;
x2 + 3x + 2









 Jx − 2K, if −2 ≤ x ≤ 0;

√

f (x) = − 4 − x2 , if 0 < x < 2;








 5 if x = 2;

√x − 2,



if x > 2.

Discuss the continuity of f at x = −2, −1, 0, 2. At points where f is discontinuous, classify the
discontinuity.

III. Do as instructed.

1. Find a function f such that f is discontinuous at x = 0, but f 2 is continuous at x = 0.

2. Determine the constants m and b such that the function defined by



 2 if x ≤ −1;

f (x) = mx + b if −1 < x < 3;


−2

if x ≥ 3.

Page 12 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.3 Math 102

is continuous everywhere.
s {
1
3. The function f (x) = x has a removable discontinuity at x = 0. How should we define
x
f (0) so that f becomes continuous at x = 0?
4. Let a function f be defined by f (x) = x, if x is rational and let f (x) = 0, if x is irrational.
Prove that f is continuous at x = 0. If a 6= 0, is f continuous at a?
5. If f is continuous at a and f (a) > 0, prove that there exists an open interval I containing a
such that f (x) > 0, for all x ∈ I.
6. Prove that if the functions f and g are continuous at x = a and f (a) > g(a), then there exists
an open interval I containing a such that f (x) > g(x), for all x ∈ I.
7. Prove or disprove: If f and g are discontinuous at x = a, then f + g is discontinuous at x = a.
8. Show that a function f is continuous at x = a if and only if lim f (a + t) = f (a).
t→0
9. Let f be a function continuous on [a, b] such that a ≤ f (x) ≤ b for all x ∈ [a, b]. Prove that
there exists x0 ∈ [a, b] such that f (x0 ) = x0 .
10. Let f and g be functions continuous on [a, b]. If f (a) < g(a) and f (b) > g(b), prove that
there exists x0 ∈ [a, b] such that f (x0 ) = g(x0 ).

Page 13 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.4 Math 102

Lesson 1.4 Continuity of Transcendental Functions

NOTES:

• SQUEEZE THEOREM. Let f, g, and h be functions defined on I \ {a}, where I is an open

interval containing a. If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x), for all x ∈ I \ {a} and that lim f (x) = L = lim h(x),
x→a x→a
then lim g(x) = L.
x→a

• REMARKS. By using appropriate modifications, the squeeze theorem even holds when we replace
“x → a”, by any of “x → a+ ”,“x → a− ”, “x → ∞”, or “x → −∞”.

• IMPORTANT LIMITS:

sin x 1 − cos x
lim =1 and lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x

• COROLLARY. The trigonometric functions sin x and cos x are continuous on (−∞, ∞), that is,
for any real number a,

lim sin x = sin a and lim cos x = cos a.

x→a x→a

Consequently, the trigonometric functions tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x are continuous at every point
in their respective domains.

• RECALL. Let b > 0, b 6= 1. The function of the form f (x) = bx is called the exponential
function of base b.

• PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS. Let f (x) = bx .

1. Domain of f : R, Range of f : (0, ∞).

2. If b > 1, then f is strictly increasing, i.e. r < s =⇒ br < bs . Furthermore,

lim bx = 0 and lim bx = ∞.

x→−∞ x→∞

3. If 0 < b < 1, then f is strictly decreasing, i.e. r < s =⇒ br > bs . Furthermore,

lim bx = ∞ and lim bx = 0.

x→−∞ x→∞

4. f is continuous on (−∞, ∞).

• DEFINITION. e = lim (1 + h)1/h .

h→0

• REMARK. The number e (due to Euler) is irrational and e ≈ 2.7182818. We may also write
 n
1
e = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n

The exponential function of base e is called the natural exponential function. We sometimes
would write exp(x) := ex .

Page 14 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.4 Math 102

• DEFINITION. (HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS) We define

ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh x := and cosh x := .
2 2

sinh x cosh x 1 1
We also define tanh x = , coth x = , sech x = , and csch x = .
cosh x sinh x cosh x sinh x
• THEOREM.

1. Hyperbolic functions are continuous on their respective domains.

2. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
3. 1 − tanh2 x = coth2 x.
4. 1 − coth2 x = − csch2 x.
5. lim sinh x = ±∞ and lim cosh x = ∞.
x→±∞ x→±∞
6. lim tanh x = ±1 = lim coth x.
x→±∞ x→±∞
7. lim sech x = 0 = lim csch x.
x→±∞ x→±∞

• CONTINUOUS INVERSE THEOREM. Let f be continuous and one-to-one on an interval

I . Then f −1 exists and is continuous on the range of f . Furthermore, f −1 increases if and only
if f increases and f −1 decreases if and only if f decreases.

• LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION. Let b > 0, b 6= 1. For each x > 0, we write

logb x := y if and only if by = x.

In other words, logb x is the inverse function of bx . If b = e, the function ln x := loge x is called the
natural logarithmic function.

• PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION. Let b > 0, b 6= 1.

1. Domain of f : (0, ∞); Range of f : R.

2. For all x > 0, blogb x = x. For all x ∈ R, logb bx = x.
3. logb (xy) = logb x + logb y.
x
4. logb = logb x − logb y.
y
5. logb xr = r logb x.
loga x ln x
6. logb x = = .
loga b ln b
7. logb x is continuous on (0, ∞). If b > 1, logb x is strictly increasing,

lim logb x = ∞, and lim+ logb x = −∞.

x→∞ x→0

If 0 < b < 1, logb x is strictly decreasing,

lim logb x = −∞ and lim+ logb x = ∞.

x→∞ x→0

Page 15 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.4 Math 102

• INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.

FUNCTION PRINCIPAL DOMAIN

sin x [−π/2, π/2]
cos x [0, π]
tan x (−π/2, π/2)
sec x [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π]
csc x [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2]
cot x (−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2)

The principal domains were chosen so that the corresponding trigonometric function is one-
to-one and continuous on these domains. In each of the following, D(f (x)) means the principal
domain of f (x). Note: Some authors select principal domains differently.

We define the following inverse trigonometric functions:

1. arcsin x = y if and only if sin y = x and y ∈ D(sin x).

2. arccos x = y if and only if cos y = x and y ∈ D(cos x).
3. arctan x = y if and only if tan y = x and y ∈ D(tan x).
4. arcsec x = y if and only if sec y = x and y ∈ D(sec x).
5. arccsc x = y if and only if csc y = x and y ∈ D(csc x).
6. arccot x = y if and only if cot y = x and y ∈ D(cot x).

• GRAPHS OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

π/2
1

−π/2
−1 1
π/2

−1

−π/2

y = sin x y = arcsin x

π
1

π/2
π
π/2

−1

−1 1

y = cos x y = arccos x

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Lesson 1.4 Math 102

• GRAPHS OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED)

π/2

π/2

−π/2

−π/2

y = tan x y = arctan x

1 π/2
π/2 π

−1

−1 1

y = sec x y = arcsec x

π/2
1

π/2
−1
−π/2
1

−1
−π/2

y = csc x y = arccsc x

π/2 π
π/2

y = cot x y = arccot x

Page 17 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.4 Math 102

EXERCISES:

I. Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim tan x tan 4x

x→π/4
13. lim
x→0 x
2. lim tan x x + sec x
x→3π/2+
14. lim
x→0 2x cot 3x
3. lim− csc x
x→π   
  1
πx − 2π 15. lim x − x sin
4. lim sec x→∞ x
x→2 x2 − 4   
sin 4x 1
5. lim 16. lim x − x cos
x→0 x x→−∞ x
6. lim x csc 3x
x→0 sin x sin 2x sin 4x
17. lim
sin 5x x→0 8x3
7. lim
x→0 sin 2x 18. lim x2 cot 2x csc 3x
csc 4x x→0
8. lim
x→0 csc 2x
sin(sin x)
sin(x2 − x − 2) 19. lim
9. lim x→0 x
x→2 x−2
√ sin(cos x)
x−2 20. lim
10. lim x→π/2 x − π/2
x→4 sin (x − 4)

cos 4x − 1 sin x − tan x

11. lim 21. lim
x→0 cos x − sec x
 x 
x→0

1 cos x 2 sin x − sin 1
12. lim − 22. lim
x→0 x2 x x→1 x−1

II. Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim+ (4e1/x + 5cos x ) 3e4x − e−x

x→0 8. lim
x→−∞ 5e4x + 2e3x − e−x
2. lim+ [ln (5x) + 5ln x ] 
5t

x→0 9. lim ln 2
x→−∞ t +3
3. lim (e−3x − e3x )
x→∞ 10. lim tanh x
x→∞
4. lim (e−3x − e3x )
x→−∞ 11. lim tanh x
x→−∞
x
3  
5. lim x+3
x→∞ 5x
+ 7x 12. lim− sinh
x→2 x2 − 4
2x + 4x
6. lim x 13. lim sinh 3x sech 6x
x→−∞ 8 − 2x x→∞
 
3e4x − e−x 1
7. lim 14. lim− coth
x→∞ 5e4x + 2e3x − e−x x→0 x

III. Evaluate the following limits.

√
2 + x − 2x3
 
1. lim arcsin 2. lim− arcsec( 3 − x)
x→2
x→∞ 1 + 4x3

Page 18 of 19 jpbstamaria
Lesson 1.4 Math 102
 
3. lim− arccot(log2 x) 2 arctan 2x
x→0 6. lim sec
 arcsec x  x→∞ 3
4. lim arccos 7. lim+ arcsec(csch x)
x→−∞ π x→0
−x2
5. lim arccot e 8. lim arctan(cosh x)
x→∞ x→−∞

IV. Use the squeeze theorem to evaluate the following limits:

    
2 1 1
1. lim x cos − sin
x→0 x x
1 − 2JxK
2. lim
x→−∞ x
x
e sin x cos x
3. lim
x→−∞ x
V. Given the function 
J2x + 1K,
 if x ≤ 0;
f (x) = 2 .
 sin(x − x) , if x > 0.

xe1/x
Classify the points of discontinuity of f if there are any.

VI. Prove that each of the following equations has at least one solution and find a closed interval where
a solution exists.

1. x3 = cos x 2. ln x = 5 − 2x 3. x + arctan x = 1.

Page 19 of 19 jpbstamaria