UNIT-IV ALGREBRIC Dr.

Pronaya Bhattacharya
STRUCTURES
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WHAT IS AN ALGEBRIC STRUCTURE?
Comes in the domain of Abstract Algebra.
Abstract algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Such
a structure consists of a set together with one or more binary operations,
which are required to satisfy certain axioms.
Like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus and many
more..
The elements of the set can be numbers, abstract symbols as well , we
focus on the properties the elements possess, when certain operations are
applied on them.

Why CARE→ Draw generalization among different systems and

properties.
Discover new system with similar properties
Prove basic theorems about all systems possessing same properties.
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APPLICATIONS OF ALGEBRIC STRUCTURES
IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
❑Number theory and dynamical flow-systems
❑The mathematics of random number generators
❑Finite Fields in Cryptography
❑Error Correcting and Block Codes in Communication Systems
❑Coding Theory
❑Cyclotomy and cyclic codes in Software Engineering
❑Basic shape primitives in Computer Graphics and Digital
Image Processing
❑Finite Automata and Language generators

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ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS

◼ N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.

Z = { 0,  1,  2,  3,  4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
◼ Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary
operation (closed operation) on a non empty set A, if
a * b  A for all a, b  A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
◼ Algebraic System: A set ‘A’ with one or more binary(closed) operations
defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.
PROPERTIES FOR SET WITH ONE OPERATION

◼ Commutative: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.

The operation * is said to be commutative in A if
a * b= b * a for all a, b in A
◼ Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A.
The operation * is said to be associative in A if
(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
◼ Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to
be an identity element of A if
a * e = e * a = a for all a  A.
◼ Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is
unique.
◼ Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be
an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e
ALGEBRIC STRUCTURES FOR SET WITH
ONE OPERATION
 SEMI GROUP
◼ Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.
◼ Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
◼ Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
◼ Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

◼ Monoid: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the

following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
MONOID
◼ Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to
multiplication.
◼ Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
1. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is
again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b  N
 Multiplication is a closed operation.
2. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c  N
3. Identity : We have, 1  N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a  N.
 Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
GROUP

◼ Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if

the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has inverse in G.

◼ Abelian group (Commutative group): A group (G, *) is

said to be abelian (or commutative) if
a * b = b * a for all a, b ε G.
EXAMPLES

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 CANCELLATION LAWS IN GROUPS
◼ In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold
good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c  b = c (left cancellation
law)
a * c = b * c  a = b (Right
cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
◼ In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.
 EX. SHOW THAT, THE SET OF ALL INTEGERS IS A GROUP WITH
RESPECT TO ADDITION.

◼ Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.

Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an
integer.
i.e., a + b  Z for all a,b  Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c  Z.
3. Identity : We have 0  Z and a + 0 = a for all a  Z .
 Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a  Z , we have – a  Z such that
a+(–a )=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
CONTD.,

◼ 5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.

i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b  Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
THEOREM

◼ Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity element is

unique.
◼ Proof :
a) Let e1 and e2 are two identity elements in G.
Now, e1 * e2 = e1 …(1) (since e2 is the identity)
Again, e1 * e2 = e2 …(2) (since e1 is the identity)
From (1) and (2), we have e 1 = e2
 Identity element in a group is unique.
THEOREM

◼ Ex. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any element is unique.
◼ Proof:
◼ Let a ,b,c G and e is the identity in G.
◼ Let us suppose, Both b and c are inverse elements of a .
◼ Now, a * b = e …(1) (Since, b is inverse of a )
◼ Again, a * c = e …(2) (Since, c is also inverse of a )
◼ From (1) and (2), we have
◼ a*b=a*c
◼  b=c (By left cancellation law)
◼ In a group, the inverse of any element is unique.
FINITE GROUPS

◼ Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.

◼ Solution: The composition table of G is
◼ . 1 –1
◼ 1 1 –1
◼ –1 –1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that
multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively.
CONTD.,

Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
EX. SHOW THAT G = {1, , 2 } IS AN ABELIAN GROUP UNDER MULTIPLICATION.
WHERE 1, , 2 ARE CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY.

◼ Solution: The composition table of G is

◼ . 1  2
◼ 1 1  2
◼   2 1
◼ 2 2 1 

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the
elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 , 2 are 1, 2,  respectively.
CONTD.,

◼ Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

◼ 5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are
identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
◼ Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
MORE ON FINITE GROUPS

◼ In a group with 2 elements, each element is its own inverse

◼ In a group of even order there will be at least one element (other than
identity element) which is its own inverse
◼ The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,…..m-1} is a group with respect to addition
modulo m.
◼ The set G = {1,2,3,4,….p-1} is a group with respect to multiplication
modulo p, where p is a prime number.
◼ Order of an element of a group:
◼ Let (G, *) be a group. Let ‘a’ be an element of G. The
smallest integer n such that an = e is called order of ‘a’. If
no such number exists then the order is infinite.
 EXAMPLES

◼ Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.The order –i is

a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 1
◼ Ex. Which of the following is not true.
◼ a) The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is a
divisor of the order of the group.
b) The order of an element of a group is same as that of its inverse.
◼ c) In the additive group of integers the order of every element except
◼ 0 is infinite
◼ d) In the infinite multiplicative group of nonzero rational numbers the
◼ order of every element except 1 is infinite.
◼ Ans. d
SUB GROUPS

◼ Def. A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,

◼ if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
◼ Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
◼ Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
◼ Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G
iff
◼ i) a * b  H  a, b  H
◼ ii) a-1  H aH
SUBGROUPS
Proposition . If H is a nonempty finite subset of a group G and ab ∈ H
for all a, b ∈ H, then H is a subgroup of G.
Example In the group ({1,−1, i,−i}, ・), the subset {1,−1} forms a
subgroup because this subset is closed under multiplication
Example The group Z is a subgroup of Q,Q is a subgroup of R, and R
is a subgroup of C. (Remember that addition is the operation in all
these groups.)
However, the set N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} of nonnegative integers is a subset
of Z but not a subgroup, because the inverse of 1, namely, −1, is not in
N. This example shows that Proposition 1.4.2 is false if we drop the
condition that H be finite.
The relation of being a subgroup is transitive. In fact, for any group
G, the inclusion relation between the subgroups of G is a partial order
relation.

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MODULO SYSTEMS.

◼ Addition modulo m ( +m )
◼ let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
◼ a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
◼ a +m b = r if a + b  m where r is the remainder obtained
◼ by dividing (a+b) with m.
◼ Multiplication modulo p ( p )
◼ let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
◼ a p b = a b if a b < p
◼ a p b = r if a b  p where r is the remainder obtained
◼ by dividing (ab) with p.
◼ Ex. 3 5 4 = 2 , 5 5 4 = 0 , 2 5 2 = 4
 EXAMPLE
The set of complex numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under multiplication operation is a cyclic
group.
There are two generators (i and –i)
as i=i,i^2=−1,i^3=−i,i^4=1, which covers all the elements of the group. Hence,
it is a cyclic group
Similarly we can check for –i.

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ORDER OF A GROUP

Definition. Let G be a group and let a  G. If ak = 1

for some k  1, then the smallest such exponent k  1
is called the order of a; if no such power exists, then
one says that a has infinite order.

Proposition Let G be a group and assume that a G

has finite order k. If an = 1, then k | n. In fact, {n Z :
an = 1} is the set of all the multiples of k.

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CYCLIC GROUPS AND GENERATORS
Definition. If G is a group and a  G, write
<a > = {an : n Z} = {all powers of a } .
It is easy to see that <a > is a subgroup of G .
< a > is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. A group
G is called cyclic if there is some a  G with G = < a >; in this case a
is called a generator of G.
Proposition If G= <a > is a cyclic group of order n, then ak is a
generator of G if and only if gcd(k; n)= 1.
Corollary The number of generators of a cyclic group of order n is
(n).

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FINITE GROUPS
Proposition Let G be a finite group and let a  G. Then the order of a
is the number of elements in <a >.

Definition. If G is a finite group, then the number of elements in G,

denoted by G, is called the order of G.

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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Cosets
Theorem of Lagrange
Normal Subgrops
Quotient Groups

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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Cosets
Let (G, ·) be a group with subgroup H. For a, b ∈
G, we say that a is congruent to b modulo H, and
write a ≡ b mod H if and only if ab−1 ∈ H.
Proposition The relation a ≡ b mod H is an
equivalence relation on G. The equivalence class
containing a can be written in the form Ha = {ha|h
∈ H}, and it is called a right coset of H in G. The
element a is called a representative of the coset Ha.
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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Example : Find the right cosets of A3 in S3.

Solution. One coset is the subgroup itself A3 =
{(1), (123), (132)}. Take any element not in the
subgroup, say (12). Then another coset is A3(12)
= {(12), (123) (12), (132) (12)} = {(12), (13),
(23)}.Since the right cosets form a partition of S3
and the two cosets above contain all the elements
of S3, it follows that these are the only two cosets.
In fact, A3 = A3(123) = A3(132) and A3(12) =
A3(13) = A3(23).
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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Example Find the right cosets of H = {e, g4, g8}

in C12 = {e, g, g2, . . . , g11}.
Solution. H itself is one coset. Another is Hg = {g,
g5, g9}. These two cosets have not exhausted all
the elements of C12, so pick an element, say g2,
which is not in H or Hg. A third coset is Hg2 = {g2,
g6, g10} and a fourth is Hg3 ={g3, g7, g11}.
Since C12 = H ∪ Hg ∪ Hg2 ∪ Hg3, these are all
the cosets
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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS
Lagranges Theorem-
As the examples above suggest, every coset contains the same
number of elements. We use this result to prove the famous
theorem of Joseph Lagrange (1736–1813).
Lemma There is a bijection between any two right cosets of
H in G.
Proof. Let Ha be a right coset of H in G. We produce a
bijection between Ha and H, from which it follows that there is
a bijection between any two right cosets.
Define ψ:H → Ha by ψ(h) = ha. Then ψ is clearly surjective.
Now suppose that ψ(h1) = ψ(h2), so that h1a = h2a.
Multiplying each side by a−1 on the right, we obtain h1 = h2.
Hence ψ is a bijection.
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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Theorem (Lagrange’s Theorem). If G is a finite group and H

is a subgroup of G, then |H| divides |G|.
Proof. The right cosets of H in G form a partition of G, so
G can be written as a disjoint union
G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ·· ·∪ Hak for a finite set of elements a1,
a2, . . . , ak ∈ G.
By Lemma, the number of elements in each coset is |H|.
Hence, counting all the elements in the disjoint union above,
we see that |G| = k|H|. Therefore, |H| divides |G|.

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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS
If H is a subgroup of G, the number of distinct right cosets of H in G is
called the index of H in G and is written |G : H|. The following is a
direct consequence of the proof of Lagrange’s theorem.
Corollary If G is a finite group with subgroup H, then
|G : H| = |G|/|H|.
Corollary If a is an element of a finite group G, then the order of a
divides the order of G.

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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS

Normal Subgroups
Let G be a group with subgroup H.
The right cosets of H in G are equivalence classes under the relation a
≡ b mod H, defined by ab−1 ∈ H.
We can also define the relation L on G so that aLb if and only if b−1a
∈ H. This relation, L, is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence
class containing a is the left coset aH = {ah|h ∈ H}.
As the following example shows, the left coset of an element does not
necessarily equal the right coset.

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 NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS
Example Find the left and right cosets of H = A3 and K = {(1), (12)} in S3.
Solution. We calculated the right cosets of H = A3 in Example 2.1.1.
Right Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132)}; H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
Left Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132}; (12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
In this case, the left and right cosets of H are the same.
However, the left and right cosets of K are not all the same.
Right Cosets
K = {(1), (12)} ; K(13) = {(13), (132)} ; K(23) = {(23), (123)}
Left Cosets
K = {(1), (12)};(23)K = {(23), (132)}; (13)K = {(13), (123)}
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NORMAL SUBGROUPS,QUOTIENT GROUPS
Definition: A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of
G if g−1hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H.
Proposition Hg = gH, for all g ∈ G, if and only if H is a normal
subgroup of G.
Proof. Suppose that Hg = gH. Then, for any element h ∈ H, hg ∈ Hg =
gH. Hence hg = gh1 for some h1 ∈ H and g−1hg = g−1gh1 = h1 ∈ H.
Therefore,H is a normal subgroup.
Conversely, if H is normal, let hg ∈ Hg and g−1hg = h1 ∈ H. Then hg
= gh1 ∈ gH and Hg ⊆ gH. Also, ghg−1 = (g−1)−1hg−1 = h2 ∈ H, since H
is normal, so gh = h2g ∈ Hg. Hence, gH ⊆ Hg, and so Hg = gH.

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NORMAL SUBGROUPS, QUOTIENT GROUPS
If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, the left cosets of N in G are
the same as the right cosets of N in G, so there will be no ambiguity in
just talking about the cosets of N in G.

Theorem If N is a normal subgroup of (G, ·), the set of cosets G/N =

{Ng|g ∈ G} forms a group (G/N, ·), where the operation is defined by
(Ng1) · (Ng2) = N(g1 · g2). This group is called the quotient group or
factor group of G by N.

39
NORMAL SUBGROUPS,QUOTIENT GROUPS
Example (Zn, +) is the quotient group of (Z,+) by the subgroup nZ =
{nz|z ∈ Z}.
Solution. Since (Z,+) is abelian, every subgroup is normal. The set nZ
can be verified to be a subgroup, and the relationship a ≡ b mod nZ
is equivalent to a − b ∈ nZ and to n|a − b. Hence a ≡ b mod nZ is the
same relation as a ≡ b mod n. Therefore, Zn is the quotient group
Z/nZ, where the operation on congruence classes is defined by [a] +
[b] = [a + b].
(Zn,+) is a cyclic group with 1 as a generator .When there is no
confusion, we write the elements of Zn as 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
n − 1 instead of [0], [1], [2], [3], . . . , [n − 1].

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