Tense:

Shows the time of an action indicated by a verb.

Simple present tense:

It is the first form of verb with takes (s, es, ies) is called simple present tense. It is shows future
actions that are on timetable.
Auxiliary verb: (Do / Dose)
Time expressions: always, often, usually and …
Usage:

 Regular action: he learns English at home.

 Permeant action: he goes to school every day.
 Daily routines: shams deliver food.
 General truths: sun rise from east.
Examples:
Affirmative: We learn English at center.
Negative: We don’t learn English at home.
Question: Do we learn English at school?
Negative question: Do not we learn English at home?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Present continuous tense:

First form of the verb with (is, am, are + ing) is called present continuous tense.
Auxiliary verb: (is, am, are)
Time expressions: now, at the moment
Usage:

 Present progressive action: he is eating tea.

 Future planned actions: they are planning tomorrow party.
 Short terms actions: I am jest leaving work.
Examples:
Affirmative: We are learning English at center.
Negative: We aren’t English at home.
Question: are we learning English at school?
Negative question: are not we learning English at school?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Present perfect tense:

Present perfect tense is (have / has + past participle).
Auxiliary verb: (have / has)
Time expressions: never, just, after, so far, since, for, yet, ever…
Usage:
It shows an action which is started in the past, finished in the past in unspecific time.
Some time it is use for those actions that started in the past and they still continue like: the
students have attended the class since January.
This usually speaks about:

 Achievements.
 Life experience.
 Recent happening.
Have: is use for I, you, we, they and plural
Has: is use for he, she, it and singular
Examples:
Affirmative: he has written a letter.
Negative: he has not written a letter.
Question: has he written a letter?
Negative question: has not he written a letter?

………………..........................................................................................
Present perfect continuous tense:
(have / has + been + v- ing) is called present perfect continuous tense.
Auxiliary verb: (have been / has been)
Time expressions: all day, for, since and ….
Usage:
Shows an action which started in the past continuing to the present and may by go to future.
Since: the starting point
For: the period of time.
Examples:
Affirmative: I have been writing my home work for 30 minutes.
Negative: I have not been writing my home work for 30 minutes.
Question: have I been writing my home work for 30 minutes?
Negative question: have not I been writing my home work for 30 minutes?

………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

Simple past tense:

Simple past tense is the second form of the verb.
Auxiliary verb: (did)
Time expressions: last, yesterday, ago, in 2012 and…
Usage:
Shows an action started and finished in the past in a particular time.
Examples:
Affirmative: I wrote a letter.
Negative: I didn’t write a letter.
Question: did I write a letter?
Negative question: did not I write a letter?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Past continuous tense:
It is (was / were + verb-ing).
Auxiliary verb: (was / were)
Usage:
It is shows an action which is progress in the past when interrupted by another action.
Examples:
Affirmative: she was washing the dishes when the earth quack occurred.
Negative: she was not washing the dishes when the earth quack occurred.
Question: was she washing the dishes when the earth quack occurred?
Negative question: was not she washing the dishes when the earth quack occurred?
Note: in this tense the second part will be in simple past tense.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Past perfect tense:

It is (had+v3).
Auxiliary verb: (had)
Time expressions: before.
Usage:
Actions that had completed prior to another action in the past.
Examples:
Affirmative: I had graduated from school before I got married.
Negative: I had not graduated from school before I got married.
Question: had I graduated from school before I got married?
Negative question: had not I graduated from school before I got married?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Past perfect continuous tense:
It is (had+been+v-ing).
Auxiliary verb: (had been)
Time expressions:
Usage:
Actions that were going on in the past before another action happened.
Examples:
Affirmative: I had been working with my parents for three years when I finally got a job in an organization.
Negative: I had not been working with my parents for three years when I finally got a job in an organization.
Question: had I been working with my parents for three years when I finally got a job in an organization?
Negative question: had I been working with my parents for three years when I finally got a job in an organization?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Simple future tense:

It is (will + v1) and (is, am, are + going to + v1).
Auxiliary verb: (will)
Time expressions: tomorrow, next year….

Usage:
For prediction and willingness.
Examples:
Affirmative: I will write a letter.
Negative: I will not write a letter.
Question: will I write a letter?
Negative question: will not I write a letter?
Example for going to: I have prepared my documents so I am going to apply for the job
tomorrow.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Future continuous tense:
It is (will + be + v-ing).
Auxiliary verb: (will be)
Time expressions: tomorrow, next day, next year…
Usage:
It is use for future progressive actions.
Examples:
Affirmative: I will be learning chaises there.
Negative: I will not be learning chaises there.
Question: will I be learning chaises there?
Negative question: will I not be learning chaises there?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

Future perfect tense:

It is (will+have+v3).
Auxiliary verb: (will have)
Time expressions:
Usage:
It is used to talk about actions that will have completed before another action in the future.
Examples:
Affirmative: he will have gotten his muster before he gets a job.
Negative: he will not have gotten his muster before he gets a job.
Question: will he have gotten his muster before he gets a job?
Negative question: will he not have gotten his muster before he gets a job?
Different between (Past P) and (Future P): in past we used v2 in second port. In future we used
v1 in the second part.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Future perfect continuous tense:
It is (will + have + been + v-ing).
Auxiliary verb:
Time expressions:
Usage:
It is shows an action that will be in progress in the future before another action happens.
Examples:
Affirmative: I will have been learning English for 10 years when I finally become teacher.
Negative: I will not have been learning English for 10 years when I finally become teacher.
Question: will I have been learning English for 10 years when I finally become teacher?
Negative question: will I not have been learning English for 10 years when I finally become
teacher?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Stative verb
Stative verbs describe a state rather than an action. They are not usually used in the continuous
form.
Example:

 I think that is a good idea.

 I love this song.
 That coffee smells good.
 Do you have a pen?
 Nouns
A noun is a word used for the name of a person, place, thing, animal or idea.

Pluralization of nouns:
 Boy / boys
 Class / classes
 Fly / flies
 Child / children
 Potato / potatoes
 Kilo / kilos
 Mosquito / mosquitos
 Fish / fish
 Crisis / crises

Articles
Articles are words used before nouns to show whether they are specific or unspecific.

Kinds of articles:
Definite: (THE)
Indefinite: (A, AN)
THE: we can use the for singular and plural nouns.
EX: I will bring the computer.
A and AN: we can use them for singular
EX: I will bring a computer.

Generic noun
Which talk about general things.
EX: a teacher is always kind to his students.
 Pronouns
Pronoun is a word that is sued instate of a noun.
EX: I like the habits Bilal Ahmad possesses. He is so much persuasive.
Note: in the above sentences Bilal Ahmad is antecedent of He.
Kinds of pronoun:

 Subject pronouns:(he, she, it, I, you, we, they)

 Object pronouns: (him, her, it, me, you, us, them)
 Possessive adjective:(my, your, his, her, its, our, their)
 Possessive pronouns:(mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs)
 Indefinite pronouns:
 Reflexive pronouns:(myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves)

Models
Models are verb used to gather whit main verbs to expires speaker’s attitude.

Kinds of models in present:

1. Request present models:
Can
Would
Could
Would + you + mind + v-ing
Examples:
can you open the door please?
would you close your book please?
could you check my homework please?
would you mind driving the car please?
 2. Modals for advisability:
1. Should
2. Ought to
3. Had better
Note: ought to don’t have negative form.

Examples:
• You should visit a dentist for your tooth cavity.
• People should be very mindful of what they do.
• You ought to come on time.
• You had better come time.

Short forms:
• Ought to = otta
• Had better = better

Past modal for advisability:

Should have + past participle
Examples:
• You should pray.
• You failed because you didn’t study.
• You should have studied a lot.

Short form:
Should have = should’ve
 3. Modals used for expectation:
• Be supposed to
• Be expected to
Examples:
• You are supposed to come on time.
• As a student, you are expected to learn everything your teacher teaches you.
• When in school, I was always supposed to score a hundred in mathematics.

4. Modals used for intentions:

Future intention
Is/am/are + going to + v1
Example:
she is going to buy a Lumbergani next month

Past unfulfilled intention

Was/were + going to + v1
Example:
• Yesterday, I was going to charge students, but I didn’t because I completely forgot.

5. Modals for suggestions:

• Should
• Why don’t
• Let’s
• Could
Examples:
Why don’t you go to Samimi Educational Academy? Let’s go to Kabul institute.
I don’t know where to start learning English. Can you tell me a better place where I can learn?
 6. Modals for permission:
May,
can,
could,
would you mind if I + past verb
Examples:
May I open the door, please?
Can I open the door, please?
Could I open the door, please?
Would you mind if I opened the door, please?

7. Necessity models:
Present necessity
Must / most not
Have to - has to / don’t have to – doesn’t has to
Have got to / haven’t got to
Examples:
you most write your assignment.
you have to take your admission paper.
you have got to come on time.
Note: don’t have to / don’t has to and haven’t got to for the leak of necessity and most not for
prohibition.

Past Necessity
Had to
Example:
Last week, Afghanistan had to win the match against India.
 8. Prohibition present models:

Must not
Example:
you must not play football.

9. Possibility models:

Present
May
Might
Can
Example:
come to Kandahar. Here, you can enjoy Portis.

Past possibility
could + have + v3
Example:
you could have enjoyed Portis.

10. Ability models:

Present ability
can,
know how
is/am/are + able to.
Examples:
She can dance.
She knows how to dance.
She is able to dance.

Past ability
Could
was/were + able to
knew how to
Example:
Last year, I could lift 300 kilograms of weight.

Future ability
will + be able to
will + know how to
Example:
He will be able to eat.
She will know how to work.

11. Speculation/ inference models:

Modals of speculation for present, past and future:
• I am hundred percent sure. I have no doubts.
• I am ninety percent sure. I have more certainty.
• I am twenty percent sure. I have less certainty.
Example:
What is his job?
When hundred percent sure, use simple present tense.
Examples:
• He is a doctor.
What does he do in the morning?
• He works out.
Modals for present speculation:
More certainty is when you have evidence.
He must be a doctor.
I think he can be a cook.
For more certainty, use must or can:
Where is Jayed?
He must be in Kabul.
For less certainty, use may, might or could:

Modals for past speculation:

Example:
Where did I go after I left your class on Wednesday?
Hundred percent sure, use simple past tense.
• You went to the office.
Teacher have breakfasts in the office every morning, so you must have gone to the office. You
couldn’t have gone to the university.

For more certainty, use:

• Must have + past participle
• couldn’t have + past participle

for less certainty:

• might have + past participle
• could have + past participle
• may have + past participle

modals for future speculation:

when hundred percent sure, simple future.
• What will I do next year?
• You will go to Kabul.

For more certainty, use should and ought to:

• I think you should go to Kabul.
• You ought to get married because you talk about marriage so often.

For less certainty, may and might.

Linked words
If a word ended by consonant and another word start by same consonant word, it’s called
linked words like: bad day, dught to.
Voice:
Voice is the form of verb that shows whether the subject dose or receives an action.
Types of voices
Active voice:
A verb form in which the subject is the doer of the action.
Examples:
▪ Noor Ahmad killed the man we loved.
▪ She saw a terrible airplane crash.

Passive voice:
A verb form in which the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action.
Examples:
▪ Cars were made for the purpose of transportation.
▪ Many employees were fired because of their misdemeanors.

Changing active sentence to passive sentence:

 The abject of the verb becomes the verb’s subject.

 A to be verb replace the main verb.
 The main verb changes to 3rd form.
 The doer of the action become the agent in by phrase.
 If there is a modal, it stays put.
Examples:
1. Salman taught him last winter.
▪ He was taught by Salman last winter.
1. I was writing my monograph.
▪ My monograph was being written by me.
2. She had invested lots of her money.
▪ Lots of her money had been invested by her.
3. My parents love me.
▪ I am loved by my parents.
4. I am learning passive voice.
▪ Passive voice is being learned by me.
5. The salty water has blinded her.
▪ She has been blinded by the salty water.
6. They can/will/may/should/would fix it.
▪ It can/will/may/should/would be fixed by them.
Note: that time we can change active to passive when the object of active answered by who
and what.

Sentences that cannot be changed to passive voice:

1. Sentences without a direct object.
▪ He slept.
▪ They laughed.
2. Sentences expressing a state of being
▪ She is intelligent.
▪ He seems happy.
3. Sentences that have reflexive pronouns as their objects
▪ She killed herself.
▪ I cut myself.

Why do we change active voices to passive voices?

There are some reasons:
1. To focus on the object of the sentence.
▪ The students made all that noise.
▪ All that noise was made by the students.
▪ The mayor will build the hospital.
▪ The hospital will be built by the mayor.
2. When you don’t want to mention the agent
▪ Abdul Rahman broke the LCD.
▪ The LCD was broken last day. Could you buy us another, please?
▪ John killed the politician.
▪ The politician was killed in an assassination attempt.
3. When the agent is not important to mention because everyone knows about it.
▪ People fry eggs in oil.
▪ Eggs are fried in oil.
▪ Workers make cars in factories.
▪ Cars are made in factories.

Changing passive to active:

1: rename the additional to be.
2: use the passive verb instead of the deleted to be.
Example:
they can be answered by a child.
A child can answer them.

Structure of active verbs:

 1: base form.
 2: 2nd form.
 3: ing form.
 4: model + verb.
 5: have + 3verb.
Structure of passive voice:

 1: 3rd form of verb.

 2: be + 3rd form of verb.

Changing active verbs to passive verbs:

1: use a to be verb instead of the mine verb.
Present --- is/am/are
Past --- was/were
Prefect --- been
Continues --- being
Future/intinitive --- be
2: change the main verb to 3rd form
Ex: speaking --- being spoken.
Will eat --- well be eaten.

Active vs passive:
Active:
Direct, concise, clear, Conversational and action.
Passive:
indirect, longer, unclear, scientific and not action.
 Clause
Clause is a group of words that has a subject-verb combination.
Some examples:
• I play very well.
• He is my close friend.
• If you wear glasses
• When I came from Liverpool.

Groups of words that are not clauses

• In the kitchen
• Form the very first day
• After the age seven
• On the top of the window

Types of clauses:
There are two types of clauses:
1. Independent (Main) clause: An independent clause is one that can stand alone. It
expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
• She wakes up very early in the morning.
• I hate jealous people.
2: Dependent clause (Subordinate) clause: A dependent clause is a clause that can’t stand
alone. It should be joined with an independent clause to complete its meaning.
Examples:
• When I broke my leg
• If you learn a new language

Remember!
All dependent clauses start with a subordinating conjunction. If you remove the
subordinating conjunction, the clauses will turn into independent clauses.

Some subordinating conjunctions are:

if, when, why, because, although, that, since, even if, where, before, as soon as, after…
For example:
If you had a car last year • You had a car last year.
When she graduated from college yesterday • She graduated from college yesterday.
 Types of dependent clauses:
1. Noun clauses
2. Adjective (relative) clauses
3. Adverbial clauses

Example of noun clauses:

o The news really saddened me.
o That she died really saddened me.
o I like apples.
o I like what he says.

Examples of adjective clauses:

o She is woman.
o She is a woman who beats her husband every day.
o I hate people.
o I hate people who backbite me.

Examples of adverbial clauses:

o She died yesterday.
o She died after her husband divorced her.
o I am happy here. o I am happy where I am

What is a noun clause?

A noun clause is a kind of dependent clause that functions as a noun. It can be used as the
subject or the object of the verb.
Examples:
I believe Ahmad.
• I believe what you say.
Ahmad was wrong.
• What he said was wrong.

Functions of noun clauses:

Noun clauses can be used either as the subject of the verb or the object of the verb.
1. Noun clauses as the subject of the verb.
• What you bought was very expensive.
2. Noun clauses as the object of the verb
• I heard that your father is sick.

Kinds:
Noun clauses starting with a question word
Example:
What do you mean?
• I see what you mean.

Noun clauses starting with if or whether

Example:
Does he work?
• Can you tell me if he works?

Nouns clauses starting with that

Example:
You are busy.
• I know that you are busy.

Noun clauses after be + adjectives

Example:
He is married.
It is good that he is married
Relative clauses:
A relative clause is a kind of dependent clause that functions like an adjective. It modifies a
noun or pronoun in the independent clause.
Examples:
I like expensive cars.
I like cars that are manufactured in Japan.
He is the man who wears glasses.
I hate students that I charge very often.
The man who is standing to the right is my uncle.

Relative pronouns:
▪ Who = persons
▪ Which = things
▪ That = persons/things

Examples:
▪ I like people who/that come early to the class.
▪ I like the car which/that is made in Japan.
▪ H don’t bring markers that don’t work properly.
▪ The student who came from Germany goes to the city which is very crowded.

The omission of the relative pronouns

• I like people who are very friendly.
• I like people who I spend time with.

 If the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, the relative pronoun can be
removed. If it’s the subject, it can’t be removed.
▪ She saw the man who I worked with.
▪ I bought the car that most people dislike.

Types of adjective clauses:

1. Defining
2. Non-defining

1. Defining relative clause:

is a clause that gives essential information about the noun. It defines the noun in the main
clause. They are used to modify a common noun or a general term.
Examples:
▪ I like apples that come from Bamyan.
▪ I killed the teacher who talked a lot.
 2. Non-defining relative clause:
Non-defining relative clause is a clause that gives unessential information about the noun.
They are used to modify a proper noun or a specific term.
Examples:
▪ I like Afghanistan, which is a country in Asia.
▪ My friend Ahmad, who died last year, was born in India.
▪ I killed my English teacher, who talked a lot.

Remember:
1. That cannot be used in non-defining relative clauses. They are only reduced when
relative pronouns are the subjects of the relative clause.
2. Relative pronouns cannot be omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
3. A comma is used when using non-defining relative clauses.

Reducing relative clauses to phrases:

1. If there is an adjective in the relative clause, bring it before the noun.
Examples:
▪ I saw a woman who was very tall.
▪ I saw a tall woman.
▪ I killed a cat that was very ugly.
▪ I killed a very ugly cat.
2. If there is a prepositional phrase in the relative clause, remove the relative pronoun and
the be verb.
Examples:
▪ I like students who are in the school.
▪ I like students in the school.
▪ I want to buy the car which is on the road.
▪ I want to buy the car on the road.
3. if the relative clause is in simple present, present continuous or simple past tense, use
the ing form of the verb and remove the relative pronoun.
Examples:
▪ She is the student who wears glasses.
▪ She is the student wearing glasses.
4. If the relative clause is in passive voice, use the past participle and remove the relative
pronoun.
Examples:
▪ I bought a car which was made in Japan.
▪ I bought a car made in Japan.
Adverbial clauses:
An adverbial clause is a kind of dependent clause that functions as an adverb.
Examples:
▪ She died yesterday.
▪ She died after she got married.
▪ After she got married, she died
. ▪ She died here.
▪ She died where she lived.

Types adverbial clauses

1. Adverbial clauses of time
2. Adverbial clauses of condition
3. Adverbial clauses of place
4. Adverbial clauses of manner
5. Adverbial clauses of comparison
6. Adverbial clauses of reason
7. Adverbial clauses of result
8. Adverbial clauses of purpose
9. Adverbial clauses of concession

❖ The most important thing about adverbial clauses it learning the subordinators.

1. Adverbial clauses of time

An adverbial clause of time talks about the time of an action.

❖ Subordinators
▪ When
▪ While
▪ After
▪ Before
▪ As soon as
▪ Soon after
▪ Right after
▪ Shortly after

Examples:
▪ I graduated from school shortly after I got married.
▪ Ashraf Ghani left Afghanistan before Taliban took over Kabul.
▪ I wash my face before I eat my breakfast.
▪ Before I eat my breakfast, I wash my face.
▪ He will buy a computer after he gets his salary.

Tense combinations
Adverbial clause of time, main clause.
1. Simple past, simple past.
2. Simple past, past continuous
3. Simple past, past perfect.
4. Simple present, simple present.
5. Simple present, simple future.
6. Present perfect, simple future.

Examples:
▪ When he did the accident, he was ten.
▪ When I called her, she was cooking dinner.
▪ Before I came here, you had already opened your books.
▪ After he eats his lunch, he goes to his office.
▪ When I finish this class, I will go home.
▪ After I have finished this class, I will go home.
▪ After every one has arrived, I will take the attendance.

2. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION

An adverbial clause of condition is used to talk about the condition important for a result
to happen.
I will go if he comes.

Subordinating conjunctions used in conditional clauses:

If, unless, only if, even if, whether or not, provided that, providing that, in case, on the
condition that.
Unless = if not

Types of conditional clauses

1. Zero conditional
2. First conditional
3. Second conditional
4. Third conditional
5. Mixed conditional
 Zero conditional
Is used to talk about things that are generally true. The result happens one hundred
percent.
Structure: If+ simple present, simple present.
Example:
▪ If you run fast, you get tired.

First conditional
Is used to talk about real possibilities.
Structure: If+ simple present, will
Examples:
▪ If you try, you will get the first place.
▪ If you drive fast, you will have an accident.

Second conditional
Is used to talk about imaginary situation.
Structure: If + simple past, would
Examples:
▪ If I had money, I would buy a Buggati.
▪ If I were in power, I would bring a lot of changes.

Third conditional
Used for hypothetical situations in the past. They usually talk about things that happened in
the past, and people regret about that now.
Structure: If + past perfect, would + have + v3
Examples:
▪ If I hadn’t lost my passport, I would have gone to Germany.
▪ If we had studied hard, we wouldn’t have failed.

Mixed conditional
Is a combination of both second and third conditional.

Past condition, present result:

Structure: If+ past perfect, would
Example:
▪ If I had gotten a job last year, I would be a rich person now.

Past result, present condition:

Structure: If + simple past, would + have + v3
Example:
▪ If I weren’t lazy, I wouldn’t have failed
 3. Adverbial Clauses of Place:
An adverbial clause of place talks about the place where an action happens.
Subordinators:
▪ Where
▪ Wherever
▪ Anywhere
▪ Everywhere
Examples:
▪ I am happy anywhere I am.
▪ He dances wherever he goes.

4. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose:

This adverbials clause shows the purpose of the action in the independent clause.
Subordinators
▪ In order that
▪ So that
Examples:
▪ I learn English so that I can get a job.
▪ She came here in order that she could buy a car.

5. Adverbial Clause of Reason:

This clause shows the reason of the action in the independent clause.
Subordinators:
▪ Because
▪ Since
▪ As
▪ Due to the fact that
Examples:
▪ She died because she was sick.
▪ She came since she wanted to apply for the job.
▪ I am happy as its my wedding tomorrow.

6. Adverbial Clause of Concession or Contrast:

They are used to show contrast.
Subordinators:
▪ Even though
▪ Although
▪ Thought
▪ While
Examples:
▪ He studies while he sick.
▪ I am happy even though I am single.

7. Adverbial Clause of Comparison:

Is used to make a comparison.
Subordinators:
▪ As…as
▪ Than
▪ As
Examples:
▪ She can swim as well as I can swim.
▪ She is more beautiful than her sister is.
▪ I speak English better than I can speak Arabic.

8. Adverbial clause of result:

This type of adverbial clause is used to show result.
Subordinators:
▪ So…that
▪ Such…that
Examples:
▪ English is so important that every one tries to learn it.
▪ English is such an important language that every one tries to learn it.
▪ He is such a famous person that almost every one knows him.

9. Adverbial Clause of Manner:

Shows the manner in which something is done.
Subordinators:
▪ As
▪ As if
▪ Like
Examples:
▪ He walks as if he is an actor.
▪ He talks like he is my boss.
▪ He is asleep as he is dead.
Direct and indirect speech:
Direct speech and indirect speech are both ways of conveying some’s message.
• I am very excited.
• My brother told me, “I am very excited.”
• My brother told me that he was very excited.
• I live here.
• Bashir told me, “I live here.”
• Bashir told me that he lived there.

Rules of writing direct speech:

1. Use comma and quotation marks.
2. Capitalize the first word of the reported clause.
Example:
He told him, “They are my friends.”

How to change direct speech into indirect speech?

In statements;
1. Remove comma and quotation marks.
2. Use that between the two clauses(optional).
3. Use small letter for the first word of the reported clause.
4. Change the tenses if necessary.
5. Change the pronouns if necessary.
Example:
• Rafiullah told me, “I will not come to the class.”
• Rafiullah told me that he would not come to the class.
How do we change the tenses?
Simple present tense = simple past tense
• She told me, “I love you.”
• She told me that she loved me.
Present continuous = past continuous
• He told me, “You are helping me.”
• He told me that I was helping him.
Present perfect = past perfect
• They told her, “We have killed your father.”
• They told her that they had killed her father.
Present perfect continuous = past perfect continuous
• She told him, “I have been staying with you for so many years.”
• She told him that she had been staying with him for so many years.
Simple past tense = past perfect
• She told me, “I broke your computer.”
• She told me that she had broken my computer.
Past continuous = past perfect continuous
• My teacher told me, “I was working on your assignment.”
• My teacher told me that he had been working on my assignment.
Past perfect = *
• Javid told his classmate, “You had really worked hard.”
• Javid told his classmate that he had really worked hard.
Past perfect continuous = *
• The president said, “I had been looking for a job for ten years.”
• The president said that he had been looking for a job for ten years.
Modals = past forms
• She told me, “You have to marry me.”
• She told me that I had to marry her.
• He told her, “I may kill you.”
• He told her that he might kill her.

How to report question in indirect speech?

1. Use if or whether for Yes/No questions.
2. Change the reporting verb into ask, inquire or wanted to know.
3. Bring auxiliary verbs after the subject.
4. Omit do, does and did.
5. Change question mark into a full stop.
Examples:
▪ He told me, “Are you a teacher?”
▪ He asked me if I was a teacher.
▪ She told me, “Do you play tennis?”
▪ She wanted to know if I played tennis.
▪ They told her, “Will you come tomorrow?”
▪ They asked her whether she would come the next day
. ▪ My parents told me, “What did you do in school?”
▪ My parents wanted to know what I had done in school.

Some adverb of place and time expressions:

o Today = that day
o Yesterday = previous day
o Tomorrow = next day/ following day
o Now = then
o Ago = before
o Here = there
o This = that
o These = those
o Tonight = that night

How to change imperative sentences to indirect speech?

Examples of imperative sentences:
o Go home.
o Don’t speak Pashto.
o Be careful.
o Speak fluently.
o don’t be absent.
o Write with lots of attention.
o Kill the snake.

Rules:
1. Change the reporting verb into request, order, advise, remind, direct.
2. Join the two clauses by to or not to
Examples:
▪ She told me, “Be careful.”
▪ She reminded me to be careful.
▪ I told her, “Marry me.”
▪ I requested her to marry me.
▪ I told him, “Don’t look away.”
▪ I ordered him not to look away.
▪ Hafizllah told me, “Stand up.”
▪ Hafizullah requested me to stand up.
▪ She told me, “Bring my bag.”
▪ She requested me to bring her bag.

Exercise
1. She told me, “Where are you?”
She asked where I was.
2. I told him, “Don’t speak Arabic.”
I requested him not speak Arabic.
3. They told her, “Did you see us yesterday?”
They asked her if she had seen them the previous day.
4. I told them, “You won’t come here.”
I told them that they wouldn’t come there.
5. We told him, “You are wasting our time.”
We told him that he was wasting our time.
Gerund
Gerund is the ing form of the verb that functions as a noun.

Gerund as the subject of the verb

7. Speaking English every day will improve your fluency.

Gerund as the object of the verb

8. I hate walking in the morning.

Gerund as the object of preposition

3. She came here for learning.

Infinitive
To + the root form of the verb is called infinitive.
Examples:
▪ To learn English is not an easy task.
▪ I like to speak.

Common verbs followed by gerund:

There are certain verbs that are only followed by gerund. You have to learn them from
reference lists. complete, avoid, finish, enjoy, dislike, mind…
Examples:
▪ I completed writing my homework.
▪ Did you finish building the house?
▪ They enjoy making parties.

Common verbs followed by infinitive

There are certain verbs that are only followed by infinitive. You have to learn them from
reference lists. Agree, ask, hope, decide, deserve, learn, fail…
Examples:
▪ I failed to drive the car.
▪ I asked to go.
▪ She decided to earn money.
▪ He hopes to introduce herself.

Common verbs followed by both gerund and infinitive

Advise, forgot, start, try, continue, hate
Examples:
▪ She advised to stay home.
▪ She advised staying home.
▪ I forgot to call you.
▪ I forgot calling.
▪ Ajmal started to eat.
▪ Ajmal started eating.
▪ Continue to walk.
▪ Continue walking.

Passive gerund
I like taking people to hospitals.
Passive gerund = being + past participle
I like being taken to hospital.
Do you love being invited to parties?
To learn English is easy.
Learning English is easy.
She likes being given money.
She likes to be given money.
Passive infinitive:
She wants to eat dinner.
She wants dinner to be eaten.
Passive infinitive = to be + past participle
They want to design a new house.
They want a new house to be designed.
I expect you to invite the guests.
I expect the guests to be invited.
They want to fix the car.
They want the car to be fixed.
When you use the verb need, there are two possibilities.
I need to fix the car.
I need the car to be fixed.
The car needs to be fixed.
Your homework needs to be written.
You need to call your classmates.
You need your classmates to be called.
Your classmates need to be called.

Parallelism:
Parallelism is a grammatical technique, in which similar words, phrases, clauses, and sentences
are used to create balance and emphasis.
Examples:
o I like swimming, walking, dancing and to cook.

✓ I like swimming, walking, dancing and cooking.

o He is learning English, but she teaches English.

✓ He is learning English, but she is teaching English.

o Ajmal is an intelligent student, an experienced driver and a singer.

✓ Ajmal is an intelligent student, an experienced driver and a nice singer.

o He is a student, a driver and intelligent.

✓ He is a student, a driver and a singer.

Tips for having parallel structure

▪ Use the same grammatical pattern
▪ Use the same verb tenses
▪ Use the same parts of speech

To make parallel structures, we use Coordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two independent clauses. There are only seven
coordinating conjunctions in English.
FANBOYS
o For = for reason
o And = positive addition
o Nor = negative addition
o But = contrast
o Or = alternative
o Yet = contrast
o So = result

Examples:
▪ She died, for she was sick.
▪ I tried hard, for I wanted to get the first position.
▪ She works in hospital, and she studies university.
▪ Muqim Shah makes money, and he helps the patients.
▪ He didn’t do his homework, nor did he learn the past lesson.
▪ I will not kill you, nor will I take your to the parties.
▪ I didn’t study hard, but I got the first place.
▪ I am sick, but I still teach.
▪ She eats eggs, or she walks in the morning.
▪ Learn English, or be a sportsman.
▪ I don’t have money, yet I am very happy.
▪ The weather is too hot, yet you are here.
▪ She killed my cat, so I broke her nose.
▪ I didn’t try hard, so I failed.

Reducing Adverbial clause into adverbial phrases:

That adverbial clauses which change to phrases:
Time
Reason
Rules for time clause:
 Remove the subject
 Verb change to ing form
Example:
Before he arrived, he had talked to his parent.
Before arriving, he had talked to his parent.
Rules for reason:
In adverbial clause of reason remove the subordinator, the to be verb and the subject finally,
add ing to the verb.
Because she saw a horror movie, she was very frightened.
Seeing a horror movie, she was very frightened.