Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding

Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya

Course No.: GPB 211(V) Course title: Fundamentals of Plant Breeding Credit: 3(2+1)
Semester- I Session: 2020-21
Instructor: Dr. Shiva Nath (9452276217/7800907795)
Theory
S. No. Content

1 Historical development, concept, nature and role of plant breeding; major achievements and future
prospects;
2 Genetics in relation to plant breeding;
3 Modes of reproduction and apomixes.
4 Mode of pollination; self – incompatibility and male sterility- genetic consequences.
5 Domestication, Acclimatization, introduction; Centre of origin/diversity.
6 Components of Genetic variation; Heritability and genetic advance;
7 Genetic basis and breeding methods in self- pollinated crops-mass and pure line selection.
8 Hybridization techniques and handling of segregating generations.
9 Pedigree method, Bulk method, Backcross Method and their modifications.
10 Multiline concept.
11 Concepts of population genetics and Hardy-Weinberg Law,
12 Genetic basis and methods of breeding cross pollinated crops, modes of selection and population
improvement;
13 Heterosis and inbreeding depression, development of inbred lines and hybrids; composite and
synthetic varieties;
14 Breeding methods in asexually propagated crops, clonal selection and hybridization;
15 Wide hybridization and pre-breeding;
16 Polyploidy in relation to plant breeding,
17 Mutation breeding-methods and uses;
18 Breeding for important biotic and abiotic stresses; Major achievements.
19 Participatory plant breeding.
Practical
1 Plant Breeder’s kit.
2 Study of germplasm of various crops.
3 Study of floral structure of self-pollinated and cross pollinated crops.
4 Emasculation and hybridization techniques in self and cross pollinated crops.
5 Consequences of inbreeding on genetic structure of resulting populations.
6 Handing of segregation populations.
7 Methods of calculating mean, range, variance, standard deviation, heritability.
8 Designs used in plant breeding experiment and their analysis- Randomized Block Design, Split
Plot Design and Augmented Design.
9 To work out the mode of pollination in a given crop and extent of natural out crossing.
10 Prediction of performance of double cross hybrids.
References
Poehlman,J.M. and Borthakur, J.N. (1969). Breeding Asian Field crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Allard, R.W.(1960). Principles of Plant Breeding,John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Singh, B.D.(1990). Plant Breeding; Principles and methods. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhina..
Fehr, W.R. (1967). Principles of cultivar development: Theory and techniques. Mac Millian Publishing Company, New York.
Singh, Phundan (1996). Essential Plant Breeding .Kalyani Publishers, Ludhina..
Sharma , J.R.(1999). Principles and Practices of Plant Breeding. Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi
 Lecture No: 1
Historical development, concept, nature and role of plant breeding; major
achievements and future prospects;
Plant breeding can be defined “as an art and science” and technology of improving the
genetic make up of plants in relation to their economic use for the man kind.
or
Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit
of mankind.
or
Plant breeding deals with the genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science
of crop improvement.
or
Science of changing and improving the heredity of plants
Aim :
Plant breeding aims to improve the characteristics of plants so that they become more
desirable agronomically and economically. The specific objectives may vary greatly depending
on the crop under consideration.
Objectives of Plant Breeding (Role of Plant Breeding):
1. Higher yield : The ultimate aim of plant breeding is to improve the yield of “economic produce
on economic part”. It may be grain yield, fodder yield, fibre yield, tuber yield, cane yield or oil
yield depending upon the crop species. Improvement in yield can be achieved either by evolving
high yielding varieties or hybrids.
2. Improved quality: Quality of produce is another important objective in plant breeding.
The quality characters vary from crop to crop. Eg. grain size, colour, milling and baking
quality in wheat. Cooking quality in rice, malting quality in barley, colour and size of
fruits, nutritive and keeping quality in vegetables, protein content in pulses, oil content
in oilseeds, fibre length, strength and fineness in cott on.
3. Abiotic resistance : Crop plants also suffer from abiotic factors such as drought, soil
salinity, extreme temperatures, heat, wind, cold and frost, breeder has to develop
resistant varieties for such environmental conditions.
4. Biotic resistance : Crop plants are attacked by various diseases and insects, resulting
in considerable yield losses. Genetic resistance is the cheapest and the best method of
minimizing such losses. Resistant varieties are developed through the use of resistant
donor parents available in the gene pool.
5. Change in maturity Duration / Earliness : Earliness is the most desirable character
which has several advantages. It requires less crop management period, less insecticidal
sprays, permits new crop rotations and often extends the crop area. Development of
wheat varieties suitable for late planting has permitted rice-wheat rotation. Thus
breeding for early maturing crop varieties, or varieties suitable for different dates of
planting may be an important objective. Maturity has been reduced from 270 days to
170 days in cotton, from 270 days to 120 days in pigeonpea, from 360 days to 270 days
in sugarcane.
6. Determinate Growth : Development of varieties with determinate growth is desirable
in crops like mung, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), cotton (Gossypium sp.), etc.
7. Dormancy : In some crops, seeds germinate even before harvesting in the standing crop
if there are rains at the time of maturity, e.g., greengram, blackgram, Barley and Pea,
etc. A period of dormancy has to be introduced in these crops to check loss due to
germination. In some other cases, however, it may be desirable to remove dormancy.
8. Desirable Agronomic Characteristics : It includes plant height, branching, tillering
capacity, growth habit, erect or trailing habit etc., si often desirable. For example,
dwarfness in cereals is generally associated with lodging resistance and better fertilizer
response. Tallness, high tillering and profuse branching are desirable characters in
fodder crops.
9. Elimination of Toxic Substances : It is essential to develop varieties free from toxic compounds
in some crops to make them safe for human consumption. For example, removal of neurotoxin
in Khesari – lentil (Lathyruys sativus) which leads to paralysis of lower limbs, erucic acid from
Brassica which is harmful for human health, and gossypol from the seed of cotton is necessary
to make them fit for human consumption. Removal of such toxic substances would increase the
nutritional value of these crops.
10. Non-shattering characteristics: The sha ttering of pods is serious problem in green
gram. Hence resistance to shattering is an important objective in green gram.
11. Synchronous Maturity : It refers to maturity of a crop species at one time. The
character is highly desirable in crops like reengram, cowpea, castor and cotton where
several pickings are required for crop harvest.
12. Photo and Thermo insensitivity: Development of varieties insensitive to light and
temperature helps in crossing the cultivation boundaries of crop plants. Photo and
thermo-insensitive varieties of wheat and rice has permitted their cultivation in new
 areas. Rice is now cultivated in Punjab, while wheat is a major rabi crop in West
Bengal.
13. Wider adaptability: Adaptability refers to suitability of a variety for general cultivation
over a wide range of environmental conditions. Adaptability is an important objective
in plant breeding because it helps in stabilizing the crop production over regions and
seasons.
14. Varieties for New Seasons : Traditionally maize is a kharif crop. But scientists are now
able to grow maize as rabi and zaid crops. Similarly, mung is grown as a summer crop
in addition to the main kharif crop.
Scope of plant breeding (Future Prospects)
From times immemorial, the plant breeding has been helping the mankind. With
knowledge of classical genetics, number of varieties have been evolved in different crop plants.
Since the population is increasing at an alarming rate, there is need to strengthened the food
production which is serious challenge to those scientists concerned with agriculture. Advances
in molecular biology have sharpened the tools of the breeders, and brighten the prospects of
confidence to serve the humanity. The application of biotechnology to field crop has already led
to the field testing of genetically modified crop plants. Genetically engineered rice, maize,
soybean, cotton, oilseeds rape, sugar beet and alfalfa cultivars are expected to be commercialized
th
before the close of 20 century. Genes from varied organisms may be expected to boost the
performance of crops especially with regard to their resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In
addition, crop plants are likely to be cultivated for recovery of valuable compounds like
pharmaceuticals produced by genes introduced into them through genetic engineering. It may be
pointed out that in Europe hirudin, an anti-thrombin protein is already being produced from
transgenic Brassica napus.
Undesirable effects
Plant breeding has several useful applications in the improvement of crop plants.
However, it has five main undesirable effects on crop plants.

1. Reduction in Diversity : Modern improved varieties are more uniform than land races.
Thus plant breeding leads to reduction in diversity. The uniform varieties are more prone
to the new races of pathogen than land races which have high genetic diversity.

2. Narrow genetic base : Uniform varieties have narrow genetic base. Such varieties
generally have poor adaptability.
3. Danger of Uniformity : Most of the improved varieties have some common parents in
the pedigree which may cause danger of uniformity.

4. Undesirable combinations : Sometimes, plant breeding leads to undesirable

combinations. The examples of man made crops having undesirable combination of
characters are Raphanobrassica and Pomato.

5. Increased susceptibility to minor diseases and pests : Due to emphasis on breeding for
resistance to major diseases and insect pests often resulted in an increased susceptibility to minor
diseases and pests. These have gained importance and, in some cases, produced severe epidemics.
The epidemic caused by Botrytis cinerea (grey mold) in chickpea during 1980-82 in Punjab and
Haryana. The severe infection by Karnal bunt (Tilletia sp.) on some wheat varieties, infestation
of mealy bugs in Bt cotton.
 History and development of plant breeding
- About 10,000 years ago when man is believed to have started agriculture.
- Plant breeding began when man first choose certain plants for cultivation.
- The process of bringing a wild species under human management is referred to as
domestication
- Domestication may be the most basic method of plant breeding
- All other breeding method become applicable to a plant species only after it has been
successfully domesticated.
- Domestication continuous today and is likely to continue for some time in future
- Ex : In case of timber trees medicinal plants, microbes
- During the long period of historic cultivation natural selection has definitely acted on the
domesticated species.
- Movement of man from one place to another brought about the movement of his
cultivated plant species
- 700 BC - Babylonians and Assyrians pollinated date palm artificially
th
- 17 century - several varieties of heading lettuce were developed in France
- 1717 - Thomas Fair Child - produced the first artificial hybrid, popularly known as
Fair Child’s mule, by using carnation with sweet William
- 1727 - The first plant breeding company was established in France by the vilmorins.
- 1760-1766 - Joseph koelreuter, a German, made extensive crosses in tobacco.
- 1759-1835 – Knight was perhaps the first man to use artificial hybridization to develop
several new fruit varieties.
- Le couteur and Shireff used individual plant selections and progeny test to develop some
useful cereal varieties
- 1873 - the work of Patrick Shireff was first published.
- He concluded that only the variation heritable nature responded to selections, and that
there variation arose through ‘natural sports’ (= mutation) and by ‘natural hybridization’
(= recombination during meiosis in the hybrids so produced).
- 1856 - Vilmorin developed the progeny test and used this method successfully in the
improvement of sugar beets.
- 1900 - Nilson-Ehle, his associates developed the individual plant selection method in
Sweden.
- 1903 - Johannsen proposed the pureline theory that provided the genetic basis for
individual plant selection.
 - The science of genetics began with the rediscovery of Gregor Johan Mendel’s paper in 1900 by
Hugo de veris, Tshermark and Correns which was originally published in 1866.
- The modern plant breeding methods ha ve their bases in the genetic and cytogenetic
principles.
- Numerous workers who determined the various modes of inheritance have contributed
to the development and understanding of plant breeding.
- The discovery of chromosomes as carriers of genes has led to the development of
specialized plant breeding methods for chromosome engineering.
- The totipotency of plant somatic and gametic cells allows regeneration of complete plants
from single cells. This, coupled with the development of recombinant DNA technology,
has enabled the transfer of desirable genes from any organism into plants. Crop varieties
developed in this manner are already in cultivation in several countries.

History of plant breeding in India

- 1871 – The Government of India created the Department of Agriculture
- 1905 – The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was establish in Pusa, Bihar
- 1934 – The buildings of the institute damaged in earthquake
- 1936 – Shifted to New Delhi
- 1946 – Name was changed Indian Agricultural Research Institute
- 1901-05 – Agricultural Colleges were established at Kanpur, Pune, Sabour, Llyalpur,
Coimbatore
- 1929 – Imperial council of Agricultural Research was established
- 1946 – Name was change to Indian Council Agricultural Research
- 1921 – Indian Central Cotton Committee was established – Notable researches on
breeding and cultivation of cotton. Eg : 70 improved varieties of cotton
- 1956 – Project for intensification of regional research on cotton, oilseeds and millets
(PIRRCOM) was initiated to intensify research on these crops – located at 17 different
centres through out the country
- 1957 – All India Coordinated maize improvement project was started with objective of
exploiting heterosis
- 1961 - The first hybrid maize varieties released by the project
- ICAR initiated coordinated projects for improvement of the other crops
- 1960 – First Agricultural University established at Pantnagar, Nainital, U.P.
 Scientific contributions of eminent scientists
Name of the Scientists Contributions
Allard and Bradshaw - G x E interaction
Recurrent Selection for SCA - Hull
Recurrent Selection for GCA - Jenkins
Dominance hypothesis - Davenport
Gene for gene hypothesis - Flor
Pureline concept - Johannsen
Backcross method - Harlan and Pope
Double cross scheme - Jones
Cytoplasmic Genetic Male sterility - Jones and Davis
Ear to row method - Hopkins
Colchicine - Blackslee and Nebel
Single Seed Descent Method - Goulden
Self incompatibility - Lewis
Vertifolia effect - Van Der Plank
Centres of diversity, Law of homologus series - Vavilov
Grater initial capital hypothesis - Ashby
Progeny test - Vilmorin
First artificial hybrid - Thomas Fairchild
Triticale - Rimpau
Mutation - Hugo de Vries
Sprophytic System of self incompatibility - Hughes and Babcock
Bulk method - Nilsson & Ehle
Raphano brassica - Karpenchenko
Heterosis - Shull
Male sterility - Jones and Davis
Father of hybrid rice - Yuan Long Ping
Self incompatibility classification - Lewis
Mechanism of insect resistance - Painter
Modified bulk method - Atkins
Components of genetic variance classification - Fischer
Male sterility in maize - Rhoades
Microcentre - Harlan
Chemical mutagen - Aurbach
Multiline concept - Jenson
Green revolution in India - M.S. Swaminathan
Semidwarf rice varieties at IRRI - T.T. Chang
Forage breeder - G.W. Burton
Forage breeder - T.J. Jenkin
Soyabean breeder - E.E. Hartwig

Some Indian Plant Breeders and their contributions

T.S. Venkatraman - An eminent sugarcane breeder, he transferred thick stem and
high sugar contents from tropical noble cane to North Indian
Canes. This process is known as noblization of sugarcane.

B.P. Pal - An eminent Wheat breeder, developed superior disease resistant

N.P. varieties of wheat.

M.S. Swaminathan - Responsible for green revolution in India, developed high

yielding varieties of Wheat and Rice

Pushkarnath - Famous potato breeder

N.G.P. Rao - An eminent sorghum breeder

K. Ramaiah - A renowned rice breeder

Ram Dhan Singh - Famous wheat breeder

D.S. Athwal - Famous pearlmillet breeder

Bosisen - An eminent maize breeder

Dharampal Singh - An eminent oil-seed breeder

C.T. Patel - Famous cotton breeder who developed world’s first cotton
hybrid in 1970

V. Santhanam - Famous cotton breeder

 Concepts of breeding Self pollinated, Cross pollinated and asexually
propagated crops
The mode of pollination and reproduction play an important role in plant breeding.
Based on this, crop plants are divided into three groups viz.
1. Self Pollinated
2. Cross pollinated
3. Vegetatively propagated
Self Pollinated Species:
These are all self fertilizing species. In these species development of seed take place by
self pollination (autogamy). Hence self pollinated species are also known as autogamous species
or inbreeders. Various plant characters such as homogamy, cleistogamy, chasmogamy,
bisexuality etc. favour self fertilization.
Some important features of autogamous species are
1. They have regular self pollination
2. They are homozygous and have advantage of homozygosity, means they are true
breeding.
3. Inbreeders do not have recessive deleterious genes, because deleterious genes are
eliminated due to inbreeding by way of gene fixation.
4. Inbreeding does not have any adverse effects on inbreeders.
5. In autogamous species, new gene combinations are not possible due to regular self
pollination.
6. Inbreeders are composed of several component (homozygous) lines. Hence variability is
mostly among component lines.
7. Inbreeders have generally narrow adaptation and are less flexible.
Methods of Breeding in Autogamous Species
1. Plant introduction
2. Pureline selection
3. Mass selection
4. Pedigree method
5. Bulk method
6. Single seed descent method
7. Backcross method
8. Heterosis breeding
 9. Mutation breeding
10. Polyploidy breeding
11. Distant hybridization
12. Transgenic breeding
Four breeding appr oaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive selection, diallel selective
mating and biparental mating are used for population improvement.
Cross pollinated species
This group refers to cross fertilizing species these species produce seed by cross
pollination (allogamy) hence, referred to as allogamous species or out breeders. Various plant
characters which promote cross pollination which include dichogamy, monoecy, dioecy,
heterostylely, herkogamy, self incompatibility and male sterility.
Some important features of out breeders are
1. They have random mating. In such population, each genotype has equal chance of mating
with all other genotypes
2. Individuals are heterozygous and have advantage of heterozygosity
3. Individuals have deleterious recessive gene which are concealed by masking effect of
dominant genes.
4. Out breeders are intolerant to inbreeding. They exhibit high degree of inbreeding
depression on selfing.
5. Cross pollination permits new gene combinations from different sources.
6. In these species, variability is distributed over entire population.
7. They have wide adaptability and more flexibility to environmental changes due to

heterozygosity and heterogenety.

Methods of Breeding Allogamous species
1. Plant introduction
2. Mass and progeny selection
3. Back cross method.
4. Heterosis breeding
5. Synthetic breeding
6. Composite breeding
7. Polyploidy breeding
8. Distant hybridization
9. Transgenic breeding
10. Mutation breeding (rarely)
 Three breeding approaches viz., recurrent selection, disruptive mating and biparental
mating are used for population improvement.
Asexually propagated species
Some crop plants propagate by asexual means i.e. by stem or root cuttings or by other
means. Such species are known as asexually propagated species or vegetatively propagated
species. Such species are found in both self and cross pollinated groups. Generally asexually
propagated species are highly heterozygous and have broad genetic base, wide adaptability and
more flexibility.
Methods of breeding Asexually propagated species
1. Plant introductio n
2. Clonal selection
3. Mass selection (rarely used)
4. Heterosis breeding
5. Mutation breeding
6. Polyploidy breeding
7. Distant hybridization
8. Transgenic breeding
BREEDING POPULATIONS
The genetic constitution of plants is determined by mode of pollination. Self pollination
leads to homozysity and cross pollination results in heterozygosity to exploit homozygosity in
self pollinated crops and heterozygosity in cross pollinated species, because inbreeders have
advantage of homozygosity and outbreeders have advantage of heterozygosity. Based on genetic
constitution, breeding populations are of four types viz.,
1. Homogenous
2. Heterogenous
3. Homozygous
4. Heterozygous
1. Homogenous population
Genetically similar plants constitute homogenous populations. Examples of homogeneous populations

are pure lines, inbred lines, F1 hybrid between two pure line or inbred lines and progeny of a clone. Pure lines

and inbred lines generally have narrow adoption.

 2. Heterogenous populations
Genetically dissimilar plants constitute heterogenous populations. Examples are land
races, mass selected populations, composites, synthetics and multilines. Heterogenous
populations have wide adaptability and stable performance under different environments.
3. Homozygous populations
Individuals with like alleles at the corresponding loci are know as homozygous. Such
individuals do not segregate on selfing. Thus non-segregating genotypes constitute
homozygous populations. Examples are pure lines, inbred lines and mass selected populations
in self pollinated plants. Thus pure lines and inbred lines are homozygous and homogeneous
and mass selected varieties of self pollinated crops and multi lines are homozygous and
heterogenous, because they are mixtures of several pure lines.
4. Heterozygous populations
Individuals with unlike alleles at the corresponding loci are referred to as heterozygous.
Such individuals segregate into various types on selfing. This includes F hybrids, composites
and synthetics. Thus F1 hybrids are heterozygous but homogeneous and composites and
synthetics are heterozygous and heterogenous population. Such populations have greater
buffering capacity to environmental fluctuations.
Different types of genetic populations in plant breeding
population Brief description / definition Examples
Homogeneous Genetically similar population Purelines, inbred line, F1 hybrids
progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous Genetically dissimilar population Land races, composites synthetics
and multilines.
Homozygous Non-segregating populations Purelines, inbred lines mass selected
autogamous varieties and multilines
Heterozygous Populations segregate on selfing F1 hybrids, composites, synthetics
and a clone
COMBINATIONS
Homogeneous and Genetically similar and non Purelines and inbred lines
Homozygous segregating populations

Homogeneous and Genetically similar but segregating F1 hybrids between inbred lines and
heterozygous on selfing progeny of a clone
Heterogeneous and Genetically dissimilar but non Multilines and mass selected varieties
homozygous segregating populations in autogamous species
Heterogeneous and Genetically dissimilar and Composites and synthetics
Heterozyous segregating populations
 Lecture-3
Types of crops and modes of reproduction
Angiosperm –vko`rchth (Gr. angio=covered; sperma= seed) .The angiosperm or flowering plants, the pollen
grains and ovules are developed in specialized structures called flowers. In angiosperm, the seeds are enclosed by
fruits.
Gymnosperm –vuko`rchth (gymnos= naked ; sperma= seed). The gymnosperms are plants in which the ovules
are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed both before and after fertilization.
Classification of organism:
• According to Aristotle organisms are divided into two groups (1) Animal group and (2) Plant group.
• According to Carolus Linnaeus : All the organisms are divided in to two Kingdom that is
mentioned in his book of System of Nature i.e. Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom
• On the basis of classification of organism of Lineous, he called “Father of Modern Texonomy”.
• In 1753, Carolus Linnaeus give double name system. According to this system the name of each
organism is formed by two Latin word, First word is taken from Generic name (oa’k dk uke) and
second by Species name (tkfr dk uke). After the name of Generic and Species name Scientist name
is mentioned that is give /classified.
Cereals:- Rice, wheat,
Millets:- Jowar, bajra
Pulse:- Mung, urd, fieldpea, lentil, chickpea, pigeonpea
Oilseeds:-Rapeseed and mustard, linseed
Fibers:- Sunhemp, mesta
Plantation crops:- Mango ,Aonla

Modes of Reproduction
Reproduction means procreation. It is the biological process in which an organism ensures its
continuation on the earth. In this life process, one or more new offspring are produced from
parent organisms. One group of living beings manage to reproduce without a partner while
another set of living beings need a mate to reproduce. Depending on the number of parents
involved, procreation is of different modes. Every living organism reproduces by either of the
two modes i.e. asexually or sexually.

A mode of reproduction determine the genetic constitution of crop plant and provides the basis
for understanding the mechanism of heredity, which are required for handling the desired
characters during breeding work. This is the inherent property of the living organism to
continue or maintain their races by the mechanism of reproduction. It is the process by which
living being propagate or duplicates their own kinds. The modes of reproduction in crop plants
are broadly grouped into asexual and sexual.

Asexual Reproduction
 In an asexual reproducing mode, the new offspring are reproduced from a single parent.
The offspring produced are identical to each other, both physically as well as genetically.
Hence, they are called clones. Moreover, they are exact copies of their parent cell.Organisms
choose to reproduce asexually by different means. Some of the asexual methods are binary
fission (e.g. Amoeba, bacteria), budding (e.g. Hydra), fragmentation (e.g. Planaria), spore
formation (e.g. ferns) and vegetative propagation (e.g. Onion).
It does not involve the fusion of male and female gametes. In this new plants may
develop from vegetative part of the plant (vegetative reproduction or may develop from
embryos without fertilization ( apomixis).
A) Vegetative Reproduction:
In this new plants developed from a portion of the plant body. This may be occurred thorough
modified under ground and subarea stems or through bulbs, for example Rhizome –Ginger,
Tuber potato, Bulos- onion, corm-gladious, while sub aerial stems gives rise to new plants in
strawberry rose etc. Similarly artificial vegetative methods stem cutting ( Sugarcane, Durant
a), Root cutting ( Lemon, citrus) ;layering, budding, gooties ( Grapes, lichi) and grafting (
mango) are common methods in propagation of fruits and ornamental horticultural crops.

B) Apomixis:

It is the type of asexual reproduction in which seeds are formed and embryo developed
without fertilization. Thus plants developed are dentical in genotype to the parent plant. In
apomixis, reproduction is either suppressed or absent. When it occurs, the apomixis is said to
be facultative, but when absent it, referred to as obligate. Many crops species show apomixis
but it is generally facultative. Apomisix may be of following type:

i) Adventive Embryony:
Embryo directly developed from vegetative cells of the ovule such as integuments and
chalaza. Development of embryo sac of embryo does not involve production of embryo sac
E.g, Mango, Citrus.
ii) Apospory:
Some vegetative cells of ovule developed into unreduced embryo sacs after meiosis. Embryo
may be developed from egg cell or other cell of embryo sac. E.g Crepis.
iii) Displospory:
Embryo sac is developed from the megaspore, which may haploid or diploid.
a) Parthenogenesis:
In this embryo is directly developed from egg cell with fertilization. Depending upon whether
the embryo sac is haploid or diploid termed as haploid or diploid parthenogenesis.
b) Apogamy:
Embryo develops from haploid nuclei other than egg cell i.e synergids or antipodal which
may be haploid or diploid. E.g Allium cepa (onion).

Reproduction
In sexual reproduction, two parents are involved in reproducing a new individual. Offspring is
produced by the fusion of gametes (sex cells) from each parent. Hence, the newly formed
individual will be different from parents, both genetically and physically. Humans reproduce
sexually. The process of fusion of sperm with egg (ovum) to produce zygote is called
fertilization. Fertilization is the crucial stage of sexual reproduction. Without fertilization,
sexual reproductions will not be complete.
It involves fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote, which develops into
an embryo. It may be
a) Isogamy: Union of two similar gameties is called Isogamy and uniting undistinguishable
gametes are isogametes E.g Mucor spirogyra, etc.
b) Heterogamy: Union of two dissimilar gametes is called fertilization or syngamy and the
gametes called heterogametes.
In crops plants, male and female gametes are produced in a specialized structure called
flower which consists of four whorls viz calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. A flower
containing all whorls’s called complete flower while incomplete flower lacks one or other
parts. A flower containing both stamens and pistil is said to be perfect flower or
hermaphrodite flower. It may be imperfect flower, when stamens are absent (pistil- late) or
carpeles absent ( staminate) flowered. The male gamete is produced in stamen while the pistil
produces the female gamete.
Fertilization:
It refers to the fusion of one of the two sperms with egg cell to form a zygote.
Double Fertilization:
One male gametes unite with the eggs cell known as syngamy or fertilization and another
male gamete fuse with the pollar nuclei known as triple fusion, when these two processes
occurs simultaneously known as double fertilization.

Lecture-4
 DOMESTICATION, ACCLIMATIZATION, PLANT INTRODUCTION,
CENTER OF ORIGIN AND CENTRE OF DIVERSITY
DOMESTICATION
Domestication is the process of bringing wild species under human management is referred to as
domestication. Domestication may be regarded as a most basic method of plant breeding; all other breeding
method become applicable to a plant species only after it has been successfully domesticated. Domestication
continues till day, and is to continue for a long time in the future. The first step in the development of cultivated
plant was their domestication.
Selection under domestication:- When different genotypes present in a population reproduce a different
rates is called selection. Selectin is grouped into two types (1) natural selection and (2) artificial selection.
(1)Natural selection:- The selection that occurs due to natural forces like climate, soil, biological factors (diseases
and insect pests etc.) and other factors of the environment is called natural selection. It occurs in the natural
population, i.e. wild forms and wild species.
(2) Artificial selection:- Artificial selection is carried out by man. It favors those characters of plants that are
related to yield and quality. Over present day crops are products of continued and artificial selection. The
domesticated species have undergone several important changes as a consequence of his efforts.
Population: - A population may be defined as group of individuals, which mate or can mate freely with
each other. In other word a population consists of individuals of a single species growing in the same locality.
Selection is grouped into two types (i) natural selection and (ii) artificial selection
Changes in plant species under domestication: - Almost all the characteristics of plant species have
been affected under domestication.
1. Elimination or reduction of shattering
2. Elimination of dormancy
3. Decrease in toxins
4. Plant type has been extensively modified
5. Increase or decrease in plant height as required of plant type
6. Life cycle has become shorter in case of some plant species
7. Increase in size of their grains or fruits
8. Increase in economic yield
9. In many species, asexual reproduction has been promoted e.g., sugarcane, potato, sweet potato etc.
10. Preference for polyploidy
11. Shift in the sex form e.g., many dioeciously fruit trees become bisexual form
12. Variability within a variety has drastically decreased

Acclimatization: Generally, the introduced varieties perform poorly because they are often not adapted

to the new environment. Sometimes, the performance of a variety in the new environment improves with the
number of generations grown there. The process that leads to the adaptation of a variety, lines or population to a
new environment is known as acclimatization. Acclimatization is essentially a consequence of natural selection.
Genetic variability must be present in the original population for acclimatization to occur.
The extent of acclimatization is determined by
(1) The mode of pollination: Cross pollination leads to a far greater gene recombinations than self pollination.
As a result, cross pollination is much more helpful in acclimatization than self pollination.
(2) The magnitude of genetic variability present in the original population: As stated earlier, genetic
variability is the prerequisite for acclimatization. Therefore, the greater the initial variability, the more is the extent
of acclimatization.
(3) The duration of life cycler of the crop: Life cycle duration is important because an annual crop would
produce several generations by the time a perennial crop produces one generation. Each generation would produce
new gene combinations, thereby facilitating acclimatization.
(4) Mutation: Mutation plays a key role in acclimatization, but it becomes important only when the period of
acclimatization is very long.

Plant introduction
Plant introduction consists of taking a genotype or group of genotypes of plants into a new environment
where they were not being grown before. Thus plant introduction may involve new varieties of a crop, wild
relatives of the crop species or totally new crop species for the area. Plant introduction may be classified into the
following two categories.
(1)Primary introduction:- When the introduced variety is well adapted to the new environment, it is released for
commercial cultivation without any alteration in the original genotypes; this constitutes primary introduction.
Introduction of semi dwarf wheat varieties Lerma Rojo, Sonara 64, and semi dwarf rice varieties Tichung Native
1, IR 8, IR 28 and IR 36.
(2)Secondary introduction:- The introduced variety may be subjected to selection to isolate a superior variety.
It may be hybridized with local varieties to transfer one or few characters from his variety to the local ones is
known as secondary introduction. Semi dwarf wheat varieties of secondary introduction e.g. Kalyan Sona and
Sonalika.
PROCEDURE FOR PLANT INTRODUCTION
Introduction of germplasm consists of the following steps:
(1) Procurement of germplasm
(2) Quarantine
(3) Cataloguing
(4) Evaluation
(5) Multiplication
(6) Distribution
(1) Procurement of germplasm:- Introduce of germplasm/take out of germplasm by any individual or
Institution. But all the introductions must be routed through the NBPGR, New Delhi.
The germplasm obtained from other countries may be gifts from individuals/Institutions, exchange of
germpalm by the NBPGR to the concerned individual or institution, purchased and or colleted through an
exploration. Introduced material may be seeds, bulb, corm, rhizome, tuber, propagules etc; the plant parts that is
used for the propagation of a species is known as propagule.
(2) Quarantine:- The prophylactic(thoroughly) measure that is used to prevent the entry of new diseases, insects
and weeds from other countries. Materials that are suspected to be contaminated are fumigated or are given other
treatments to get rid of the contamination. If necessary, the materials are grown in isolation for observation of
diseases, insect-pests and weeds, entire process is known as quarantine. The various plant introduced materials
are grouped in two categories viz;(1) for consumption (2)for cultivation and research.
1) Imported for consumption:- The quarantine of this category of plant produces are the responsibility of the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage.
II) Imported for cultivation and research:- The following three agencies depending on the nature of the
concerned plant species:
a) NBPGR is responsible for agricultural and horticultural spp.
b) Forest Research Institute, Dehradoon for forest trees.
c) Botanical survey of India, Colcata is responsible to handled remaining plant species.
(3) Cataloguing of germplasm:- Each germplasm accession is given an number. This number is prefixed in India
with IC (Indigenous Collection), EC (Exotic Collection) or IW (Indigenous Wild). Information on the species and
variety names, place of origin, adaptation and on its various features or descriptors is also recorded.
(4) Evaluation of germplasm:- Evaluation consists of assessment of the germplasm accession for their various
features or traits of known or potential use in breeding programmes. Generally, germplasm accessions are
evaluated for morphological, physiological, biochemical, plant pathological (disease resistance), entomological;
(insect resistance) and other features.
(5) Multiplication and distribution of germplasm:- The germplasm accession requested by breeders/
researchers are multiplied and supplied to them, usually without cost, only a limited quantity of seed is provided
for each worker.
UTILIZATION OF GERMPLASM
The germplasm can be utilized in a breeding programme in the following three ways:
I) Direct release as a variety.
II) Selection for developing a variety.
III) It may be used as parents in hybridization programme.
PURPOSE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION
Plant introduction is the oldest and the very effective breeding approach to create genetic variation. The
main purpose of plant introduction is to improve the plant wealth of the country. The chief objectives of plant
introduction are briefly described in the following sections:
(1) Entirely new crops-Maize, Potato, Tomato, Tobacco, Soybean, Gobhi Sarson, Karan Rai.
(2) New varieties-Semi dwarf wheat-Lerma Rojo, Sonara 64, Semi dwarf rice TN 1, IR 8.
(3) Utilization in crop improvement programme.
(4) Saving a crop from a disease or pest.
(5) Utilization in scientific studies.
(6) Used of aesthetic value.
MERITS OF PLANT INTRODUCTION
(1) It provides entirely new crop plants.
(2) It provides superior varieties either directly, after selection or through hybridization.
(3) Introduction and exploration are the only feasible (practicable) mean of collection.
(4) It is very quick and economical methods crop improvement, particularly when the introductions are released
as varieties either directly or after selection.
(5) Crop species may be introduced in new disease free areas to protect them from damage e.g. Coffee and Rubber.
DEMERITS OF PLANT INTRODUCTION
The disadvantages of plant introduction are associated with the entry into the country of weeds, diseases
and pests along with the introduced materials. In the past, several such cases have occurred are briefly described
below:
(1) Weeds:- Argemone maxicana, Eichornia crassipes and Phylaris minor are some of the noxious (harmful)
weeds that entered in India along with Plant introduction.
(2) Diseases:- Late blight of potato was introduced from Europe in 1883. Flag smut of wheat was introduced from
Australia, Coffee rust came from Ceylon in 1876, and Bunchy top of banana arrived from Ceylon in 1940.
(3) Insect pests:- Potato tuber moth came from Italy in 1900, wooly aphis of apple and fluted scale of citrus.
(4) Ornamentals-turned weeds:- Some introduced ornamental species may become noxious weeds in the new
habitat. Water hyacinth and Lantana camara (Kuri) were both introduced in the country as ornamental plants, but
they are now noxious weeds.
(5) Threat to Ecological balance:- Some introduced species may disturb the ecological balance in their new
harm, and may cause serious damage to the ecosystem. Eucalyptus spp. introduced from Australia, cause a rapid
depletion of the sub soil water reserves.

Center of origin: The center of origin of a plant is that location where it is considered to have first appeared. The
primary criterion in identifying a center of origin is the presence of wild relatives.
A geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its
distinctive properties.[1] Centers of origin are also considered centers of diversity. Nikolai Vavilov initially
identified 8 of these, later subdividing them into 12 in 1935
The concept of centers of origin was first proposed by the Russian scientist Nikolai Vavilov (1887-1943). In 1926,
Vavilov published his theories in his “Studies on the Origin of Cultivated Plants". He identified eight primary
areas of diversity and origin of cultivated plants. Following crops for which they are centers of origin/diversity:
1. China – buckwheat, soybean, peach, cherry, onion
2. India/Indochina – rice, chickpea, cucumber, mango, orange
3. Central Asia – common wheat, peas, lentils, mungbean
4. The Near East – rye,alfalfa, fenugreek, lentils
5. The coast of the Mediterranean Sea – durum wheat, cabbage, lettuce, celery
6. Ethiopia – barley, pearl millet, flax, coffee, sesame
7. Southern Mexico/Middle America – corn, lima beans, cotton, sweetpotato, pepper
8. South America – strawberry, potato, tomato, pumpkin, pepper

Centre of Diversity :A geographic area/location or local region where in the plant exhibits the highest/greater
genetic degree of variation. This variation manifests itself both at the population and genetic levels. That is, the
centre of diversity is where the highest number of cultivated types and wild relatives, as well as gene variants
(alleles), exist. Based on the premise that it is only over time that genetic variation can be accumulated, the center
of diversity often corresponds to the area where the plant has existed the longest, which is by definition the center
of origin
Types of Centres of Diversity of Crops
The centres of crop diversity of three types viz:
1) Primary centres of diversity,
2) Secondary centres of diversity
3) Micro –Centres.
1) Primary centres of diversity: Primary centres are regions of vast genetic diversity of crop plants. These are
original homes of the crop plants which are generally uncultivated areas like, mountains , hills, river valleys,
forests, etc. Main features of these centres are given below:
1. They have wide genetic diversity.
2. They have large number of dominant genes.
3. Mostly have wild characters.
4. Exhibit less crossing over.
5. Natural selection operates.
2) Secondary centres of diversity: Vavilov suggested that values forms of crop plants are found for away from
their primary area of origin, which he called secondary centres of origin or diversity. These are generally the
cultivated areas and have following main features.
1. Have lesser genetic diversity than primary centres.
2. Have large number of recessive genes.
3. Mostly have desirable characters.
4. Exhibit more crossing over
5. Both natural and artificial selections operate.
3) Micro –Centres: In some case, small areas within the centres of diversity exhibit tremendous genetic diversity
of some crop plants. These areas are referred to as micro-centres. Microcenter is important sources for collecting
valuable plant forms and also for the study of evolution of cultivated species. The main features of micro centres
are given below:
1. They represent small areas within the centres of diversity.
2. Exhibit tremendous genetic diversity.
3. The rate of natural evolution is faster than larger areas.
4. They are important sites for the study of crop evolution.

Lecture-5
MODES OF POLLINATION
Modes of pollination, genetic consequences and difference between self and cross pollinated crops
Pollination is the mechanical transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and is prerequisite to
fertilization of the ovules and the development of seeds and fruits.
 Pollination is the procedure transference of the mature, fertile viable pollen from the anther to the
receptive stigma of emasculated the same or other flower of the same or other plant to bring about fertilization.
This may be done in one of the following several ways.
1. Pollen grains are collected in a bag, and are used for dusting on the stigmas of female inflorescence
e.g. maize, bajra etc of emasculated flowers.
2. Matures anthers are collected from the flowers of male parent. The pollen is applied to the stigma with
the help of camel hair brush, piece of paper, or forceps.
3. Anthers are collected and allowed to burst directly over the stigma e.g. rice, oat, wheat, barley etc.
4. The spike of male inflorescence is shaken over the emasculated inflorescence just when the anthers
are about to dehisce. A result of exposed stigmas are covered with pollen e.g. wheat and barley.
5. In spike like maize the male inflorescence may be detached and enclosed in the bag covering the
female inflorescence
Types of pollination: Pollination is generally two types but geitonogamy is another form of self pollination
(1) Self pollination:- Pollen from an anther may fall on to the stigma of the same flower leading to self pollination
or autogamy. The degree of cross pollination in self pollinated species is affected by several factors e.g. variety,
temperature, humidity and location. Self pollinated crop species: chickpea, pea, urdbean, mungbean, rice, wheat
,barley, linseed, groundnut, tomato etc.
When pollen from a flower of one plant falls on the stigmas of other flowers of the same plant is called
geitonogamy and also known as autogamy. Although geitonogamy is functionally cross pollination involving a
pollinating agent, genetically , it is similar to autogamy since, the pollen grains come from the same plant .
Mechanism promoting self pollination:- There are various mechanisms that promote self pollination.
1. Cleistogamy: - Condition of flowers which never open, ensuring self fertilization e. g. some varieties of wheat,
barley, oat etc .
2. Chasmogamy:- In this condition, the flowers open, but only after pollination . This occurs in many cereals,
wheat, barley, rice and oat.
3. Pollination generally occurs after the flowers open but the stigmas are closely surrounded by anthers e.g.
tomato and brinjal.
4. Flowers open but the stamens and the stigma are hidden by other floral organs. This condition is found in
several legumes, e. g. pea, mung, urd, soybean, gram etc.
5. Some species, stigmas become receptive and elongate through the staminal columns. This ensures
predominant self pollination.
Genetic consequences of self pollination: - Self pollination leads to a very rapid increase in homozygosity. Self
pollinated species do not show inbreeding depression, so it may exhibit considerable heterosis. The aim of this
technique of breeding methods is to develop homozygous varieties.
(2) Cross pollination: - When pollen grains from flowers of the one plant are transmitted to the stigmas of flowers
of another plant is known as cross pollination or allogamy. The transfer of pollen from a flower to the stigmas of
the others flowers of other plants may be brought by wind (Anemophily), water (Hydrophily) or insects
(Entomophily).Cross pollinated crop species: maize, bajra, sunflower, sugarcane, papaya, mango etc.
In many self pollinated plant species, cross pollination often exceeds 5% and may reach 30 % . Such
species are known as often cross pollinated species e.g., jowar, cotton, arhar, safflower etc.
Mechanism promoting cross pollination:- There are several mechanisms that facilitate cross pollination.
o Dicliny or unisexulity:- In this condition, the flowers are either staminate (male) or pistillate (female)
a) Monoecy:- Staminate and pistillate flowers occur in the same plant either in same inflorescence
e.g., castor, mango, banana, maize etc.
b) Dioecy:-The staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plant e.g., papaya, parwal,
datepalm etc.
o Dichogamy:- Stamens and pistil of hermaphrodite flowers may mature at different times, which are facilitate
cross pollination.
a) Protandry:- Stamens mature before pistil e.g., maize and sugarbeet.
b) Protogyny:- Pistil mature before stamens e.g., bajra.
o In lucerne and alfalfa, stigmas are covered with a waxy film which effect cross pollination because waxy
membrane is broken by honey bees.
o Self incompatibility:- It refers to the failure of pollen from a flower to fertilize the same flower or others on
the same plant.
o Male sterility:-It refers to the absence of functional pollen grains in hermaphrodite flowers.
Genetic consequences of cross pollination: -Cross pollination preserves and promotes heterozygosity in a
population. Cross pollinated species are highly heterozygous and show mild to severe inbreeding depression and
a considerable of heterosis. The aim of this technique of breeding methods is to develop hybrid or synthetic
varieties.
Determination of mode of pollination
(1)The first step in determining the mode of pollination of a species is to critically examine its flowers mechanisms
like dioecy, monoecy, protogyny, protandry and cleistogamy are easily detected.
(2) The second step consists of space isolation i.e. individual plants grown at sufficient distance to prevent cross
pollination, is preferable to isolation by bags or cages and recording seed set. Failure seed set in isolation proves
the species to be cross pollinated. However, setting of seeds is only indicative of self pollination.
(3) The loss in vigour due to selfing (inbreeding) is common in cross pollinators, but self pollinators show no
inbreeding depression.
Significance of pollination
The mode of pollination plays an important role in plant breeding. It has impact on five important aspects:
a. Gene action
b. Genetic constitution
c. Adaptability
d. Genetic purity
e. Transfer of genes
(1) Gene action:- Gene action refers to mode of expression of genes for various characters in a population. It is
of two types (a) additive and non-additive (dominant and epistasis). Additive gene action is associated with
homozygosity and is more in self pollinated species. On the other hand non-additive gene action is associated with
heterozygosity and is more in cross pollinated species
Change in gene action with selfing and crossing in a cross pollinated population
Selfing
 Additive gene action : Cross pollinated population : Non- additive gene action
Cross pollination
(2)Genetic constitution:- The breeding populations are four types viz., heterozygous, homozygous,
heterogeneous and homogeneous. Heterozygous individuals have dissimilar alleles at corresponding loci and
segregate on selfing. Homozygous individuals have similar alleles at corresponding loci and are pure types; they
do not segregate on selfing. The genotypically similar population is known as homogeneous, it may be
homozygous or heterozygous. Similarly, genotypically dissimilar populations are known as heterogeneous, it may
again homozygous or heterozygous. Self pollination leads to homozygosity and cross pollination results in
hetezygosity and outbreeders have advantage of heterozygosity
(3) Adaptability:- Adaptability refers to stable performance of a variety over a wide range of environments. The
cross pollinated crop species have better adaptability (buffering capacity) than self pollinated species because they
have more heterozygosity and heterogeneity. In the heterogeneous population have broad genetic base, such
populations have greater capacity to stabilize productivity over a wide range of changing environments than pure
lines. Similarly, heterozygous individuals such as F1 hybrids are more stable to environmental variation than their
homozygous parents. Thus mode of pollination plays a key role in the varietals adaptability.
(4) Genetic purity:- Self pollination maintain the genetic purity of a species and the purity of a variety of self
pollinated crop can be easily maintained for several years. Cross pollination creates heterozygosis and genetic
composition of a cross pollinated variety change genetically. Hence, self pollination is essential even in cross
pollinated species to maintain the purity in parental lines.
(5) Transfer of gene:- Cross pollination permits transfer of desirable genes from one species to another. In other
words combining of desirable genes from different sources into a single genotype is possible only through cross
pollination does not permit combining of genes from different sources
Differences between self and cross pollinated crops
S. No. Self pollinated crops Cross pollinated crops
1 Flowers are bisexual Flowers are unisexual (monoecious and
dioecious)
2 Homogamy Dichogamy (protandry and protogyny)
3 Flowers may be cleistogamy Flowers may not be cleistogamy
4 It is not possible in self incompatibility and Self incompatibility and male sterility is a good
male sterility condition source of cross pollination
5 Seeds are set on single space planting Seeds are not set on single space planting
6 Inbreeding depression is not found Inbreeding depression is common in cross
pollinated crops
7 It is associated with additive gene action It is associated with non-additive gene action
8 Population are homozygous Population are heterozygous
9 They have found narrow genetic base They have found broad genetic base
10 Genetic purity is maintain for several years Genetic purity change gradually

Lecture-11
THE HARDY-WEINBERG LAW
The Hardy-Weinberg law is the fundamental law of population genetics and provides the basis for
studying Mendelian population. This law was independently developed by Hardy(1908) in England and Weinberg
(1909) in Germany.
 A mathematical statement of the relationship between gene frequencies and genotype frequencies within
populations, l-(p+q)2
The gene and genotypic frequencies in a Mendelian population remain constant generation after
generation if there is no selection, mutation, migration or random drift.
Cross pollinated crops are highly heterozygous due to the free intermating among their plants. They are
often referred to as random mating populations because each individual of the population has equal opportunity
of mating with any other individual of that population. Such population is also known as Mendelian population
or panmictic population.
The frequencies of the three genotypes for a locus with two alleles, say A and a, would be p 2 AA, 2pq
Aa and q2 aa ; where p represents the frequency of A and q represents the frequency of a allele in population, and
the sum of p and q is one, i.e., p + q=1. Such a population would be at equilibrium (Exact balance/Equivalent)
since the genotypic frequencies would be stable, that is , would not change from one generation to the next. This
equilibrium is known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. A population is said to be at equilibrium when
frequencies of the three genotypes, AA, Aa and aa are p2, 2pq and q2, respectively. . Whether a population is at
equilibrium or not can be easily determined using a chi-square test.
Hardy-Weinberg law can be easily explained with the help of example consider a single gene with two
alleles, A and a, in a random mating population. There would be three genotypes, AA ,Aa and aa, for this gene
in the population. Suppose the population has N individuals of which D individuals are AA, H individuals are Aa
and R individuals are aa so that D + H + R = N. The total number of alleles at this locus in the population would
be 2N since each individual has two alleles at a single locus. The total number of A alleles would be 2D + H
because AA individuals have two A alleles each, while each Aa individual has only one A allele. The ratio (2D +
H)/2N is therefore, the frequency of A allele in the population, and is represented by p. Similarly, the ratio (2R +
H)/2N is the frequency of allele a, and is written as q. Therefore,
p= (2D+H)/2N or
= (D+1/2H)/N and
q= (2R+H)/2N or
= (R+1/2H)/N
Thwerefore p+q=1
and p=1-q
or q=1-p

The values of p and q are known as gene frequencies.

Random mating or random union of the two types or male and female gametes would produce the
following genotypes in a ratio proportionate to the frequencies of gametes that united to produce.
♀ ♂ pA qa

pA p2AA pq Aa
qa pq Aa q2aa

The genotypic frequencies may be represented as follows

Genotype AA Aa aa
Genotypic frequency p2 2pq q2

D+H+R=N
D=p2 , H = 2pq and R = q2
Further, N= 1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = (p + q)2
 and p + q = 1
Hence, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
The frequencies of A and a gametes produced by this population may be calculated as follows.
Frequency of gametes containing
A allele = (D+1/2H)/N
= (p2 + p q)/1
= p2 + p q
Similarly, frequency of gametes containing
Containing a allele = (R+1/2H)/N
= (q2 + p q)/1
= q2 + p q
It can be easily shown that p2 + p q =p
p2 + p q =p (p + q)
=p (since p + q=1)
Similarly q2+ p q= q(q+ p)
=q (since q + p=1)
It is clear that the frequencies of the two types of the gametes in this generation are the same as those in
the previous generation

♀ ♂ pA qa

pA p2AA pq Aa
qa pq Aa q2aa

The genotypic frequencies would be p2 AA, 2pq Aa and q2 aa is the same in the previous generation.
The frequency of a mating between individuals having identical genotypes, e.g. between AA and AA, Aa and Aa
or aa and aa would be equal to the square of the frequency of that design. For example, the frequency of mating
Aa and Aa would be (2pq)2 , i.e., 4p2q2. But the frequencies of mating between two different genotypes, AA and
Aa, AA and aa etc., would be twice the product of the frequencies of the two concerned genotypes. Because in
such cases two combinations are possible. The mating between AA and aa could be either as AA serving as male
(aa x AA) or aa functioning as male (AA x aa). The frequency of this mating would be 2 (p2 x q2) or
2 p2q2 . The frequencies of various types of mating and of the progeny produced from them
Consequences of random mating of genotypes in a Mendelian population.
Mating Frequency of mating Frequency of progeny from the mating
AA Aa aa
AA x AA p2 x q2=p4 p4
AA x Aa 2(p2 x 2pq)= 4p3 q 2p3 q 2p3 q
AA x aa 2(p2 x q2)= 2p2q2 2p2q2
Aa x Aa 2pq x 2pq = 4p2q2 2 2
pq 2p2q2 p2q2
Aa x aa 2(2pq x q2) = 4pq3 2pq3 2pq3
aa x aa q2 x q2 =q4 q4

(1) The mating AA x AA would produced only one type of progeny, AA.
The frequency of progeny from a mating would be proportionate to the frequency of the mating e.g. ,
p4
(2) The mating AA x Aa would produced two types of progeny, AA and Aa in equal proportions.
The frequency of this mating is 4p3 q.
Therefore, the frequency of progeny would be 2p3 q Aa and 2p3 q Aa

The frequency of progeny with AA genotype would be

= p4 + 2p3q x p2q2
= p2 (p2 +2pq +q2)
= p2 (since p2 +2pq +q2 =1)
Similarly, the frequency of aa progeny would be
= p2q2 + 2pq3 +q4
= q2 (p2 +2pq +q2)
= p2 (since p2 +2pq +q2 =1)
And the frequency of Aa progeny would be
 =2p3q + 2p2q2 +2p2q2 +2pq3
=2p3q +4p2q2 +2pq3
=2pq (p2 +2pq +q2)
= 2pq (since p2 +2pq +q2 =1)
When genotype frequencies are disturbed and the population is not equilibrium, it reaches equilibrium
after one generation of random mating. But when we consider two genes together, the equilibrium is not restored
in one generation; however, the approach to equilibrium is very rapid. Linkage reduces the rate by which a
population reaches equilibrium. Further, The genotype and gene frequencies are affected by (1) migration ,(2)
mutation, (3) selection and (4) random drift.
Factor affecting the equilibrium in populations:- The equilibrium in random mating populations is
disturbed by (1) migration ,(2) mutation, (3) selection and (4) random drift. These factors are also referred to as
evolutionary forces since they bring changes in gene frequencies.
(1) Migration:- The movement of individuals into a population from a different population. Migration
may introduce new alleles into the population or may change the frequencies of existing alleles.
(2) Mutation:- Sudden heritable change in an organism and is generally due to a structural change in a
gene. Mutation may produce a new allele not present in the population or may change the frequencies
of existing alleles.
(3) Random Drift:- Random drift or genetic drift is a random change in gene frequency due to sampling
error. Random drift occurs in small populations because sampling error is greater in a smaller
population than in a large one.
(4) Inbreeding:- Mating between individuals sharing a common parent in their ancestry is known as
inbreeding. Inbreeding reduces the proportion of heterozygotes or heterozygosity and increases the
frequency of homozygotes or homozygosity.
(5) Selection:- Differential reproduction rates of various genotypes is known as selection. In crop
improvement , selection is very important because it allows the selected genotypes to reproduce,
while the undesirable
The selection the frequency of alleles, but it is unable to either fix or eliminate them. However, in
combination with a system of inbreeding, selection is highly efficient in the fixation and elimination of alleles
SYSTEM OF MATING
The two basic tools to change the genetic composition of a population: (1) selection and (2) mating
system.
Their are five basic mating schemes: (1) random mating (2) genetic assortative mating (3) genetic
disassortative mating (4) phenotypic assortative mating and (5) phenotypic disassortative mating.

1. Random mating :-

Frequency of completely homozygous plants in F2 and the subsequent generations of crosses segregating
for different number of genes
Number of Frequency (in per cent) of completely homozygous plants
genes F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
segregating
 1 50.0* 75.0 87.5 93.8 98.4
2 25.0 56.3 76.6 87.9 96.9
3 12.5 42.2 67.0 82.4 95.4
4 6.3 31.7 58.6 77.2 93.9
5 3.1 23.7 51.3 72.4 92.4
10 0.097 5.6 26.3 52.5 85.4
20 0.00009 0.32 6.9 27.5 73.0

* The number of segregations of self pollination will be 1 in F 3, 3 in F4 and n-1 in Fn generation since F1 is the
result of hybridization and only F2 and the subsequent generations are due to selfing.
The frequency of completely homozygous plants in any segregating generation is given by the following
formula.
Proportion of completely homozygous plants =[(2m-1)/2m]n
where, m is the number of segregations of self pollination and n is the number of genes segregating

Lecture-15
Pre Breeding
Plant breeding is an art and science e of genetically improving plants for the benefit o f humankind. It is
practiced worldwide by profession al plant breeders and farmers with a proven track record over the centuries.
The genetic diversity of crop plants is the foundation for the sustainable development of new varieties for present
and future challenges which arises due to the various biotic and abiotic stresses. Genetic diversity provides an
option to farmers and plant breeders to develop new and more productive crops / varieties through selection,
hybridization and breeding, that are resistant to virulent pests and diseases and adapted to changing environmental
conditions. Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) are the biological cornerstone of global food
security. They comprise diversity of genetic material contained in traditional varieties, modern cultivars, crop
wild relatives and other wild species. The agricultural diversity and genetic resources that support food crops need
to be used efficiently both to maintain current levels of food production and to confront future challenges (FAO,
2007).

What is Pre breeding?

Pre-breeding involves all the activities associated with identification of desirable traits and/or
genes from unadapted germplasm (donor) that cannot be used directly in breeding populations
(exotic/wild species), and to transfer these traits into well-adapted genetic backgrounds
(recipients) that breeders can use further in producing new varieties for farmers. It is a
necessary first step in the “linking genetic variability to utilization” use of diversity arising
from wild relatives and other unimproved materials. These activities are a collaboration
between the germplasm and the plant breeder who need to work together to understand the
scope and value of germplasm collections and how new traits from these collections can be
bred into new varieties.

Plant genetic resources :All materials that are available for improvement of a cultivated plant
species. Genebanks are repositories of genetic diversity of cultivated as well as their wild
relatives and other wild species.
Why Pre-breeding is required?

(1) Progress in breeding is limited from perceived lack of diversity: Current limited genetic base of
agriculture today is apparent a threat to food security.
(2) Reduction of Biodiversity: genetically uniform modern varieties are replacing the highly diverse local
cultivars and landraces in traditional agro-ecosystems.
(3) Genetic uniformity: Increases genetic vulnerability for pests and diseases.
(4) The effects of climate change: search for new genes/traits for better adaptation.
(5) Evolving pest and pathogen populations: motivating plant breeders to look for new sources of resistance
in genebanks.

The decision to do pre-breeding is based on the expected efficiency and efficacy of ultimately moving the target
traits into cultivars for farmers and source of desired gene(s). Pre-breeding is necessary, if desired genes are
available only in one of the following:
(1) Genebank accessions those are not well-adapted to the target environment;
(2) Closely related wild species that are easily crossed with the crop species and;
(3) More distant wild species which are more difficult to cross.

Pre-breeding strategies:
Plant genetic resources can be defined as all materials that are available for improvement of a cultivated plant
species. Genebanks are repositories of genetic diversity of cultivated as well as their wild relatives and other wild
species. The ultimate role of genebanks is to ensure the long term availability of crop germplasm to sustain
agricultural production, by providing pre-breeder and breeder with new genetic diversity that adds value to the
future varieties. Pre-breeding helps in building a bridge that brings together the people who understand the scope
of germplasm collections (genebank managers) with those who introduce new traits into their varieties (plant
breeders). Pre-breeding acts as a link between plant genetic resources PGR (gene bank managers) and breeding
(plant breeders). Plant breeders and genebank managers must find ways to make it easier to effectively use
germplasm from genebanks to produce new varieties with the traits the world needs.

The Gene Pool Concept:

“The gene pool is the total genetic variation in the breeding population of a species and closely related species
capable of crossing with it’. The gene pool of a crop is made up of botanical varieties, landraces, inbred lines,
ancient landraces, obsolete and modern cultivars, related wild species, subspecies, and weedy companion species
(Haussmann et al., 2004).
Primary gene pool: same species cultivated and wild

Secondary gene pool : different species than the cultivated

Tertiary gene pool: more distantly related

Quaternary gene pool: unrelated plant species and/or other organism

Methods of using Plant genetic resources (PGR) in crop improvement:

Classical approaches of using plant genetic resources in crop improvements (Cooper et al., 2001) are: (1)
Introgression (2) Incorporation or broadening of genetic base and (3) Wide crosses: synthesis of new base
populations.
The tools of genome research may finally unleash the genetic potential of our wild and cultivated germplasm
resources for the benefit of the society (Tanksley and McCouch, 1997). The utility of molecular markers and
genomic tools/techniques in the context of using PGR for crop improvement includes: (1)Diversity assessment
(2) Somatic Hybridization (3) Anther culture (4) Embryo rescue (5) Marker assisted breeding (6) Mapping of
quantitative trait loci (QTL) (7) Introgression libraries, association studies and (8) Genetic transformation.

Major applications of pre-breeding in crop improvement:

There are major four applications of pre-breeding:

(1) Broadening the genetic base, to reduce vulnerability

(2) Identifying traits in exotic materials and moving those genes into material more readily accessed by breeders
(3) Moving genes from wild species into breeding populations when this appears to be the most effective strategy
and
(4) Identification and transfer of novel genes from unrelated species using genetic transformation techniques.
The adoption of pre-breeding facilitates the efficiency and effectiveness of crop improvement programmes by
enabling increased access to, and use of, genetic variations conserved in genebanks
Challenges:
(i)Lack of characterization and evaluation data;
(ii) Knowledge of the genetic diversity;
(iii) Inter species relationship and;
(iv) Strong breeding program and funding sources. The use of genebank accessions in breeding programmes is
limited by the high degree of difficulty and length of time often associated with separating the desirable genes
from the undesirable ones.

Conclusion:

The process of pre-breeding identifies a useful character in unadapted materials, ‘captures’ it’s genetic diversity,
and incorporates those genes into a usable form employing different techniques:
Future Prospects:

Urgent need for collection, characterization and documentation of wild species, including crop wild
relatives, due to increased likelihood of extinction for narrowly adapted and endemic species. There is
an increased demand for novel genes in germplasm/ genebanks collections for adapting agriculture to
biotic and abiotic stresses, including the need of effective screening of germplasm for different characters
like, quality traits and biofortification.

Genome mapping and synteny of the genes sequenced from wheat and barley could be assigned to
encoding abiotic stress tolerance and can be utilized for crop improvement.

The potential of genetic transformation technique could be exploited to transfer the desired gene(s) form
the tertiary gene pool and/or beyond.

New breeding strategies and bioinformatics tools are required to use the information gathered from
genetic and genome analysis programs for dealing with complex traits more effectively.

References:

13. Cooper, H.D., Spillane, C. and Hodgkin, T. (2001). Broadening the genetic base of crops: an overview.
In: Cooper HD, Spillane C and Hodgkin T (eds.) Broadening the Genetic Base of Crop Production.
Wallingford: CABI Publishing in cooperation with FAO and IPGRI, CAB International, pp.1–23.

14. FAO. (2007). Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: Perspective,
framework and priorities. Rome, Italy, Interdepartmental Working Group on Climate Change, FAO.
pp.32.

15. Haussmann, B.I.G., Parzies, H.K., Prester, T., Susic, Z. and Miedaner, T. (2004). Plant genetic resources
in crop improvement. Plant Genetic Resources; 2(1): 3-21.

16. Tanksley, S.D. and McCouch, S. (1997) Seed banks and molecular maps: unlocking genetic potential
from the wild. Science 277: 1063–1066

Lecture-16
POLYPLOIDY IN PLANT BREEDING
The chromosome number of a species remains constant. The mitotic and meiotic divisions are very precise (exact)
as a result of which the chromosome numbers of different species are highly stable. Changes in chromosome
number have contributed greatly to crop evaluation, and are the much use in plant breeding.
 A summary of heteroploidy (variation in chromosome number)
Term Types of change Symbol
Heteroploid A change from 2x -
(A) Aneuploid One or few chromosomes extra or missing from 2n 2n ± few
Nullisomic One chromosome pair missing 2n-2
Monosomic One chromosome missing 2n-1
Double monosomic One chromosome from each of two different chromosome 2n-1-1
pairs missing
Trisomic One chromosome extra 2n+1
Double trisomic One chromosome from each of two different chromosome 2n+1+1
pairs extra
(B) Euploid Number of genomes or copies of a genome more than
two
Monoploid One copy of a single genome x
Haploid Gametic chromosome complement n
Polyploid More than two copies of one genome or 2 copies each of
2 or more genome**
1. Autopolyploid Genomes identical with each other
Autotriploid Three copies of one genome 3x
Autotetraploid Four copies of one genome 4x
Autopentaploid Five copies of one genome 5x
Autohexaploid Six copies of one genome 6x
Autooctoploid Eight copies of one genome 8x
2. Allopolyploid Two or more distinct genomes(generally each genome
has two copies) **
Allotetraploid Two distinct genome (2x1+2x2)**
Allohexaploid Three distinct genome (2x1+2x2+2x3)**
Allooctaploid Four distinct genome (2x1+2x2+2x3+2x4)**
** In general, this condition occur
2n=Somatic chromosome, n= gametic chromosome number of a species)
Hetroploid: Individuals carrying chromosome numbers other than the diploid(2x and not 2n) number are known
as heteroploids.
Autopolyploidy : Autopolyploidy are included,triploidy, tetraploidy and higher levels of ploidy. Autopolyploids
are produced directly through chromosome doubling.
Genome: A basic set of chromosomes in which each type of chromosome is represented only once.
Origin and production of doubled chromosome numbers:
Cells / individuals having doubled chromosomes numbers may originate in one of the following several ways:
(1) Spontaneous: Chromosome doubling occurs occasionally in somatic tissues and unreduced gametes are also
produced in low frequencies.
(2) Production of adventitious buds
(3) Treatment with physical agent
(4) Regeneration in Vitro
(5) Colchicine treatment: Colchicine treatment is the most effective and the most widely used treatment for
chromosome doubling.
(6) Other chemical agents
Morphological and cytological features of Autopolyploids
1. Polyploids have larger cell size than diploid.
2. Pollen grains of polyploids are generally larger than those of the corresponding diploids.
3. Polyploids are generally slower in growth and later in flowering.
4. Polyploids usually have larger and thicker leaves, and larger flowers and fruits, which are usually less in
number than the diploids.
5. Polyploids generally show reduced fertility due to irregularities during meiosis.
6. In many cases, autopolyploidy leads to an increase in general vigour and vegetative growth. But in some
cases polyploids are smaller and weaker.
7. Different species have different levels of optimum ploidy. In sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris), the optimum
level is 3x, while for timothy grass (Phleum pretense) it is between 8-10x.
8. Autopolyploids generally have a lower dry matter content than diploids
Allopolyploidy: Allopolyploids have genomes from two or more species. Some success has been obtained as is
evident from the emergence of triticale as a new crop species in some areas, and the promise shown by some
other allopolyploids, e.g. , Raphanobrassica and some allopolyploids of forage grasses.
Role of Allopolyploidy in Evolution
Allopolyploids have been more successful as crop species than autopolyploids.
1. Evolution of Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum):
2. Evolution of Gossypium hirsutum.
3. Evolution of Amphidiploid Brassica Species
Application of Allopolyploidy in crop improvement:
1. Utilization as a Bridging species.
2. Creation of new crop species.
3. Widening the genetic base of existing allopolyploids.
IMPORTANCE OF POLYPLOIDY IN PLANT BREEDING
(1) To over come stability in hybrid.
(2) Alien chromosomal substituted.
(3) Transfer of small chromosome segmented.
(4) Polyploid fodder crop for more fodder.
(5) Sudden evolution of new species.
(6) Polyploid act as a conservative force in evolution
(7) Through monoploid exactly purelines may be obtained immediately.
(8) Alien addition races.
(9) Monosomic, nullisomic and trisomic are useful for determining of linkages groups.
(10) Polyploidy increases size and duration of ornamental flower.
 (11) Polyploid helps to produce seedless fruits, water melon, banana, grapes etc.

Lecture-19
Participatory Plant Breeding
Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is defined as a type of plant breeding in which
farmers, as well as other partners, such as extension staff, seed producers, traders and
NGOs, participate in the development of a new variety. In PPB programs farmers play a
more important role than in conventional plant breeding (CPB). Both PPB and CPB are
based on the same scientific background and are not mutually exclusive. This tool
describes how to organize a PPB programme in self-pollinated,

What is PPB? Broadly, PPB is the development of a plant breeding program in collaboration
between breeders and farmers, marketers, processors, consumers, and policy makers (food
security,health and nutrition, employment).

In the context of plant breeding in the developing world, PPB is breeding that involves
close farmer-researcher collaboration to bring about plant genetic improvement within a
species.
Developing a clear vision together with the stakeholders in the breeding process is important.

What are the goals do PPB?

• Increase production and profitability of crop production through the development and
enhanced adoption of suitable, usually improved, varieties.
• Provide benefits to a specific type of user, or to deliberately address the needs of a
broader range of users.
• Build farmer skills to enhance farmer selection and seed production efforts.

Why focus on PPB? Traditional breeder-directed breeding programs are very effective at developing
varieties that can be used in farming systems that are fairly homogeneous, but less effective when the
reality of the farmer is more complex and risk-prone (see "Figure 1. Sources of genetic variation and
the maintenance and use of genetic diversity: a view of the existing system," Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga,
Participatory Plant Breeding, 1995, p. 10). Note that the private sector, although not explicitly included,
is a key participant in the maintenance of genetic diversity in the food/fiber system.

PPB encourages two kinds of participation:

Functional Participation
•Plant breeders can direct their research according to the needs of the specific groups of
farmers (women, men, rich, poor). The physical and economic resource bases of
different people necessitate tailored research approaches.
• Farmers can assure plant breeders that they are assessing tradeoffs among traits
correctly.
• On-farm research assures that varieties will produce well under “real life”
conditions. On-farm research can be managed by the researcher, by the farmer, or by
both.
• PPB ensures greater success of adoption of innovation by the farmers.
Empowering Participation
• Increasing farmer knowledge and skills so that farmers can participate more fully in the
collaborative breeding efforts and be better at their own, personal efforts.

What activities can PPB include?

• Identifying breeding objectives
• Generating genetic variability (including the provision of plants to be included in
breeding program)
• Selecting within variable populations to develop experimental varieties
• Evaluating experimental varieties (PVS - participatory variety selection)
• Variety release
• Popularization (diffusion of information about new variety and and how it is managed)
• Seed production
How do you decide what kind of breeding program is most useful?
Traditional, experiment station-based breeding efforts:
• Areas where crop is produced over a broad, relatively uniform agro-ecological area (can
be simplified and standardized)
• Places where farmers have access to agricultural inputs (fertilizers, chemicals,
irrigation)
• Places where crop end-uses are broadly similar
• Examples: Green Revolution wheat and rice varieties, maize hybrids for temperate and
mid-altitude tropical zones, varieties for irrigated, commercial vegetable production.
Participatory plant breeding:
• Areas that are not dedicated to large-scale crop production
• Marginal crop production areas, where environments are highly variable so that
selection based on GxE interaction is not the best selection strategy
• Areas where agriculture is risk prone, complex (intercropping) and low input; may
include the development of populations or heterogeneous materials
• Where crop end-uses are diverse and/or locally unique
• Where important minor crops exist but are not the focus of formal plant breeding efforts
(may include desire to conserve local biodiversity)
• Examples: Pigeon Pea breeding in ICRISAT video, Dr. Rosas in Honduras

Notes on video:
• Local people have selected plants for centuries; women play a key role in planting and
preserving crop plants.
• Gene Bank at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) in southern India preserves Ground Nut, Pigeon Pea, Sorghum, Chick Pea,
Pearl Millet.
• Semi-Arid Tropics: S and C America, Africa, Asia and Australia.
• On-farm Evaluation of Heliothis armigera-resistant Varieties
Ten qualities used to gauge acceptance of pigeon pea
1. Leaf production
2. Flower production
3. Pod production
4. Pod filling
5. Pod bored damage
6. Grain yield
7. Taste
8. Wood biomass and quality
9. Local market price
10. Storability

Participatory Research Methodology

1. Diagnosis of the pest problem and analysis of the varieties grown by farmers
2. Matching the characteristics of farmers’ varieties with those of the scientists’ pre-
release lines
3. On-farm trials
4. Farmers’ evaluation of genetic material

Farmers and Scientists Have Complimentary Activities

 • Farmers diagnose analyze; scientists catalyze, advise
• Farmers choose; scientists search and supply
• Farmers experiment; scientists support, consult
• Farmers evaluate; scientists facilitate

Farmers’ criteria and priorities are elicited in semi-structured interviews using participatory
methods:
• Pairwise ranking
• Direct matrix ranking
• Triangulation
"Farmers are not involved in a pre-extension activity. They are active partners in agricultural
research. Participation means empowering farmers. "