Multi Vibrators

A multivibrator is an electronic circuit that is used to implement two state systems like
oscillators, timers and flipflops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors or
other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or capacitors .

Invention of Multi Vibrators

Henri Abraham and Eugene Bloch described the first multivibrator circuit in 1920, also called a
plate-coupled multivibrator. It was made from vacuum tubes and its harmonics are being used
to calibrate a wavemeter .

Classification of Multi Vibrators

There are three types of multivibrator circuits depending on the circuit operation: •
Astable – neither state is stable.
• Monostable - one of the states is stable, but the other is not.
• Bistable – it remains in either state indefinitely.
Astable Multi Vibrators • A Multivibrator that generates square waveform without
using external triggering pulse is known as Astable multivibrator. It also known as Freerunning
Multivibrator . This astable circuit consists of two transistors, a cross coupled feedback
network, and two capacitors and four resistors. Circuit diagram of Astable Multivibrator
• Consider Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF: • VCC drops across RL 1. Hence, VC1 = 0 and point A is at
ground potential.And Vc2=Vcc. • C1 discharging and C2 charging.
• Consider Q2 is ON and Q1 is OFF: • VCC drops across RL 2. Hence, VC2 = 0 and point B is at
ground potential.And • Vc1=Vcc. • C2 discharging and C1 charging.
Application of Astable Multivibrator:
• Used in applications where low clock frequency clock pulse train is required.
• Relaxation oscillators, which are parts of vehicle indicator lights, early oscilloscopes and
television receivers. •
Timing signals.
Monostable Multi Vibrators Definition: A Multivibrator which has one stable
state and one temporary quasi-stable state and level transition depends on external triggering
pulse is known as Monostable Multivibrator. Circuit diagram of Monostable circuit. When the
circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be OFF and Q2 will be ON. Capacitor C1 gets charged
during this state. When a positive trigger is applied to the base of transistor Q1 it turns ON,
which turns OFF the transistor Q2 . Capacitor C1 starts discharging during this state. Transistor
Q1 remains in ON state due the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 which is in
OFF state. Transistor Q2 remains in OFF state until the capacitor C1 discharges completely.
When the capacitor C1 discharged completely, transistor Q2 turns ON, which turns transistor
Q1 OFF.
Applications ; Monostable Multivibrator are used in analog systems to control an
output signal frequency. To synchronize the line and frame rate of television broadcasts. To
hold output voltages in its unstable state for a certain period of time. To moderate the tunes
of different octaves with electronic organs.

Bistable Multi Vibrators

• A multivibrator that has two absolute stable state and can stay in one of two states
indefinitely is known as Bi-stablemultivibrator. It changes it state when it gets triggering pulse
and stay in that state until it gets another triggering pulse. Circuit diagram of Bistable
Multivibrator. When VCC is applied, one transistor will start conducting slightly more than
that of the other. Let Q2 be ON and Q1 be OFF. When Q2 is ON, The potential at the collector
of Q2 decreases, which in turn will decrease the potential at the base of Q1 due to potential
divider action of R1 and R2. The potential at the collector of Q1 increases which in turn further
increases the base to emitter voltage at the base of Q2. The voltage at the collector of Q2
further decreases, which in turn further reduces the voltage at the base of Q1. This action will
continue till Q2 becomes fully saturated and Q1 becomes fully cutoff. Thus the stable state of
binary is such that one device remains in cut-off and other device remains at saturation. It will
be in that state until the triggering pulse is applied to it. It has two stable states. For every
transition of states triggering is required. At a time only one device will be conducting.
Application:
• It is used for the performance of many digital operations such as counting and storing binary
information. It is also used in the generation and processing of pulse-type waveform.

2. Sample and hold circuit

2.1.1 Introduction
Sample and hold (S/H) circuit is an important analog building block
with many applications, including analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
and switched- capacitor filters.

The function of the S/H circuit is to sample an analog input signal and
hold this value over a certain length of time for subsequent
processing.

Taking advantages of the excellent properties of MOS capacitors and

switches, traditional switches capacitor techniques can be used to
realize different S/H circuits.

The simplest S/H circuit in MOS technology is shown in the figure

below where Vin is the input signal, M1 is an MOS transistor operating
as the sampling switch, Ch is the hold capacitor, Ck is the clock
signal, and Vout is the resulting sample and hold output signal.
2.1.2 working principle of sample and hold circuit

During sample mode, the SOP behaves just like a regular op-amp, in
which the value of the output follows the value of the input.

During hold mode, the MOS transistors at the output mode of the SOP
are turned off while they are still operating in saturation, thus
preventing any channel charge from flowing into the output of the
SOP.

In addition, the SOP is shut off and its output is held at high
impedance, allowing the charge on Ch to be preserved throughout
the hold mode.

On the other hand, the output buffer of this S/H circuit is always
operational during sample and hold mode and is always providing the
voltage on Ch output of the S/H circuit.

2.1.3 Purpose of sample and hold circuit

The sample and hold circuits are essentially used in linear systems.

In some kinds of analog-to-digital converters, the input is often

compared to a voltage generated internally from a digital to analog
converter DAC.

The circuit tries a series of values and stops converting once the
voltages are the same within some defined error margin.

If the input value was permitted to charge during this comparison

process, the resulting conversion would be inaccurate and possibly
completely unrelated to the true input value. Such successive
approximation converters will often incorporate internal sample and
hold circuitry.
In addition, sample and hold circuits are often used when multiple
samples need to be measured at the sample time. Each value is
sampled and held, using a common sample clock.

3 Implementation of sample and hold circuit

In order that the input voltage is held constant for all practical
purposes, it is essential that the capacitor have very low leakage, and
that it not be loaded to any significant degree which calls for a very
high input impedance.

A true sample and hold circuit are connected to the buffer for a short
period of time; a track and hold circuit is designed to track input
continuously.

3.1 Advantages of the sample and hold circuits

Obtain a low drop rate during holding mode.

Stability is determined by the stabilities of op-amps.

3.1.1 Disadvantages of the sample and hold circuits

Op-amps offset can constrain the accuracy of SHA.

Needs a special circuitry to stabilize the input amplifier during the

holding mode.

4.1 Modulation and demodulation

4.1.1 Understanding modulation

Modulation is the process of converting data into electrical signals

which optimize for transmission. Thus, slightly similar to a sine wave,
a carrier wave composes of constant frequency.
Baseband signal refers to a transmission signal that hasn’t been
modulated or demodulated to its original frequency. It can be
transmitted over optical fibers, coaxial cables.
The need for modulation is that the baseband signals are not
compatible with direct transmission. For such a signal to travel much
larger and longer distances, its strength has to be increased by
modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect
the parameters of the modulating signal.
4.1.3 Types of modulation
There are three types of modulation:
1. Frequency modulation: when the frequency of a carrier wave changes
or varies due to the change of the frequency of the signal modulation
while the amplitude and phase are at a constant state, we term it as
frequency modulation.
2. Phase modulation: when the phase of a high frequency carrier wave
changes or varies due to change of the phase of the signal
modulation while amplitude and frequency are at a constant state, we
term it as phase modulation.
3. Amplitude modulation: when the amplitude of a high frequency
carrier wave changes or varies due to the change of the amplitude of
the signal modulation while phase and frequency are at constant
state, we term it as amplitude modulation.

4.1.4 Mechanisms of modulation

There are a few primary modulation mechanisms that we mainly take
into practical and usable categorization. The four primary mechanisms of
modulation are:

1. Analogue modulation
2. Digital modulation
3. Pulse modulation
4. Spread spectrum method
4.1.5 Advantages of modulation

The advantages of implementing modulation in the communication

systems are as follows:

 The size of the antenna gets reduced.

 The communication ranges increase.
 Multiplexing of signals occurs.
 Adjustments in the bandwidth are allowed.
 Improvement in the reception quality.
4.1.6 Demodulation
Demodulation is getting the original form of data modulated carrier
wave. To recover the data from a modulator carrier wave, a
demodulator signal circuit comes in use. The demodulator output
signal may describe as sound, binary data, or pictures.
So, demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover
the message signal at the receiver.

MODULATION DEMODULATION

 modulation helps in  Demodulation

the collection of data helps in the
 into the carrier. recovery of data.
 In a communication  Is done at the
system modulation is receiver side of a
done at the communication
transmitter side system.
 The original message  The combination
signal is mixed with a of carrier and
carrier wave whose message signal
parameters are are separated
required to be from each other,
changed. to have an
 Modulation original
essentially occurs to information
transmit data to a signal.
longer distance.  It takes place to
retain the original
form of the signal.

Conclusion
We can conclude that

Sample and hold (S/H) are an important analog building block that
has many applications.

As a result, different S/H techniques and architectures are developed

with the intention to reduce or eliminate these errors.

Modulation is the process of converting data into electrical signals

which optimize for transmission. Thus, slightly similar to a sine wave,
a carrier wave composes of constant frequency.
Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the
message signal at the receiver.

4.0 References
1. Integrated Analog- to- digital and Digital-to-Analog converters- 2 nd
Edition,
2. T. Floyd, Electronic Devices, 9th edition