About

 the  HELM  Project  

HELM   (Helping   Engineers   Learn   Mathematics)   materials   were   the   outcome   of   a   three-­‐year   curriculum  
development  project  undertaken  by  a  consortium  of  five  English  universities  led  by  Loughborough  University,  
funded   by   the   Higher   Education   Funding   Council   for   England   under   the   Fund   for   the   Development   of   Teaching  
and  Learning  for  the  period  October  2002  –  September  2005,  with  additional  transferability  funding  October  
2005  –  September  2006.  
HELM  aims  to  enhance  the  mathematical  education  of  engineering  undergraduates  through  flexible  learning  
resources,  mainly  these  Workbooks.  
HELM  learning  resources  were  produced  primarily  by  teams  of  writers  at  six  universities:  Hull,  Loughborough,  
Manchester,  Newcastle,  Reading,  Sunderland.  
HELM   gratefully   acknowledges   the   valuable   support   of   colleagues   at   the   following   universities   and   colleges  
involved  in  the  critical  reading,  trialling,  enhancement  and  revision  of  the  learning  materials:    
Aston,  Bournemouth  &  Poole  College,  Cambridge,  City,  Glamorgan,  Glasgow,  Glasgow  Caledonian,  Glenrothes  
Institute   of   Applied   Technology,   Harper   Adams,   Hertfordshire,   Leicester,   Liverpool,   London   Metropolitan,  
Moray   College,   Northumbria,   Nottingham,   Nottingham   Trent,   Oxford   Brookes,   Plymouth,   Portsmouth,  
Queens   Belfast,   Robert   Gordon,   Royal   Forest   of   Dean   College,   Salford,   Sligo   Institute   of   Technology,  
Southampton,   Southampton   Institute,   Surrey,   Teesside,   Ulster,   University   of   Wales   Institute   Cardiff,   West  
Kingsway  College  (London),  West  Notts  College.  
 

HELM  Contacts:  
Post:  HELM,  Mathematics  Education  Centre,  Loughborough  University,  Loughborough,  LE11  3TU.  
Email:  [email protected]          Web:  http://helm.lboro.ac.uk  
 

HELM  Workbooks  List  

1   Basic  Algebra   26   Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable  
2   Basic  Functions   27   Multiple  Integration  
3   Equations,  Inequalities  &  Partial  Fractions   28   Differential  Vector  Calculus  
4   Trigonometry   29   Integral  Vector  Calculus  
5   Functions  and  Modelling   30   Introduction  to  Numerical  Methods  
6   Exponential  and  Logarithmic  Functions   31   Numerical  Methods  of  Approximation  
7   Matrices   32   Numerical  Initial  Value  Problems  
8   Matrix  Solution  of  Equations   33   Numerical  Boundary  Value  Problems  
9   Vectors   34   Modelling  Motion  
10   Complex  Numbers   35   Sets  and  Probability  
11   Differentiation   36   Descriptive  Statistics  
12   Applications  of  Differentiation   37   Discrete  Probability  Distributions  
13   Integration   38   Continuous  Probability  Distributions  
14   Applications  of  Integration  1   39   The  Normal  Distribution  
15   Applications  of  Integration  2   40   Sampling  Distributions  and  Estimation  
16   Sequences  and  Series   41   Hypothesis  Testing  
17   Conics  and  Polar  Coordinates   42   Goodness  of  Fit  and  Contingency  Tables  
18   Functions  of  Several  Variables   43   Regression  and  Correlation  
19   Differential  Equations   44   Analysis  of  Variance  
20   Laplace  Transforms   45   Non-­‐parametric  Statistics  
21   z-­‐Transforms   46   Reliability  and  Quality  Control  
22   Eigenvalues  and  Eigenvectors   47   Mathematics  and  Physics  Miscellany  
23   Fourier  Series   48   Engineering  Case  Study  
24   Fourier  Transforms   49   Student’s  Guide  
25   Partial  Differential  Equations   50   Tutor’s  Guide  
 
©  Copyright    Loughborough  University,  2015
 
 
 
Production  of  this  2015  edition,  containing  corrections  and  minor  
revisions  of  the  2008  edition,  was  funded  by  the  sigma  Network.    

 
 
 
Contents 3
Equations, Inequalities
& Partial Fractions
3.1 Solving Linear Equations 2

3.2 Solving Quadratic Equations 13

3.3 Solving Polynomial Equations 31

3.4 Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations 42

3.5 Solving Inequalities 50

3.6 Partial Fractions 60

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn about solving single equations, mainly linear and quadratic,
but also cubic and higher degree, and also simultaneous linear equations. Such equations
often arise as part of a more complicated problem. In order to gain confidence in
mathematics you will need to be thoroughly familiar with these basis topics.
You will also study how to manipulate inequalities. You will also be introduced to partial
fractions which will enable you to re-express an algebraic fraction in terms of simpler
fractions. This will prove to be extremely useful in later studies on integration.
Solving Linear  

Equations 3.1 

Introduction
Many problems in engineering reduce to the solution of an equation or a set of equations. An equation
is a type of mathematical expression which contains one or more unknown quantities which you will
be required to find. In this Section we consider a particular type of equation which contains a single
unknown quantity, and is known as a linear equation. Later Sections will describe techniques for
solving other types of equations.

 
• be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide
Prerequisites fractions
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be able to transpose formulae

 


Learning Outcomes • recognise and solve a linear equation

On completion you should be able to . . .
 

2 HELM (2015):
Workbook 3: Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
 ®

1. Linear equations

Key Point 1
A linear equation is an equation of the form
ax + b = 0 a 6= 0
where a and b are known numbers and x represents an unknown quantity to be found.

In the equation ax + b = 0, the number a is called the coefficient of x, and the number b is called
the constant term.
The following are examples of linear equations
1
3x + 4 = 0, −2x + 3 = 0, − x−3=0
2
√
Note that the unknown, x, appears only to the first power, that is as x, and not as x2 , x, x1/2 etc.
Linear equations often appear in a non-standard form, and also different letters are sometimes used
for the unknown quantity. For example
1
2x = x + 1 3t − 7 = 17, 13 = 3z + 1, 1− y =3 2α − 1.5 = 0
2
are all examples of linear equations. Where necessary the equations can be rearranged and written
in the form ax + b = 0. We will explain how to do this later in this Section.

Task
Which of the following are linear equations and which are not linear?
(a) 3x + 7 = 0, (b) −3t + 17 = 0, (c) 3x2 + 7 = 0, (d) 5p = 0

The equations which can be written in the form ax + b = 0 are linear.

Your solution
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Answer
(a) linear in x (b) linear in t (c) non-linear - quadratic in x (d) linear in p, constant is zero

To solve a linear equation means to find the value of x that can be substituted into the equation so
that the left-hand side equals the right-hand side. Any such value obtained is known as a solution
or root of the equation and the value of x is said to satisfy the equation.

HELM (2015): 3
Section 3.1: Solving Linear Equations
 Example 1
Consider the linear equation 3x − 2 = 10.

(a) Check that x = 4 is a solution.

(b) Check that x = 2 is not a solution.

Solution

(a) To check that x = 4 is a solution we substitute the value for x and see if both sides of the
equation are equal. Evaluating the left-hand side we find 3(4) − 2 which equals 10, the same
as the right-hand side. So, x = 4 is a solution. We say that x = 4 satisfies the equation.
(b) Substituting x = 2 into the left-hand side we find 3(2) − 2 which equals 4. Clearly the
left-hand side is not equal to 10 and so x = 2 is not a solution. The number x = 2 does not
satisfy the equation.

Task
Test which of the given values are solutions of the equation
18 − 4x = 26
(a) x = 2, (b) x = −2, (c) x = 8

(a) Substituting x = 2, the left-hand side equals

Your solution

Answer
18 − 4 × 2 = 10. But 10 6= 26 so x = 2 is not a solution.

(b) Substituting x = −2, the left-hand side equals:

Your solution

Answer
18 − 4(−2) = 26. This is the same as the right-hand side, so x = −2 is a solution.

(c) Substituting x = 8, the left-hand side equals:

Your solution

Answer
18 − 4(8) = −14. But −14 6= 26 and so x = 8 is not a solution.

4 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Exercises
1. (a) Write down the general form of a linear equation.
(b) Explain what is meant by the root or solution of a linear equation.

In questions 2-8 verify that the given value is a solution of the given equation.

2. 3z − 7 = −28, z = −7

3. 8x − 3 = −11, x = −1
1
4. 2s + 3 = 4, s = 2
1 4
5. 3
x + 3
= 2, x = 2

6. 7t + 7 = 7, t = 0

7. 11x − 1 = 10, x = 1

8. 0.01t − 1 = 0, t = 100.
Answers

1. (a) The general form is ax + b = 0 where a and b are known numbers and x represents the
unknown quantity.
(b) A root is a value for the unknown which satisfies the equation.

2. Solving a linear equation

To solve a linear equation we make the unknown quantity the subject of the equation. We obtain
the unknown quantity on its own on the left-hand side. To do this we may apply the same rules used
for transposing formulae given in Workbook 1 Section 1.7. These are given again here.

Key Point 2
Operations which can be used in the process of solving a linear equation
• add the same quantity to both sides
• subtract the same quantity from both sides
• multiply both sides by the same quantity
• divide both sides by the same quantity
• take the reciprocal of both sides (invert)
• take functions of both sides; for example cube both sides.

HELM (2015): 5
Section 3.1: Solving Linear Equations
A useful summary of the rules in Key Point 2 is ‘whatever we do to one side of an equation we must
also do to the other’.

Example 2
Solve the equation x + 14 = 5.

Solution
Note that by subtracting 14 from both sides, we leave x on its own on the left. Thus

x + 14 − 14 = 5 − 14
x = −9

Hence the solution of the equation is x = −9. It is easy to check that this solution is correct by
substituting x = −9 into the original equation and checking that both sides are indeed the same.
You should get into the habit of doing this.

Example 3
Solve the equation 19y = 38.

Solution
In order to make y the subject of the equation we can divide both sides by 19:

19y = 38
19y 38
=
19 19
38
cancelling 19’s gives y =
19
so y = 2

Hence the solution of the equation is y = 2.

6 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Example 4
Solve the equation 4x + 12 = 0.

Solution
Starting from 4x + 12 = 0 we can subtract 12 from both sides to obtain

4x + 12 − 12 = 0 − 12
so that 4x = −12

If we now divide both sides by 4 we find

4x −12
=
4 4
cancelling 4’s gives x = −3

So the solution is x = −3.

Task
Solve the linear equation 14t − 56 = 0.

Your solution

Answer
t=4

Example 5 √ √
Solve the following equations: (a) x + 3 = 7, (b) x + 3 = − 7.

Solution

√
(a) Subtracting 3 from both sides gives x = 7 − 3.
√
(b) Subtracting 3 from both sides gives x = − 7 − 3.
√ √
Note that when asked to solve x + 3 = ± 7 we can write the two solutions
√ as x = −3 ± 7. It is
usually acceptable to leave the solutions in this form (i.e. with the 7 term) rather than calculate
decimal approximations. This form is known as the surd form.

HELM (2015): 7
Section 3.1: Solving Linear Equations
 Example 6
Solve the equation 23 (t + 7) = 5.

Solution
There are a number of ways in which the solution can be obtained. The idea is to gradually remove
unwanted terms on the left-hand side to leave t on its own. By multiplying both sides by 32 we find
3
2
× 23 (t + 7) = 3
2
×5= 3
2
× 5
1
and after simplifying and cancelling, t+7= 15
2

Finally, subtracting 7 from both sides gives

15 15 14 1
t= −7= − =
2 2 2 2
So the solution is t = 12 .

Example 7
Solve the equation 3(p − 2) + 2(p + 4) = 5.

Solution
At first sight this may not appear to be in the form of a linear equation. Some preliminary work is
necessary. Removing the brackets and collecting like terms we find the left-hand side yields 5p + 2
so the equation is 5p + 2 = 5 so that p = 35 .

Task
Solve the equation 2(x − 5) = 3 − (x + 6).

(a) First remove the brackets on both sides:

Your solution

Answer
2x − 10 = 3 − x − 6. We may write this as 2x − 10 = −x − 3.

8 HELM (2015):
Workbook 3: Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
 ®

(b) Rearrange the equation found in (a) so that terms involving x appear only on the left-hand side,
and constants on the right. Start by adding 10 to both sides:
Your solution

Answer
2x = −x + 7

(c) Now add x to both sides:

Your solution

Answer
3x = 7
(d) Finally solve this to find x:
Your solution
x=

Answer
7
3

Example 8
Solve the equation
6 7
=
1 − 2x x−2

Solution
This equation appears in an unfamiliar form but it can be rearranged into the standard form of a
linear equation. By multiplying both sides by (1 − 2x) and (x − 2) we find
6 7
(1 − 2x)(x − 2) × = (1 − 2x)(x − 2) ×
1 − 2x x−2
Considering each side in turn and cancelling common factors:
6(x − 2) = 7(1 − 2x)
Removing the brackets and rearranging to find x we have

6x − 12 = 7 − 14x
Further rearrangement gives: 20x = 19
19
The solution is therefore x = .
20

HELM (2015): 9
Section 3.1: Solving Linear Equations
 Example 9
Figure 1 shows three branches of an electrical circuit which meet together at
x. Point x is known as a node. As shown in Figure 1 the current in each of the
branches is denoted by I, I1 and I2 . Kirchhoff’s current law states that the current
entering any node must equal the current leaving that node. Thus we have the
equation I = I1 + I2

I x I2

I1

Figure 1

(a) Given I2 = 10 A and I = 18 A calculate I1 .

(b) Suppose I = 36 A and it is known that current I2 is five times as great as
I1 . Find the branch currents.

Solution

(a) Substituting the given values into the equation we find 18 = I1 + 10.

Solving for I1 we find

I1 = 18 − 10 = 8

Thus I1 equals 8 A.
(b) From Kirchhoff’s law, I = I1 + I2 .

We are told that I2 is five times as great as I1 , and so we can write I2 = 5I1 .

Since I = 36 we have

36 = I1 + 5I1

Solving this linear equation 36 = 6I1 gives I1 = 6 A.

Finally, since I2 is five times as great as I1 , we have I2 = 5I1 = 30 A.

10 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Exercises
In questions 1-24 solve each equation:
1. 7x = 14 2. −3x = 6 3. 12 x = 7 4. 3x = 12
5. 4t = −2 6. 2t = 4 7. 4t = 2 8. 2t = −4
x x
9. =3 10. = −3 11. 7x + 2 = 9 12. 7x + 2 = 23
6 6
17
13. −7x + 1 = −6 14. −7x + 1 = −13 15. t = −2 16. 3 − x = 2x + 8
3
x x 13
17. x − 3 = 8 + 3x 18. = 16 19. = −2 20. − x = 14
4 9 2
21. −2y = −6 22. −7y = 11 23. −69y = −690 24. −8 = −4γ.
In questions 25-47 solve each equation:
1
25. 3y − 8 = y 26. 7t − 5 = 4t + 7 27. 3x + 4 = 4x + 3
2
28. 4 − 3x = 4x + 3 29. 3x + 7 = 7x + 2 30. 3(x + 7) = 7(x + 2)
31. 2x − 1 = x − 3 32. 2(x + 4) = 8 33. −2(x − 3) = 6
34. −2(x − 3) = −6 35. −3(3x − 1) = 2
36. 2 − (2t + 1) = 4(t + 2) 37. 5(m − 3) = 8
38. 5m − 3 = 5(m − 3) + 2m 39. 2(y + 1) = −8
1 3
40. 17(x − 2) + 3(x − 1) = x 41. (x + 3) = −9 42. =4
3 m
5 2
43. = 44. −3x + 3 = 18 45. 3x + 10 = 31
m m+√1 √
46. x + 4 = 8 47. x − 4 = 23
48. If y = 2 find x if 4x + 3y = 9 49. If y = −2 find x if 4x + 5y = 3
50. If y = 0 find x if −4x + 10y = −8 51. If x = −3 find y if 2x + y = 8
52. If y = 10 find x when 10x + 55y = 530 53. If γ = 2 find β if 54 = γ − 4β
In questions 54-63 solve each equation:
x − 5 2x − 1 x 3x x x 4x
54. − =6 55. + − =1 56. + = 2x − 7
2 3 4 2 6 2 3
5 2 2 5 x−3
57. = 58. = 59. =4
3m + 2 m+1 3x − 2 x−1 x+1
x+1 y−3 2 4x + 5 2x − 1
60. =4 61. = 62. − =x
x−3 y+3 3 6 3
3 1
63. + =0
2s − 1 s + 1
64. Solve the linear equation ax + b = 0 to find x
1 1
65. Solve the linear equation = (a 6= c) to find x
ax + b cx + d

HELM (2015): 11
Section 3.1: Solving Linear Equations
Answers
1. 2 2. −2 3. 14 4. 1/6 5. −1/2 6. 2
7. 1/2 8. −2 9. 18 10. −18 11. 1 12. 3
13. 1 14. 2 15. −6/17 16. −5/3 17. −11/2 18. 64
19. −18 20. −28/13 21. y = 3 22. −11/7 23. y = 10 24. 2
25. 16/5 26. 4 27. 1 28. 1/7 29. 5/4 30. 7/4
31. −2 32. 0 33. 0 34. 6 35. 1/9 36. −7/6
37. 23/5 38. 6 39. −5 40. √
37/19 41. −30
√ 42. 3/4
43. −5/3 44. −5 45. 7 46. 8 − 4 47. 23 + 4 48. 3/4
49. 13/4 50. 2 51. 14 52. −2 53. −13 54. −49
55. 12/19 56. 42 57. 1 58. 8/13 59. −7/3 60. 13/3
(d − b)
61. 15 62. 7/6 63. −2/5 64. −b/a 65.
(a − c)

12 HELM (2015):
Workbook 3: Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
 ®

Solving Quadratic  

Equations  3.2 

Introduction
A quadratic equation is one which can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and
c are numbers, a 6= 0, and x is the unknown whose value(s) we wish to find. In this Section we
describe several ways in which quadratic equations can be solved.

 

Prerequisites • be able to solve linear equations

Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• recognise a quadratic equation

• solve a quadratic equation by factorisation

• solve a quadratic equation using the standard

Learning Outcomes formula

On completion you should be able to . . . • solve a quadratic equation by completing the

square

• interpret the solution of a quadratic equation

graphically
& %

HELM (2015): 13
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
1. Quadratic equations

Key Point 3
A quadratic equation is one which can be written in the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0 a 6= 0
where a, b and c are given numbers and x is the unknown whose value(s) must be found.

For example
2x2 + 7x − 3 = 0, x2 + x + 1 = 0, 0.5x2 + 3x + 9 = 0
are all quadratic equations. To ensure the presence of the x2 term, the number a, in the general
expression ax2 + bx + c cannot be zero. However b or c may be zero, so that
4x2 + 3x = 0, 2x2 − 3 = 0 and 6x2 = 0
are also quadratic equations. Frequently, quadratic equations occur in non-standard form but where
necessary they can be rearranged into standard form. For example
3x2 + 5x = 8, can be re-written as 3x2 + 5x − 8 = 0

2x2 = 8x − 9, can be re-written as 2x2 − 8x + 9 = 0

1
1+x= , can be re-written as x2 + x − 1 = 0
x
To solve a quadratic equation we must find values of the unknown x which make the left-hand and
right-hand sides equal. Such values are known as solutions or roots of the quadratic equation.
Note the difference between solving quadratic equations in comparison to solving linear equations. A
quadratic equation will generally have two values of x (solutions) which satisfy it whereas a linear
equation only has one solution.
We shall now describe three techniques for solving quadratic equations:

• factorisation

• completing the square

• using the quadratic formula

14 HELM (2015):
Workbook 3: Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
 ®

Exercises
1. Verify that x = 2 and x = 3 are both solutions of x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.

2. Verify that x = −2 and x = −3 are both solutions of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.

2. Solution by factorisation
It may be possible to solve a quadratic equation by factorisation using the method described for
factorising quadratic expressions in 1.5, although you should be aware that not all quadratic
equations can be easily factorised.

Example 10
Solve the equation x2 + 5x = 0.

Solution
Factorising and equating each factor to zero we find
x2 + 5x = 0 is equivalent to x(x + 5) = 0
so that x = 0 and x = −5 are the two solutions.

Example 11
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + x − 6 = 0.

Solution
Factorising the left hand side we find x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3)(x − 2) so that
x2 + x − 6 = 0 is equivalent to (x + 3)(x − 2) = 0
When the product of two quantities equals zero, at least one of the two must equal zero. In this
case either (x + 3) is zero or (x − 2) is zero. It follows that
x + 3 = 0, giving x = −3 or x − 2 = 0, giving x=2
Here there are two solutions, x = −3 and x = 2.
These solutions can be checked quite easily by substitution back into the given equation.

HELM (2015): 15
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 Example 12
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 − 7x − 4 = 0 by factorising the left-hand side.

Solution
Factorising the left hand side: 2x2 −7x−4 = (2x+1)(x−4) so 2x2 −7x−4 = 0 is equivalent to (2x+
1)(x − 4) = 0. In this case either (2x + 1) is zero or (x − 4) is zero. It follows that 2x + 1 =
0, giving x = − 12 or x − 4 = 0, giving x = 4
There are two solutions, x = − 12 and x = 4.

Example 13
Solve the equation 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0.

Solution
Factorising we find 4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3)(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2
This time the factor (2x + 3) occurs twice. The original equation 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 becomes
(2x + 3)2 = 0 so that 2x + 3 = 0
and we obtain the solution x = − 32 . Because the factor 2x + 3 appears twice in the equation
(2x + 3)2 = 0 we say that this root is a repeated solution or double root.

Task
Solve the quadratic equation 7x2 − 20x − 3 = 0.

First factorise the left-hand side:

Your solution
7x2 − 20x − 3 =

Answer
(7x + 1)(x − 3)

Equate each factor is then equated to zero to obtain the two solutions:
Your solution
Solution 1: x = Solution 2: x =

Answer
− 71 and 3

16 HELM (2015):
Workbook 3: Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
 ®

Exercises
Solve the following equations by factorisation:
1. x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 2. x2 − x − 2 = 0 3. x2 + x − 2 = 0
4. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 5. x2 + 8x + 7 = 0 6. x2 − 7x + 12 = 0
2
7. x − x − 20 = 0 8. 4x2 − 4 = 0 9. −x2 + 2x − 1 = 0
10. 3x2 + 6x + 3 = 0 11. x2 + 11x = 0 12. 2x2 + 2x = 0

Answers The factors are found to be:

1. 1, 2 2. −1, 2 3. −2, 1 4. −1, −2 5. −7, −1
6. 4, 3 7. −4, 5 8. 1, −1 9. 1 twice 10. −1 twice
11. −11, 0 12. 0, −1

3. Completing the square

The technique known as completing the square can be used to solve quadratic equations although it
is applicable in many other circumstances too so it is well worth studying.

Example 14
(a) Show that (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
(b) Hence show that x2 + 6x can be written as (x + 3)2 − 9.

Solution

(a) Removing the brackets we find

(x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x2 + 3x + 3x + 9 = x2 + 6x + 9

(b) By subtracting 9 from both sides of the previous equation it follows that

(x + 3)2 − 9 = x2 + 6x

HELM (2015): 17
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 Example 15
(a) Show that (x − 4)2 = x2 − 8x + 16
(b) Hence show that x2 − 8x can be written as (x − 4)2 − 16.

Solution

(a) Removing the brackets we find

(x − 4)2 = (x − 4)(x − 4) = x2 − 4x − 4x + 16 = x2 − 8x + 16

(b) Subtracting 16 from both sides we can write

(x − 4)2 − 16 = x2 − 8x

We shall now generalise the results of Examples 14 and 15. Noting that
(x + k)2 = x2 + 2kx + k 2 we can write x2 + 2kx = (x + k)2 − k 2
Note that the constant term in the brackets on the right-hand side is always half the coefficient of x
on the left. This process is called completing the square.

Key Point 4

Completing the Square

The expression x2 + 2kx is equivalent to (x + k)2 − k 2

Example 16
Complete the square for the expression x2 + 16x.

Solution
Comparing x2 + 16x with the general form x2 + 2kx we see that k = 8. Hence
x2 + 16x = (x + 8)2 − 82 = (x + 8)2 − 64
Note that the constant term in the brackets on the right, that is 8, is half the coefficient of x on
the left, which is 16.

18 HELM (2015):
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Example 17
Complete the square for the expression 5x2 + 4x.

Solution
Consider 5x2 + 4x. First of all the coefficient 5 is removed outside a bracket as follows
4
5x2 + 4x = 5(x2 + x)
5
We can now complete the square for the quadratic expression in the brackets:
 2
2 4 2 2 2 2 4
x + x = (x + ) − = (x + )2 −
5 5 5 5 25
Finally, multiplying both sides by 5 we find
 
2 2 2 4
5x + 4x = 5 (x + ) −
5 25

Completing the square can be used to solve quadratic equations as shown in the following Examples.

Example 18
Solve the equation x2 + 6x + 2 = 0 by completing the square.

Solution
First of all just consider x2 + 6x, and note that we can write this as
x2 + 6x = (x + 3)2 − 9
Then the quadratic equation can be written as
x2 + 6x + 2 = (x + 3)2 − 9 + 2 = 0 that is (x + 3)2 = 7
Taking the square root of both sides gives
√ √
x + 3 = ± 7 so x = −3 ± 7
√ √
The two solutions are x = −3 + 7 = −0.3542 and x = −3 − 7 = −5.6458, to 4 d.p.

HELM (2015): 19
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 Example 19
Solve the equation x2 − 8x + 5 = 0

Solution
First consider x2 − 8x which we can write as x2 − 8x = (x − 4)2 − 16 so that the equation
becomes
x2 − 8x + 5 = (x − 4)2 − 16 + 5 = 0

i.e. (x − 4)2 = 11
√
x − 4 = ± 11
√
x = 4 ± 11

So x = 7.3166 or x = 0.6834 (to 4 d.p.)

Task
Solve the equation x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 by completing the square.

First examine the two left-most terms in the equation: x2 − 4x. Complete the square for these terms:
Your solution
x2 − 4x =

Answer
(x − 2)2 − 4

Use the above result to rewrite the equation x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 in the form (x− ?)2 + ? = 0:
Your solution
x2 − 4x + 1 =

Answer
(x − 2)2 − 4 + 1 = (x − 2)2 − 3 = 0

From this now obtain the roots:

Your solution

Answer
√ √
(x − 2)2 = 3, so x − 2 = ± 3. Therefore x = 2 ± 3 so x = 3.7321 or 0.2679 to 4 d.p.

20 HELM (2015):
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Exercises
1. Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square.

(a) x2 − 3x = 0

(b) x2 + 9x = 0.

(c) 2x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

(d) 6x2 − x − 1 = 0

(e) −5x2 + 6x − 1 = 0

(f) −x2 + 4x − 3 = 0

2. A chemical manufacturer found that the sales figures for a certain chemical X2 O depended on
its selling price. At present, the company can sell all of its weekly production of 300 t at a
price of £600 / t. The company’s market research department advised that the amount sold
would decrease by only 1 t per week for every £2 / t increase in the price of X2 O. If the total
production costs are made up of a fixed cost of £30000 per week, plus £400 per t of product,
show that the weekly profit is given by

x2
P =− + 800x − 270000
2
where x is the new price per t of X2 O. Complete the square for the above expression and hence
find

(a) the price which maximises the weekly profit on sales of X2 O

(b) the maximum weekly profit
(c) the weekly production rate

Answers
1. (a) 0, 3 (b) 0, −9 (c) 2, 21 (d) 1
2
, − 13 (e) 1
5
,1 (f) 1, 3
2. (a) £800 / t, (b) £50000 /wk, (c) 200 t / wk

4. Solution by formula
When it is difficult to factorise a quadratic equation, it may be possible to solve it using a formula
which is used to calculate the roots. The formula is obtained by completing the square in the general
quadratic ax2 + bx + c. We proceed by removing the coefficient of a:
b c b c b2
ax2 + bx + c = a{x2 + x + } = a{(x + )2 + − 2 }
a a 2a a 4a
Thus the solution of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the same as the solution to
b 2 c b2
(x + ) + − 2 = 0
2a a 4a

HELM (2015): 21
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 r
b c b2 b c b2
So, solving: (x + )2 = − + 2 which leads to x=− ± − + 2
2a a 4a 2a a 4a
Simplifying this expression further we obtain the important result:

Key Point 5
Quadratic Formula
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 then the two solutions (roots) are
√ √
−b − b2 − 4ac −b + b2 − 4ac
x= and x=
2a 2a

To apply the formula to a specific quadratic equation it is necessary to identify carefully the values
of a, b and c, paying particular attention to the signs of these numbers. Substitution of these values
into the formula then gives the desired solutions.
Note that if the quantity b2 − 4ac (called the discriminant) is a positive number we can take its
square root and the formula will produce two values known as distinct real roots. If b2 − 4ac = 0
there will be one value only known as a repeated root or double root. The value of this root
b
is x = − . Finally if b2 − 4ac is negative we say the equation possesses complex roots. These
2a
require special treatment and are described in 10.

Key Point 6
When finding roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 first calculate the discrinimant
b2 − 4ac
• If b2 − 4ac > 0 the quadratic has two real distinct roots
• If b2 − 4ac = 0 the quadratic has two real and equal roots
• If b2 − 4ac < 0 the quadratic has no real roots: there are two complex roots

22 HELM (2015):
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Example 20
Compare each given equation with the standard form ax2 +bx+c = 0 and identify
a, b and c. Calculate b2 − 4ac in each case and use this information to state the
nature of the roots.

(a) 3x2 + 2x − 7 = 0 (b) 3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0

(c) 3x2 − 2x + 7 = 0 (d) x2 + x + 2 = 0

1
(e) −x2 + 3x − 2
=0 (f) 5x2 − 3 = 0

(g) x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 (h) 2p2 − 4p = 0

(i) −p2 + 4p − 4 = 0

Solution

(a) a = 3, b = 2, c = −7. So b2 − 4ac = (2)2 − 4(3)(−7) = 88.

The roots are real and distinct.
(b) a = 3, b = 2,c = 7. So b2 − 4ac = (2)2 − 4(3)(7) = −80.
The roots are complex.
(c) a = 3, b = −2, c = 7. So b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(3)(7) = −80.
The roots are complex.
(d) a = 1, b = 1, c = 2. So b2 − 4ac = 12 − 4(1)(2) = −7.
The roots are complex.
(e) a = −1, b = 3, c = − 21 . So b2 − 4ac = 32 − 4(−1)(− 12 ) = 7.
The roots are real and distinct.
(f) a = 5, b = 0, c = −3. So b2 − 4ac = 0 − 4(5)(−3) = 60.
The roots are real and distinct.
(g) a = 1, b = −2, c = 1. So b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(1)(1) = 0.
The roots are real and equal.
(h) a = 2, b = −4, c = 0. So b2 − 4ac = (−4)2 − 4(2)(0) = 16
The roots are real and distinct.
(i) a = −1, b = 4, c = −4. So b2 − 4ac = (−4)2 − 4(−1)(−4) = 0
The roots are real and equal.

HELM (2015): 23
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 Example 21
Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 + 3x − 6 = 0 using the formula.

Solution
We compare the given equation with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 in order to identify a, b
and c. We see that here a = 2, b = 3 and c = −6. Note particularly the sign of c. Substituting
these values into the formula we find
√ p √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −3 ± 32 − 4(2)(−6) −3 ± 9 + 48 −3 ± 7.5498
x= = = =
2a (2)(2) 4 4
Hence, to 4 d.p., the two roots are x = 1.1375, if the positive sign is taken and x = −2.6375 if
the negative sign√is taken. However, it is often sufficient to leave the solution in the so-called surd
−3 ± 57
form x = , which is exact.
4

Task
Solve the equation 3x2 − x − 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula.

First identify a, b and c:

Your solution
a= b= c=

Answer
a = 3, b = −1, c = −6
Substitute these values into the formula and simplify:
Your solution √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= so x =
2a

Answer p √
−(−1) ± (−1)2 − (4)(3)(−6) 1 ± 73
=
(2)(3) 6

Finally, calculate the values of x to 4 d.p.:

Your solution
x= or x=

Answer
1.5907, −1.2573

24 HELM (2015):
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Engineering Example 1

Undersea cable fault location

Introduction
The voltage (V ), current (I) and resistance (R) in an electrical circuit are related by Ohm’s law i.e.
V = IR. If there are two resistances (R1 and R2 ) in an electrical circuit, they may be in series, in
which case the total resistance (R) is given by R = R1 + R2 . Or they may be in parallel in which
case the total resistance is given by
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
In 1871 the telephone cable between England (A) and Denmark (B) developed a fault, due to a short
circuit under the sea (see Figure 2). Oliver Heaviside, an electrical engineer, came up with a very
simple method to find the location of the fault. He assumed that the cable had a uniform resistance
per unit length. Heaviside performed two tests:
(1) connecting a battery (voltage E) at A, with the circuit open at B, he measured the resulting
current I1 ,
(2) connecting the same battery at A, with the cable earthed at B, he measured the current I2 .

x r−x
A B

England Denmark

short-circuit

Figure 2: Schematic of the undersea cable

In the first measurement the resistances up to the cable fault and between the fault and the short
circuit are in series and in the second experiment the resistances beyond the fault and between the
fault and the short circuit are in parallel.
Problem in words
Use the information from the measurements to deduce the location of the fault.
Mathematical statement of problem

(a) Denote the resistances of the various branches by the symbols shown in Figure 2.
(b) Use Ohm’s law to write down expressions that apply to each of the two measurements.
(c) Eliminate y from these expressions to obtain an expression for x.

HELM (2015): 25
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
Mathematical analysis
(a) In the first experiment the total circuit resistance is x + y. In the second experiment, the total
circuit resistance is given by:
 −1
1 1
x+ +
r−x y
So application of Ohm’s law to each experimental situation gives:
E = I1 (x + y) (1)
 −1
1 1
E = I2 (x + + ) (2)
r−x y
E
Rearrange Equation (1) to give −x=y
I1
E E
Substitute for y in Equation (2), divide both sides by I2 and introduce = r1 and = r2 :
I1 I2
 −1
1 1
r2 = (x + + )
r−x y
Use a common denominator for the fractions on the right-hand side:
 
(r − x)(r1 − x) x(r1 + r − 2x) + (r − x)(r1 − x)
r2 = (x + )=
r1 − x + r − x (r1 + r − 2x)
Multiply through by (r1 + r − 2x):
r2 (r1 + r − 2x) = x(r1 + r − 2x) + (r − x)(r1 − x)
Rearrange as a quadratic for x:
x2 − 2r2 x − rr1 + r2 r1 + rr2 = 0
Use the standard formula for solving quadratic equations
with a = 1, b = −2r2 and c = −rr1 + r2 r1 + rr2 :
p
2r2 ± 4r22 − 4(−rr1 + r2 r1 + rr2 ) p
x= = r2 ± (r − r2 )(r1 − r2 )
2
Only positive solutions would be of interest.

26 HELM (2015):
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Engineering Example 2

Estimating the mass of a pipe

Introduction
Sometimes engineers have to estimate component weights from dimensions and material properties.
On some occasions, engineers prefer use of approximate formulae to exact ones as long as they are
sufficiently accurate for the purpose. This Example introduces both of these aspects.
Problem in words

(a) Find the mass of a given length of pipe in terms of its inner and outer diameters and the
density of the pipe material.
(b) Find the wall thickness of the pipe if the inner diameter is 0.15 m, the density is 7900 kg
m−3 and the mass per unit length of pipe is 40 kg m−1 .
(c) Find an approximate method for calculating the mass of a given length of a thin-walled
pipe and calculate the maximum ratio of inner and outer diameters that give an error of
less than 10% when using the approximate method.

Mathematical statement of problem

(a) Denote the length of the pipe by L m and inside and outside diameters by di m and do
m, respectively and the density by ρ kg m−3 . Assume that the pipe is cylindrical so its
cross section corresponds to the gap between concentric circles (this is called an annulus
or annular region - see 2.6). Calculate the difference in cross sectional areas by
using the formula for the area of a circle (A = πr2 where r is the radius) and multiply
by the density and length to obtain mass (m).
(b) Rearrange the equation in terms of wall thickness (d m) and inner diameter. Substitute
the given values to determine the wall thickness.
(c) Approximate the resulting expression for small values of (do − di ). Calculate the percent-
age difference in predictions between the original and approximate formulae for various
numerical values of di /do .

Mathematical analysis

(a) The cross section of a cylindrical pipe is a circular annulus. The area of a circle is given
π π
by πr2 = d2 , since r = d/2 if d is the diameter. So the area of the outer circle is d2o
4 4
π 2
and that of the inner circle is di . This means that the mass m kg of length L m of the
4
pipe is given by
π 2
m= (d − d2i )Lρ
4 0

HELM (2015): 27
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 (b) Denote the pipe wall thickness by δ so do = di + 25.

Use (d2o − d2i ) = (do − di )(do + di ) = 2δ(2di + 2δ). So m = πδ(di + δ)Lρ

Given that m/L = 40, di = 0.15 and r = 7900,

40 = pd(0.15 + d)7900.

Rearrange this equation as a quadratic in δ,

δ 2 + 0.15δ − 4π/790 = 0

Solve this quadratic using the standard formula with a = 1, b = 0.15 and c = 4π/790.
Retain only the positive solution to give δ = 0.072, i.e. the pipe wall thickness is 72 mm.
(c) If δ is small then (do − di ) is small and di + δ ≈ di . So the expression for m in terms of
δ may be written

m ≈ πδdi Lρ

The graph in Figure 3 shows that the percentage error from using the approximate formula
for the mass of the pipe exceeds 10% only if the inner diameter is less than 82% of the
outer diameter.

The percentage error from using the approximate formula can be calculated from
(exact result − approximate result)/(exact result) × 100% for various values of the ratio of inner to
outer diameters. In the graph the error is plotted for diameter ratios between 0.75 and 1.

15

10
% error

0
0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
Inner diameter / Outer diameter

Figure 3
Comment
The graph shows also that the error is 1% or less for diameter ratios > 0.98.

28 HELM (2015):
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Exercises
Solve the following quadratic equations by using the formula. Give answers exactly (where possible)
or to 4 d.p.:
1. x2 + 8x + 1 = 0 2. x2 + 7x − 2 = 0 3. x2 + 6x − 2 = 0
2 2
4. −x + 3x + 1 = 0 5. −2x − 3x + 1 = 0 6. 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0

Answers
1. −0.1270, −7.8730 2. −7.2749, 0.2749 3. 0.3166, −6.3166
4. 3.3028, −0.3028 5. −1.7808, 0.2808 6. 21 , −3

5. Geometrical representation of quadratics

We can plot a graph of the function y = ax2 + bx + c (given the values of a, b and c). If the graph
crosses the horizontal axis it will do so when y = 0, and so the x coordinates at such points are
solutions of ax2 + bx + c = 0. Depending on the sign of a and of the nature of the solutions there
are essentially six different types of graph that can occur. These are displayed in Figure 4.

real, distinct roots real, equal roots complex roots

y y y

a>0
x x x

y y y

a<0
x x x

Figure 4: The possible graphs of a quadratic y = ax2 + bx + c

Sometimes a graph of the quadratic is used to locate the solutions; however, this approach is generally
inaccurate. This is illustrated in the following example.

HELM (2015): 29
Section 3.2: Solving Quadratic Equations
 Example 22
Solve the equation x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 by plotting a graph of the function:
y = x2 − 4x + 1

Solution
By constructing a table of function values we can plot the graph as shown in Figure 5.

y
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 1 −2 −3 −2 1

1
C D
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2
−3

Figure 5: The graph of y = x2 − 4x + 1 cuts the x axis at C and D

The solutions of the equation x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 are found by looking for points where the graph
crosses the horizontal axis. The two points are approximately x = 0.3 and x = 3.7 marked C and
D on the Figure.

Exercises
1. Solve the following quadratic equations giving exact numeric solutions. Use whichever method
you prefer

(a) x2 − 9 = 0 (b) s2 − 25 = 0
(c) 3x2 − 12 = 0 (d) x2 − 5x + 6 = 0
(e) 6s2 + s − 15 = 0 (f) p2 + 7p = 0

2. Solve the equation 2x2 − 3x − 7 = 0 giving solutions rounded to 4 d.p.

3. Solve the equation 2t2 + 3t − 4 giving the solutions in surd form.

Answers
1(a) x = 3, −3, (b) s = 5, −5, (c) x = 2, −2, (d) x = 3, 2, (e) s = 3/2, −5/3,
√
−3 ± 43
(f) p = 0, −7. 2. −2.7656, 1.2656. 3.
4

30 HELM (2015):
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Solving Polynomial  

Equations 3.3 

Introduction
Linear and quadratic equations, dealt within Sections 3.1 and 3.2, are members of a class of equations,
called polynomial equations. These have the general form:
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = 0
in which x is a variable and an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are given constants. Also n must be a positive
integer and an 6= 0. Examples include x3 +7x2 +3x−2 = 0, 5x4 −7x2 = 0 and −x6 +x5 −x4 = 0.
In this Section you will learn how to factorise some polynomial expressions and solve some polynomial
equations.

 

Prerequisites • be able to solve linear and quadratic

equations
Before starting this Section you should . . .

 


Learning Outcomes • recognise and solve some polynomial

equations
On completion you should be able to . . .
 

HELM (2015): 31
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
1. Multiplying polynomials together

Key Point 7
A polynomial expression is one of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

where a0 , a1 , . . ., an are known coefficients (numbers), an 6= 0, and x is a variable.

n must be a positive integer.

For example x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 is a polynomial expression in x. The polynomial may be expressed
in terms of a variable other than x. So, the following are also polynomial expressions:
t3 − t2 + t − 3 z5 − 1 w4 + 10w2 − 12 s+1
Note that only non-negative whole number powers of the variable (usually x) are allowed in a poly-
nomial expression. In this Section you will learn how to factorise simple polynomial expressions and
how to solve some polynomial equations. You will also learn the technique of equating coefficients.
This process is very important when we need to perform calculations involving partial fractions which
will be considered in Section 6.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power to which the variable is raised. Thus x3 + 6x + 2
has degree 3, t6 − 6t4 + 2t has degree 6, and 5x + 2 has degree 1.
Let us consider what happens when two polynomials are multiplied together. For example
(x + 1)(3x − 2)
is the product of two first degree polynomials. Expanding the brackets we obtain
(x + 1)(3x − 2) = 3x2 + x − 2
which is a second degree polynomial.
In general we can regard a second degree polynomial, or quadratic, as the product of two first degree
polynomials, provided that the quadratic can be factorised. Similarly
(x − 1)(x2 + 3x − 7) = x3 + 2x2 − 10x + 7
is a third degree, or cubic, polynomial which is thus the product of a linear polynomial and a quadratic
polynomial.
In general we can regard a cubic polynomial as the product of a linear polynomial and a quadratic
polynomial or the product of three linear polynomials. This fact will be important in the following
Section when we come to factorise cubics.

32 HELM (2015):
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Key Point 8

A cubic expression can always be formulated as a linear expression times a quadratic expression.

Task
If x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4) × (a polynomial), state the degree of the
undefined polynomial.

Your solution

Answer
second.

Task
(a) If 3x2 + 13x + 4 = (x + 4) × (a polynomial), state the degree of the
undefined polynomial.
(b) What is the coefficient of x in this unknown polynomial ?

Your solution
(a) (b)

Answer
(a) First. (b) It must be 3 in order to generate the term 3x2 when the brackets are removed.

Task
If 2x2 + 5x + 2 = (x + 2)× (a polynomial), what must be the coefficient of x in
this unknown polynomial ?

Your solution

Answer
It must be 2 in order to generate the term 2x2 when the brackets are removed.

HELM (2015): 33
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
 Task
Two quadratic polynomials are multiplied together. What is the degree of the
resulting polynomial?

Your solution

Answer
Fourth degree.

2. Factorising polynomials and equating coefficients

We will consider how we might find the solution to some simple polynomial equations. An important
part of this process is being able to express a complicated polynomial into a product of simpler
polynomials. This involves factorisation.
Factorisation of polynomial expressions can be achieved more easily if one or more of the factors
is already known. This requires a knowledge of the technique of ‘equating coefficients’ which is
illustrated in the following example.

Example 23
Factorise the expression x3 −17x2 +54x−8 given that one of the factors is (x−4).

Solution
Given that x − 4 is a factor we can write
x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4) × (a quadratic polynomial)
The polynomial must be quadratic because the expression on the left is cubic and x − 4 is linear.
Suppose we write this quadratic as ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are unknown numbers which we
need to find. Then
x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4)(ax2 + bx + c)
Removing the brackets on the right and collecting like terms together we have
x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = ax3 + (b − 4a)x2 + (c − 4b)x − 4c

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Solution (contd.)
Like terms are those which involve the same power of the variable (x).
Equating coefficients means that we compare the coefficients of each term on the left with the
corresponding term on the right. Thus if we look at the x3 terms on each side we see that x3 = ax3
which implies a must equal 1. Similarly by equating coefficients of x2 we find −17 = b − 4a With
a = 1 we have −17 = b − 4 so b must equal −13. Finally, equating constant terms we find
−8 = −4c so that c = 2.
As a check we look at the coefficient of x to ensure it is the same on both sides. Now that we know
a = 1, b = −13, c = 2 we can write the polynomial expression as
x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4)(x2 − 13x + 2)

Exercises
Factorise into a quadratic and linear product the given polynomial expressions

1. x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6, given that x − 1 is a factor

2. x3 − 7x − 6, given that x + 2 is a factor

3. 2x3 + 7x2 + 7x + 2, given that x + 1 is a factor

4. 3x3 + 7x2 − 22x − 8, given that x + 4 is a factor

Answers
1. (x − 1)(x2 − 5x + 6), 2. (x + 2)(x2 − 2x − 3), 3. (x + 1)(2x2 + 5x + 2),
4. (x + 4)(3x2 − 5x − 2).

3. Polynomial equations
When a polynomial expression is equated to zero, a polynomial equation is obtained. Linear and
quadratic equations, which you have already met, are particular types of polynomial equation.

Key Point 9
A polynomial equation has the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = 0

where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are known coefficients, an 6= 0, and x represents an unknown whose value(s)

are to be found.

HELM (2015): 35
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
Polynomial equations of low degree have special names. A polynomial equation of degree 1 is a
linear equation and such equations have been solved in Section 3.1. Degree 2 polynomials are called
quadratics; degree 3 polynomials are called cubics; degree 4 equations are called quartics and so on.
The following are examples of polynomial equations:
5x6 − 3x4 + x2 + 7 = 0, −7x4 + x2 + 9 = 0, t3 − t + 5 = 0, w7 − 3w − 1 = 0
Recall that the degree of the equation is the highest power of x occurring. The solutions or roots
of the equation are those values of x which satisfy the equation.

Key Point 10
A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots.
Some (possibly all) of the roots may be repeated.
Some (possibly all) of the roots may be complex.

Example 24
Verify that x = −1, x = 1 and x = 0 are solutions (roots) of the equation
x3 − x = 0

Solution
We substitute each value in turn into x3 − x.
(−1)3 − (−1) = −1 + 1 = 0
so x = −1 is clearly a root.
It is easy to verify similarly that x = 1 and x = 0 are also solutions.

In the next subsection we will consider ways in which polynomial equations of higher degree than
quadratic can be solved.

Exercises
Verify that the given values are solutions of the given equations.

1. x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, x = 3, x = 2

2. 2t3 + t2 − t = 0, t = 0, t = −1, t = 21 .

36 HELM (2015):
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4. Solving polynomial equations when one solution is known

In Section 3.2 we gave a formula which can be used to solve quadratic equations. Unfortunately
when dealing with equations of higher degree no simple formulae exist. If one of the roots can be
spotted or is known we can sometimes find the others by the method shown in the next Example.

Example 25
Let the polynomial expression x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 18 be denoted by P (x). Verify
that x = 4 is a solution of the equation P (x) = 0. Hence find the other solutions.

Solution
We substitute x = 4 into the polynomial expression P (x):
P (4) = 43 − 17(42 ) + 54(4) − 8 = 64 − 272 + 216 − 8 = 0
So, when x = 4 the left-hand side equals zero. Hence x = 4 is indeed a solution. Knowing that
x = 4 is a root we can state that (x−4) must be a factor of P (x). Therefore P (x) can be re-written
as a product of a linear and a quadratic term:
P (x) = x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4) × (quadratic polynomial)
The quadratic polynomial has already been found in a previous task so we deduce that the given
equation can be written
P (x) = x3 − 17x2 + 54x − 8 = (x − 4)(x2 − 13x + 2) = 0
In this form we see that x − 4 = 0 or x2 − 13x + 2 = 0
The first equation gives x = 4 which we already knew.
The second equation must be solved using one of the methods for solving quadratic equations given
in Section 3.2. For example, using the formula we find
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x = with a = 1, b = −13, c = 2
p 2a
13 ± (−13)2 − 4.1.2
=
√ 2
13 ± 161 13 ± 12.6886
= =
2 2
So x = 12.8443 and x = 0.1557 are roots of x2 − 13x + 2.
Hence the three solutions of P (x) = 0 are x = 4, x = 12.8443 and x = 0.1557, to 4 d.p.

HELM (2015): 37
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
 Task
Solve the equation x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = 0 given that x = −3 is a root.
Consider the equation x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = 0.

Given that x = −3 is a root state a linear factor of the cubic:

Your solution

Answer
x+3
The cubic can therefore be expressed as
x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = (x + 3)(ax2 + bx + c)
where a, b, and c are constants. These can be found by expanding the right-hand side.
Expand the right-hand side:

Your solution

Answer

x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 = ax3 + (3a + b)x2 + (3b + c)x + 3c

Equate coefficients of x3 to find a:

Your solution

Answer
1

Equate constant terms to find c:

Your solution

Answer
3 = 3c so that c = 1

Equate coefficients of x2 to find b:

Your solution

38 HELM (2015):
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Answer
8 = 3a + b so b = 5

This enables us to write the equation as (x + 3)(x2 + 5x + 1) = 0 so x + 3 = 0 or x2 + 5x + 1 = 0.

Now solve the quadratic and state all three roots:

Your solution

Answer
The quadratic equation can be solved using the formula to obtain x = −4.7913 and x = −0.2087.
Thus the three roots of x3 + 8x2 + 16x + 3 are x = −3, x = −4.7913 and x = −0.2087.

Exercises
1. Verify that the given value is a solution of the equation and hence find all solutions:
(a) x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 2 = 0, x = −2 (b) 2x3 + 11x2 − 2x − 35 = 0, x = −5
2. Verify that x = 1 and x = 2 are solutions of x4 + 4x3 − 17x2 + 8x + 4 and hence find all solutions.
Answers
1(a) −2, −0.2087, −4.7913 1(b) −5, −2.1375, 1.6375
2. 1,2, −0.2984, −6.7016

5. Solving polynomial equations graphically

Polynomial equations, particularly of high degree, are difficult to solve unless they take a particularly
simple form. A useful guide to the approximate values of the solutions can be obtained by sketching
the polynomial, and discovering where the curve crosses the x-axis. The real roots of the polynomial
equation P (x) = 0 are given by the values of the intercepts of the function y = P (x) with the x-axis
because on the x-axis y = P (x), is zero. Computer software packages and graphics calculators exist
which can be used for plotting graphs and hence for solving polynomial equations approximately.
Suppose the graph of y = P (x) is plotted and takes a form similar to that shown in Figure 6.

x1 x2 x3
x

Figure 6: A polynomial function which cuts the x axis at points x1 , x2 and x3 .

HELM (2015): 39
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
The graph intersects the x axis at x = x1 , x = x2 and x = x3 and so the equation P (x) = 0 has
three roots x1 , x2 and x3 , because P (x1 ) = 0, P (x2 ) = 0 and P (x3 ) = 0.

Example 26
Plot a graph of the function y = 4x4 − 15x2 + 5x + 6 and hence approximately
solve the equation 4x4 − 15x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.

Solution
The graph has been plotted here with the aid of a computer graph plotting package and is shown
in Figure 7. By hand, a less accurate result would be produced, of course.

x
−5 5

Figure 7: Graph of y = 4x4 − 15x2 + 5x + 6

The solutions of the equation are found by looking for where the graph crosses the horizontal axis.
Careful examination shows the solutions are at or close to x = 1, x = 1.5, x = −0.5, x = −2.

An important feature of the graph of a polynomial is that it is continuous. There are never any gaps
or jumps in the curve. Polynomial curves never turn back on themselves in the horizontal direction,
(unlike a circle). By studying the graph in Figure 6 you will see that if we choose any two values
of x, say a and b, such that y(a) and y(b) have opposite signs, then at least one root lies between
x = a and x = b.

40 HELM (2015):
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Exercises
1. Factorise x3 − x2 − 65x − 63 given that (x + 7) is a factor.

2. Show that x = −1 is a root of x3 +11x2 +31x+21 = 0 and locate the other roots algebraically.

3. Show that x = 2 is a root of x3 − 3x − 2 = 0 and locate the other roots.

4. Solve the equation x4 − 2x2 + 1 = 0.

5. Factorise x4 − 7x3 + 3x2 + 31x + 20 given that (x + 1) is a factor.

6. Given that two of the roots of x4 + 3x3 − 7x2 − 27x − 18 = 0 have the same modulus but
different sign, solve the equation.
(Hint - let two of the roots be α and −α and use the technique of equating coefficients).

7. Consider the polynomial P (x) = 5x3 − 47x2 + 84x. By evaluating P (2) and P (3) show that
at least one root of P (x) = 0 lies between x = 2 and x = 3.

8. Without solving the equation or using a graphical calculator, show that x4 + 4x − 1 = 0 has a
root between x = 0 and x = 1.

Answers
1. (x + 7)(x + 1)(x − 9)
2. x = −1, −3, −7
3. x = 2, −1 (repeated)
4. x = −1, 1 (each root repeated)
5. (x + 1)2 (x − 4)(x − 5)
6. (x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2)

HELM (2015): 41
Section 3.3: Solving Polynomial Equations
Solving Simultaneous  

Linear Equations 3.4 

Introduction
Equations often arise in which there is more than one unknown quantity. When this is the case there
will usually be more than one equation involved. For example in the two linear equations
7x + y = 9, −3x + 2y = 1
there are two unknowns: x and y. In order to solve the equations we must find values for x and
y that satisfy both of the equations simultaneously. The two equations are called simultaneous
equations. You should verify that the solution of these equations is x = 1, y = 2 because by
substituting these values into both equations, the left-hand and right-hand sides are equal.
In this Section we shall show how two simultaneous equations can be solved either by a method
known as elimination or by drawing graphs. In realistic problems which arise in mathematics and
in engineering there may be many equations with many unknowns. Such problems cannot be solved
using a graphical approach (we run out of dimensions in our 3-dimensional world!). Solving these
more general problems requires the use of more general elimination procedures or the use of matrix
algebra. Both of these topics are discussed in later Workbooks.

 

Prerequisites • be able to solve linear equations

Before starting this Section you should . . .

 


Learning Outcomes • solve pairs of simultaneous linear

equations
On completion you should be able to . . .
 

42 HELM (2015):
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1. Solving simultaneous equations by elimination

One way of solving simultaneous equations is by elimination. As the name implies, elimination,
involves removing one or more of the unknowns. Note that if both sides of an equation are multiplied
or divided by a non-zero number an exactly equivalent equation results. For example, if we are given
the equation
x + 4y = 5
then by multiplying both sides by 7 we find
7x + 28y = 35
and this modified equation is equivalent to the original one.
Given two simultaneous equations, elimination of one unknown can be achieved by modifying the
equations so that the coefficients of that unknown in each equation are the same and then subtracting
one modified equation from the other. Consider the following example.

Example 27
Solve the simultaneous equations
3x + 5y = 31 (1)
2x + 3y = 20 (2)

Solution
We first try to modify each equation so that the coefficient of x is the same in both equations. This
can be achieved if Equation (1) is multiplied by 2 and Equation (2) is multiplied by 3. This gives
6x + 10y = 62
6x + 9y = 60
Now the unknown x can be eliminated if the second equation is subtracted from the first:
6x + 10y = 62
subtract 6x + 9y = 60
0x + 1y = 2
The result implies that 1y = 2 and we see immediately that y must equal 2. To find x we substitute
the value found for y into either of the given Equations (1) or (2). For example, using Equation (1),

3x + 5(2) = 31
3x = 21
x = 7

Thus the solution of the simultaneous equations is x = 7, y = 2.

N.B. You should always check your solution by substituting back into both of the given equations.

HELM (2015): 43
Section 3.4: Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
 Example 28
Solve the equations
−3x + y = 18 (3)
7x − 3y = −44 (4)

Solution
We modify the equations so that x can be eliminated. For example, by multiplying Equation (3) by
7 and Equation (4) by 3 we find
−21x + 7y = 126
21x − 9y = −132
If these equations are now added we can eliminate x. Therefore
−21x + 7y = 126
add 21x − 9y = −132
0x − 2y = −6
from which −2y = −6, so that y = 3. Substituting this value of y into Equation (3) we obtain:
−3x + 3 = 18 so that − 3x = 15 so x = −5.
The solution is x = −5, y = 3.

Example 29
Solve the equations
5x + 3y = −74 (5)
−2x − 3y = 26 (6)

Solution
Note that the coefficients of y differ here only in sign.
By adding Equation (5) and Equation (6) we find 3x = −48 so that x = −16.
It then follows that y = 2, and the solution is x = −16, y = 2.

44 HELM (2015):
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Task
Solve the equations
5x − 7y = −80
2x + 11y = 106

The first step is to modify the equations so that the coefficient of x is the same in both.
If the first is multiplied by 2 then the second equation must be multiplied by what?
Your solution

Answer
5
Write down the resulting equations:
Your solution

Answer
10x − 14y = −160, 10x + 55y = 530

Subtract one equation from the other to eliminate x and hence find y:
Your solution

Answer
55y − (−14y) = 530 − (−160) so 69y = 690 so y = 10.

Now substitute back to find x:

Your solution

Answer
x = −2

HELM (2015): 45
Section 3.4: Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
2. Equations with no solution
On occasions we may encounter a pair of simultaneous equations which have no solution. Consider
the following example.

Example 30
Show that the following pair of simultaneous equations have no solution.
10x − 2y = −3 (7)
−5x + y = 1 (8)

Solution
Leaving Equation (7) unaltered and multiplying Equation (8) by 2 we find
10x − 2y = −3
−10x + 2y = 2
Adding these equations to eliminate x we find that y is eliminated as well:
10x − 2y = −3
add −10x + 2y = 2
0x + 0y = −1
The last line ‘0 = −1’ is clearly nonsense.
We say that Equations (7) and (8) are inconsistent and they have no solution.

46 HELM (2015):
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3. Equations with an infinite number of solutions

Some pairs of simultaneous equations can possess an infinite number of solutions. Consider the
following example.

Example 31
Solve the equations
2x + y = 8 (9)
4x + 2y = 16 (10)

Solution
If Equation (9) is multiplied by 2 we find both equations are identical: 4x + 2y = 16. This means
that one of them is redundant and we need only consider the single equation
2x + y = 8
There are infinitely many pairs of values of x and y which satisfy this equation. For example, if
x = 0 then y = 8, if x = 1 then y = 6, and if x = −3 then y = 14. We could continue like this
producing more and more solutions. Suppose we choose a value, say λ, for x. We can then write
2λ + y = 8 so that y = 8 − 2λ
The solution is therefore x = λ, y = 8 − 2λ for any value of λ whatsoever. There are an infinite
number of such solutions.

Exercises
Solve the given simultaneous equations by elimination:

1. (a) 5x + y = 8, −3x + 2y = −10, (b) 2x + 3y = −2, 5x − 5y = 20,

(c) 7x + 11y = −24, −9x + y = 46

2. A straight line has equation of the form y = ax + b. The line passes through the points with
coordinates (2, 4) and (−1, 3). Write down the simultaneous equations which must be satisfied
by a and b. Solve the equations and hence find the equation of the line.

3. A quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is used in signal processing to approximate a more

complicated signal. If this function must pass through the points with coordinates (0, 0), (1, 3)
and (5, −11) write down the simultaneous equations satisfied by a, b and c. Solve these to
find the quadratic function.

Answers
1.(a) x = 2, y = −2 (b) x = 2, y = −2 (c) x = −5, y = 1
1 10
2. y = 3 x + 3 3. y = − 13
10
x2 + 43
10
x

HELM (2015): 47
Section 3.4: Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
4. The graphs of simultaneous linear equations
Each equation in a pair of simultaneous linear equations is, of course, a linear equation and plotting
its graph will produce a straight line. The coordinates (x, y) of the point of intersection of the two
lines represent the solution of the simultaneous equations because this pair of values satisfies both
equations simultaneously. If the two lines do not intersect then the equations have no solution
(this can only happen if they are distinct and parallel). If the two lines are identical, there are an
infinite number of solutions (all points on the line) because the two lines are one on top of the
other. Although not the most convenient (or accurate) approach it is possible to solve simultaneous
equations using this graphical approach. Consider the following examples.

Example 32
Solve the simultaneous equations
4x + y = 9 (11)
−x + y − 1 (12)
by plotting two straight line graphs.

Solution
Equation (11) is rearranged into the standard form for the equation of a straight line: y = −4x + 9.
By selecting two points on the line a graph can be drawn as shown in Figure 8. Similarly, Equation
(12) can be rearranged as y = x − 1 and its graph drawn. This is also shown in Figure 8.

y
4 II: y = x − 1
3
2
1

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

I: y = 9 − 4 x

Figure 8: The coordinates of the point of intersection give the required solution

The coordinates of any point on line I satisfy 4x + y = 9. The coordinates of any point on line
II satisfy −x + y = −1. At the point where the two lines intersect the x and y coordinates must
satisfy both equations simultaneously and so the point of intersection represents the solution. We
see from the graph that the point of intersection is (2, 1). The solution of the given equations is
therefore x = 2, y = 1.

48 HELM (2015):
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Task
Find any solutions of the simultaneous equations: 10x − 2y = 4, 5x − y = −1 by
graphical method.

Your solution

Answer
Re-writing the equations in standard form we find
y = 5x − 2, and y = 5x + 1
Graphs of these lines are shown below. Note that these distinct lines are parallel and so do not
intersect. This means that the given simultaneous equations do not have a solution; they are
inconsistent.
y y = 5x + 1

3
2
1
−2 −1 1 2 x

y = 5x − 2

Exercises
Solve the given equations graphically:

1. 5x − y = 7, 2x + y = 7,

2. 2x − 2y = −2, 5x + y = −9,

3. 7x + 3y = 25, −2x + y = 4,

4. 4x + 4y = −4, x + 7y = −19.

Answers
1. x = 2, y = 3 2. x = −5/3, y = −2/3 3. x = 1, y = 6 4. x = 2, y = −3

HELM (2015): 49
Section 3.4: Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
  

Solving Inequalities 3.5 

Introduction
An inequality is an expression involving one of the symbols ≥, ≤, > or <. This Section will first
show how to manipulate inequalities correctly. Then algebraical and graphical methods of solving
inequalities will be described.

 

Prerequisites • be able to solve linear and quadratic

equations
Before starting this Section you should . . .

 

• re-arrange expressions involving
Learning Outcomes inequalities
On completion you should be able to . . . • solve linear and quadratic inequalities
 

50 HELM (2015):
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1. The inequality symbols

Recall the definitions of the inequality symbols in Key Point 11:

Key Point 11
The symbols >, <, ≥, ≤ are called inequalities
> means: ‘is greater than’, ≥ means: ‘is greater than or equal to’
< means: ‘is less than’, ≤ means: ‘is less than or equal to’

So for example,
8>7 9≥2 −2<3 7≤7
A number line is often a helpful way of picturing inequalities. Given two numbers a and b, if b > a
then b will be to the right of a on the number line as shown in Figure 9.

a b

Figure 9: When b > a, b is to the right of a on the number line.

Note from Figure 10 that −3 > −5, 4 > −2 and 8 > 5.

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 10
Inequalities can always be written in two ways. For example in English we can state that 8 is greater
than 7, or equivalently, that 7 is less than 8. Mathematically we write 8 > 7 or 7 < 8. In general if
b > a then a < b. If a < b then a will be to the left of b on the number line.

Example 33
Rewrite the inequality − 25 < x using only the ‘greater than’ sign, >.

Solution
− 25 < x can be written as x > − 52

HELM (2015): 51
Section 3.5: Solving Inequalities
 Example 34
Rewrite the inequality 5 > x using only the ‘less than’ sign, <.

Solution
5 > x can be written as x < 5.

Sometimes two inequalities are combined into a single statement. Consider for example the statement
3 < x < 6. This is a compact way of writing ‘3 < x and x < 6’. Now 3 < x is equivalent to
x > 3 and so 3 < x < 6 means x is greater than 3 but less than 6.
Inequalities obey simple rules when used in conjunction with arithmetical operations:

Key Point 12

1. Adding or subtracting the same quantity from both sides of an inequality leaves the inequality
symbol unchanged.

2. Multiplying or dividing both sides by a positive number leaves the inequality unchanged.

3. Multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative number reverses the inequality.

For example, since 8 > 5, by adding k to both sides we can state

8+k >5+k
for any value of k. For example (with k = −3) 8 − 3 > 5 − 3. Further, by multiplying both sides of
8 > 5 by k we can state 8k > 5k provided k is positive. However, 8k < 5k if k is negative.
We emphasise that the inequality sign is reversed when multiplying both sides by a negative number.
A common mistake is to forget to reverse the inequality symbol. For example if 8 > 5, multiplying
both sides by −1 gives −8 < −5.

52 HELM (2015):
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Task
Find the result of multiplying both sides of the inequality −18 < 9 by −3.

Your solution

Answer
54 > −27

The modulus or magnitude sign is sometimes used with inequalities. For example |x| < 1 represents
the set of all numbers whose actual size, irrespective of sign, is less than 1. This means any value
between −1 and 1. Thus
|x| < 1 means − 1 < x < 1
Similarly |x| > 4 means all numbers whose size, irrespective of sign, is greater than 4. This means
any value greater than 4 or less than −4. Thus
|x| > 4 means x > 4 or x < −4
In general, if k is a positive number:

Key Point 13

|x| < k means −k < x < k

|x| > k means x > k or x < −k

Exercises
1. State which of the following statements are true and which are false.
(a) 4 > 9, (b) 4 > 4, (c) 4 ≥ 4, (d) 0.001 < 10−5 , (e) | − 19| < 100,
(f) | − 19| > −20, (g) 0.001 ≤ 10−3
In questions 2-9 rewrite each of the statements without using a modulus sign:
2. |x| < 2, 3. |x| < 5, 4. |x| ≤ 7.5, 5. |x − 3| < 2,
6. |x − a| < 1, 7. |x| > 2, 8. |x| > 7.5, 9. |x| ≥ 0.

HELM (2015): 53
Section 3.5: Solving Inequalities
 Answers
1. (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) T (f) T (g) T
2. −2 < x < 2 3. −5 < x < 5 4. −7.5 ≤ x ≤ 7.5
5. −2 < x − 3 < 2 6. −1 < x − a < 1 7. x > 2 or x < −2
8. x > 7.5 or x < −7.5 9. x ≥ 0 or x ≤ 0, in fact any x.

2. Solving linear inequalities algebraically

When we are asked to solve an inequality, the inequality will contain an unknown variable, say x.
Solving means obtaining all values of x for which the inequality is true. In a linear inequality the
unknown appears only to the first power, that is as x, and not as x2 , x3 , x1/2 and so on.
Consider the following examples.

Example 35
Solve the inequality 4x + 3 > 0.

Solution

4x + 3 > 0
4x > −3, by subtracting 3 from both sides
3
x > − by dividing both sides by 4.
4
Hence all values of x greater than − 34 satisfy 4x + 3 > 0.

Example 36
Solve the inequality −3x − 7 ≤ 0.

Solution

−3x − 7 ≤ 0
−3x ≤ 7 by adding 7 to both sides
7
x ≥ − dividing both sides by − 3 and reversing the inequality
3

Hence all values of x greater than or equal to − 37 satisfy −3x − 7 ≤ 0.

54 HELM (2015):
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Task
Solve the inequality 17x + 2 < 4x + 1.
This is done by making x the subject and obtain it on its own on the left-hand
side.

Start by subtracting 4x from both sides to remove quantities involving x from the right:

Your solution

Answer
13x + 2 < 1

Now subtract 2 from both sides to remove the 2 on the left:

Your solution

Answer
13x < −1. Finally, the range of values of x are x < −1/13

Example 37
Solve the inequality |5x − 2| < 4 and depict the solution graphically.

Solution

|5x − 2| < 4 is equivalent to − 4 < 5x − 2 < 4

We treat each part of the inequality separately:

−4 < 5x − 2
−2 < 5x by adding 2 to both sides
2
− < x by dividing both sides by 5
5
So x > − 25 . Now consider the second part: 5x − 2 < 4.

5x − 2 < 4
5x < 6 by adding 2 to both sides
6
x < by dividing both sides by 5
5
6
So x < .
5

HELM (2015): 55
Section 3.5: Solving Inequalities
 Solution (contd.)
Putting both parts of the solution together we see that the inequality is satisfied when
− 25 < x < 56 . This range of values is shown in Figure 11.

−2/5 0 6/5

2 6
Figure 11: |5x − 2| < 4 which is equivalent to 5
<x< 5

Task
Solve the inequality |1 − 2x| < 5.

First of all rewrite the inequality without using the modulus sign:

Your solution
|1 − 2x| < 5 is equivalent to:

Answer
−5 < 1 − 2x < 5
Then treat each part separately. First of all consider −5 < 1 − 2x. Solve this:
Your solution

Answer
x<3
The second part is 1 − 2x < 5. Solve this.
Your solution

Answer
x > −2
Finally, give the solution as one statement:

Your solution

Answer
−2 < x < 3.

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Exercises
In the following questions solve the given inequality algebraically.
1. 4x > 8 2. 5x > 8 3. 8x > 5 4. 8x ≤ 5
5. 2x > 1 6. 3x < −1 7. 5x > 2 8. 2x > 0
9. 8x < 0 10. 3x ≥ 0 11. 3x > 4 12. 43 x > 1
13. 4x ≤ −3 14. 3x ≤ −4 15. 5x ≥ 0 16. 4x ≤ 0
17. 5x + 1 < 8 18. 5x + 1 ≤ 8 19. 7x + 3 ≥ 0
20. 18x + 2 > 9 21. 14x + 11 > 22 22. 1 − 5x ≤ 0
23. 2 + 5x ≥ 1 24. 11 − 7x < 2 25. 5 + 4x > 2x + 1
26. |7x − 3| > 1 27. |2x + 1| ≥ 3 28. |5x| < 1
29. |5x| ≤ 0 30. |1 − 5x| > 2 31. |2 − 5x| ≥ 3
Answers
1. x > 2 2. x > 8/5 3. x > 5/8 4. x ≤ 5/8
5. x > 1/2 6. x < −1/3 7. x > 2/5 8. x > 0
9. x < 0 10. x ≥ 0 11. x > 4/3 12. x > 4/3
13. x ≤ −3/4 14. x ≤ −4/3 15. x ≥ 0 16. x ≤ 0
17. x < 7/5 18. x ≤ 7/5 19. x ≥ −3/7 20. x > 7/18
21. x > 11/14 22. x ≥ 1/5 23. x ≥ −1/5 24. x > 9/7
25. x > −2 26. x > 4/7 or x < 2/7 27. x ≥ 1 or x ≤ −2 28. −1/5 < x < 1/5
29. x = 0 30. x < −1/5, x > 3/5 31. x ≤ −1/5, x ≥ 1

3. Solving inequalities using graphs

Graphs can be used to help solve inequalities. This approach is particularly useful if the inequality is
not linear as, in these cases solving the inequalities algebraically can often be very tricky. Graphics
calculators or software can save a lot of time and effort here.

Example 38
Solve graphically the inequality 5x + 2 < 0.

Solution
y
10
y = 5x + 2

5
x = −2/5
x
−1 0 1 2

Figure 12: Graph of y = 5x + 2.

We consider the function y = 5x + 2 whose graph is shown in Figure 12. The values of x which
make 5x + 2 negative are those for which y is negative. We see directly from the graph that y is
negative when x < − 25 .

HELM (2015): 57
Section 3.5: Solving Inequalities
 Example 39
Find the range of values of x for which x2 − x − 6 < 0.

Solution
We consider the graph of y = x2 − x − 6 which is shown in Figure 13.

y
5
y = x2 − x − 6

x
−2 −1 0 1 2

−5

Figure 13: Graph of y = x2 − x − 6

Note that the graph crosses the x axis when x = −2 and when x = 3, and x2 − x − 6 will be
negative when y is negative. Directly from the graph we see that y is negative when −2 < x < 3.

Task
Find the range of values of x for which x2 − x − 6 > 0.
The graph of y = x2 − x − 6 has been drawn in Figure 13. We require
y = x2 − x − 6 to be positive.

Use the graph to solve the problem:

Your solution

Answer
x < −2 or x > 3

58 HELM (2015):
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Example 40
By plotting a graph of y = 20x4 − 4x3 − 143x2 + 46x + 165 find the range of
values of x for which
20x4 − 4x3 − 143x2 + 46x + 165 < 0

Solution
A software package has been used to plot the graph which is shown in Figure 14. We see that y is
negative when −2.5 < x < −1 and is also negative when 1.5 < x < 2.2.
y

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 3 4 5
x

Figure 14: Graph of y = 20x4 − 4x3 − 143x2 + 46x + 165

Exercises
In questions 1-5 solve the given inequality graphically:
1. 3x + 1 < 0 2. 2x − 7 < 0 3. 6x + 9 > 0, 4. 5x − 3 > 0 5. x2 − x − 6 < 0

Answers
1. x < −1/3 2. x < 7/2, 3. x > −3/2 4. x > 3/5 5. −2 < x < 3

HELM (2015): 59
Section 3.5: Solving Inequalities
  

Partial Fractions 3.6 

Introduction
It is often helpful to break down a complicated algebraic fraction into a sum of simpler fractions. For
4x + 7 1 3
example it can be shown that 2 has the same value as + for any value of x.
x + 3x + 2 x+2 x+1
We say that
4x + 7 1 3
is identically equal to +
x2 + 3x + 2 x+2 x+1
4x + 7 1 3
and that the partial fractions of 2 are and .
x + 3x + 2 x+2 x+1
The ability to express a fraction as its partial fractions is particularly useful in the study of Laplace
transforms, Z-transforms, Control Theory and Integration. In this Section we explain how partial
fractions are found.

 
• be familiar with addition, subtraction,
Prerequisites multiplication and division of algebraic
Before starting this Section you should . . . fractions

# 
• distinguish between proper and improper
fractions
Learning Outcomes
• express an algebraic fraction as the sum of its
On completion you should be able to . . .
partial fractions
" !

60 HELM (2015):
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 ®

1. Proper and improper fractions

Frequently we find that an algebraic fraction appears in the form
numerator
algebraic fraction =
denominator
where both numerator and denominator are polynomials. For example
x3 + x2 + 3x + 7 3x2 − 2x + 5 x
2
, 2
, and 4
,
x +1 x − 7x + 2 x +1
The degree of the numerator, n say, is the highest power occurring in the numerator. The degree
of the denominator, d say, is the highest power occurring in the denominator. If d > n the fraction
is said to be proper; the third expression above is such an example. If d ≤ n the fraction is said to
be improper; the first and second expressions above are examples of this type. Before calculating
the partial fractions of an algebraic fraction it is important to decide whether the fraction is proper
or improper.

Task
For each of the following fractions state the degree of the numerator (= n) and
the degree of the denominator (= d). Hence classify the fractions as proper or
improper.
x3 + x2 + 3x + 7 3x2 − 2x + 5 x s2 + 4s + 5
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d)
x2 + 1 x2 − 7x + 2 x4 + 1 (s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3)

(a) Find the degree of denominator and numerator and hence classify (a):
Your solution

Answer
The degree of the numerator, n, is 3. The degree of the denominator, d, is 2.
Because d ≤ n the fraction is improper.

(b) Here n = 2 and d = 2. State whether (b) is proper or improper:

Your solution

Answer
d ≤ n; the fraction is improper.

(c) Noting that x = x1 , state whether (c) is proper or improper:

Your solution

Answer
d > n; the fraction is proper.

HELM (2015): 61
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
(d) Find the degree of the numerator and denominator of (d):
Your solution

Answer
Removing the brackets in the denominator we see that d = 3. As n = 2 this fraction is proper.

Exercise
For each fraction state the degrees of the numerator and denominator, and hence determine which
are proper and which are improper.
x+1 x2 (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
(a) , (b) 3 , (c)
x x −x x−5
Answers (a) n = 1, d = 1, improper, (b) n = 2, d = 3, proper, (c) n = 3, d = 1, improper.

The denominator of an algebraic fraction can often be factorised into a product of linear and/or
quadratic factors. Before we can separate algebraic fractions into simpler (partial) fractions we need
to completely factorise the denominators into linear and quadratic factors. Linear factors are those
of the form ax + b; for example 2x + 7, 3x − 2 and 4 − x. Irreducible quadratic factors are those
of the form ax2 + bx + c such as x2 + x + 1, and 4x2 − 2x + 3, which cannot be factorised into linear
factors (these are quadratics with complex roots).

2. Proper fractions with linear factors

Firstly we describe how to calculate partial fractions for proper fractions where the denominator may
be written as a product of linear factors. The steps are as follows:

• Factorise the denominator.

• Each factor will produce a partial fraction. A factor such as 3x + 2 will produce a partial
A
fraction of the form where A is an unknown constant. In general a linear factor
3x + 2
A
ax + b will produce a partial fraction . The unknown constants for each partial
ax + b
fraction may be different and so we will call them A, B, C and so on.
• Evaluate the unknown constants by equating coefficients or using specific values of x.

The sum of the partial fractions is identical to the original algebraic fraction for all values of x.

Key Point 14
A
A linear factor ax + b in the denominator gives rise to a single partial fraction of the form
ax + b

62 HELM (2015):
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The steps involved in expressing a proper fraction as partial fractions are illustrated in the following
Example.

Example 41
7x + 10
Express in terms of partial fractions.
2x2 + 5x + 3

Solution
Note that this fraction is proper. The denominator is factorised to give (2x + 3)(x + 1). Each of
the linear factors produces a partial fraction. The factor 2x + 3 produces a partial fraction of the
A B
form and the factor x + 1 produces a partial fraction , where A and B are constants
2x + 3 x+1
which we need to find. We write
7x + 10 A B
= +
(2x + 3)(x + 1) 2x + 3 x + 1
By multiplying both sides by (2x + 3)(x + 1) we obtain
7x + 10 = A(x + 1) + B(2x + 3) . . . (*)
We may now let x take any value we choose. By an appropriate choice we can simplify the
right-hand side. Let x = −1 because this choice eliminates A. We find

7(−1) + 10 = A(0) + B(−2 + 3)

3 = B

so that the constant B must equal 3. The constant A can be found either by substituting some
other value for x or alternatively by ‘equating coefficients’.
Observe that, by rearranging the right-hand side, Equation (*) can be written as
7x + 10 = (A + 2B)x + (A + 3B)
Comparing the coefficients of x on both sides we see that 7 = A + 2B. We already know B = 3
and so

7 = A + 2(3)
= A+6

from which A = 1. We can therefore write

7x + 10 1 3
2
= +
2x + 5x + 3 2x + 3 x + 1
We have succeeded in expressing the given fraction as the sum of its partial fractions. The result
can always be checked by adding the fractions on the right.

HELM (2015): 63
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
 Task
9 − 4x
Express in partial fractions.
3x2−x−2

First factorise the denominator:

Your solution
3x2 − x − 2 =

Answer
(3x + 2)(x − 1)

Because there are two linear factors we write

9 − 4x A B
2
= +
3x − x − 2 3x + 2 x − 1
Multiply both sides by (3x + 2)(x − 1) to obtain the equation from which to find A and B:
Your solution
9 − 4x =

Answer
9 − 4x = A(x − 1) + B(3x + 2)

Substitute an appropriate value for x to obtain B:

Your solution

Answer
Substitute x = 1 and get B = 1

Equating coefficients of x to obtain the value of A:

Your solution

Answer
−4 = A + 3B, A = −7 since B = 1

Finally, write down the partial fractions:

Your solution
9 − 4x
=
3x2 − x − 2

Answer
−7 1
+
3x + 2 x − 1

64 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Exercises
5x − 1 7x + 25 11x + 1
1. Find the partial fractions of (a) , (b) , (c) .
(x + 1)(x − 2) (x + 4)(x + 3) (x − 1)(2x + 1)

Check by adding the partial fractions together again.

2. Express each of the following as the sum of partial fractions:

3 5 −3
(a) , (b) 2 , (c) ,
(x + 1)(x + 2) x + 7x + 12 (2x + 1)(x − 3)
Answers
2 3 3 4 4 3
1(a) + , 1(b) + 1(c) + ,
x+1 x−2 x+4 x+3 x − 1 2x + 1
3 3 5 5 6 3
2(a) − , 2(b) − , 2(c) − .
x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4 7(2x + 1) 7(x − 3)

3. Proper fractions with repeated linear factors

Sometimes a linear factor appears more than once. For example in
1 1 1
= which equals
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)2
the factor (x + 1) occurs twice. We call it a repeated linear factor. The repeated linear factor
A B
(x + 1)2 produces two partial fractions of the form + . In general, a repeated linear
x + 1 (x + 1)2
factor of the form (ax + b)2 generates two partial fractions of the form
A B
+
ax + b (ax + b)2
This is reasonable since the sum of two such fractions always gives rise to a proper fraction:
A B A(ax + b) B x(Aa) + Ab + B
+ = + =
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)2 (ax + b)2 (ax + b)2

Key Point 15
A repeated linear factor (ax + b)2 in the denominator produces two partial fractions:
A B
+
ax + b (ax + b)2

Once again the unknown constants are found by either equating coefficients and/or substituting
specific values for x.

HELM (2015): 65
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
 Task
10x + 18
Express in partial fractions.
4x2+ 12x + 9

First factorise the denominator:

Your solution
4x2 + 12x + 9 =

Answer
(2x + 3)(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2

There is a repeated linear factor (2x + 3) which gives rise to two partial fractions of the form
10x + 18 A B
2
= +
(2x + 3) 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2
Multiply both sides through by (2x + 3)2 to obtain the equation to be solved to find A and B:

Your solution

Answer
10x + 18 = A(2x + 3) + B

Now evaluate the constants A and B by equating coefficients:

Your solution

Answer
Equating the x coefficients gives 10 = 2A so A = 5. Equating constant terms gives 18 = 3A + B
from which B = 3.

Finally express the answer in partial fractions:

Your solution

Answer
10x + 18 5 3
2
= +
(2x + 3) 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2

66 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Exercises
Express the following in partial fractions.
3−x 7x − 15 3x + 14
(a) , (b) − (c)
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2 x2 + 8x + 16

5x + 18 2x2 − x + 1 5x2 + 23x + 24

(d) (e) (f)
(x + 4)2 (x + 1)(x − 1)2 (2x + 3)(x + 2)2

6x2 − 30x + 25 s+2 2s + 3

(g) (h) (i) .
(3x − 2)2 (x + 7) (s + 1)2 s2

Answers
1 2 7 8 3 2
(a) − + (b) − + (c) +
x − 1 (x − 1)2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 4 (x + 4)2

5 2 1 1 1 3 1 2
(d) − (e) + + (f) + +
x + 4 (x + 4)2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 2x + 3 x + 2 (x + 2)2

1 1 1 1 1 2 3
(g) − + + (h) + (i) + 2.
3x − 2 (3x − 2)2 x + 7 s + 1 (s + 1)2 s s

4. Proper fractions with quadratic factors

Sometimes when a denominator is factorised it produces a quadratic term which cannot be factorised
into linear factors. One such quadratic factor is x2 + x + 1. This factor produces a partial fraction
Ax + B
of the form 2 . In general a quadratic factor of the form ax2 + bx + c produces a single
x +x+1
Ax + B
partial fraction of the form 2 .
ax + bx + c

Key Point 16

A quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c in the denominator produces a partial fraction of the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c

HELM (2015): 67
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
 Task
3x + 1
Express as partial fractions
(x2 + x + 10)(x − 1)

Note that the quadratic factor cannot be factorised further. We have

3x + 1 Ax + B C
= 2 +
(x2 + x + 10)(x − 1) x + x + 10 x − 1
First multiply both sides by (x2 + x + 10)(x − 1):
Your solution
3x + 1 =

Answer
(Ax + B)(x − 1) + C(x2 + x + 10)

Evaluate C by letting x = 1:

Your solution

Answer
1
4 = 12C so that C =
3

Equate coefficients of x2 and hence find A, and then substitute any other value for x (or equate
coefficients of x) to find B:
Your solution
A= B=

Answer
7
− 13 , .
3
Finally express in partial fractions:

Your solution

Answer
3x + 1 − 13 x + 37 1
3 7−x 1
= + = +
(x2 + x + 10)(x − 1) x2 + x + 10 x − 1 3(x2 + x + 10) 3(x − 1)

68 HELM (2015):
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Engineering Example 3

Admittance

Admittance, Y , is a quantity which is used in analysing electronic circuits. A typical expression for
admittance is
s2 + 4s + 5
Y (s) =
(s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3)
where s can be thought of as representing frequency. To predict the behaviour of the circuit it is
often necessary to express the admittance as the sum of its partial fractions and find the effect of
each part separately. Express Y (s) in partial fractions.
The fraction is proper. The denominator contains an irreducible quadratic factor, which cannot be
factorised further, and also a linear factor. Thus
s2 + 4s + 5 As + B C
2
= 2 + (1)
(s + 2s + 4)(s + 3) s + 2s + 4 s + 3
Multiplying both sides of Equation (1) by (s2 + 2s + 4)(s + 3) we obtain
s2 + 4s + 5 = (As + B)(s + 3) + C(s2 + 2s + 4) (2)
To find the constant C we let s = −3 in Equation (2) to eliminate A and B.
Thus
(−3)2 + 4(−3) + 5 = C((−3)2 + 2(−3) + 4)
so that
2
2 = 7C and so C=
7
Equating coefficients of s2 in Equation (2) we find
1=A+C
2
so that A = 1 − C = 1 − 7
= 57 .
Equating constant terms in Equation (2) gives 5 = 3B + 4C
 
2 27
so that 3B = 5 − 4C = 5 − 4 =
7 7
9
so B=
7
5
s2 + 4s + 5 7
s + 79 2
7
Finally Y (s) = 2 = 2 +
(s + 2s + 4)(s + 3) s + 2s + 4 s + 3
5s + 9 2
which can be written as Y (s) = +
7(s2+ 2s + 4) 7(s + 3)

HELM (2015): 69
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
 Exercise
Express each of the following as the sum of its partial fractions.
3 27x2 − 4x + 5 2x + 4 6x2 + 13x + 2
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d)
(x2 + x + 1)(x − 2) (6x2 + x + 2)(x − 3) 4x2 + 12x + 9 (x2 + 5x + 1)(x − 1)

Answers
3 3(x + 3) 3x + 1 4 1 1
(a) − (b) + (c) +
7(x − 2) 7(x2 + x + 1) 6x2+x+2 x−3 2x + 3 (2x + 3)2
3x + 1 3
(d) + .
x2 + 5x + 1 x − 1

5. Improper fractions
When calculating the partial fractions of improper fractions an extra polynomial is added to any
partial fractions that would normally arise. The added polynomial has degree n − d where n is the
degree of the numerator and d is the degree of the denominator. Recall that
a polynomial of degree 0 is a constant, A say,
a polynomial of degree 1 has the form Ax + B,
a polynomial of degree 2 has the form Ax2 + Bx + C,
and so on.
If, for example, the improper fraction is such that the numerator has degree 5 and the denominator
has degree 3, then n − d = 2, and we need to add a polynomial of the form Ax2 + Bx + C.

Key Point 17

If a fraction is improper an additional term is included taking the form of a polynomial of degree
n − d, where n is the degree of the numerator and d is the degree of the denominator.

70 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Example 42
Express as partial fractions
2x2 − x − 2
x+1

Solution
The fraction is improper because n = 2, d = 1 and so d ≤ n. Here n − d = 1, so we need to include
as an extra term a polynomial of the form Bx + C, in addition to the usual partial fractions. The
A
linear term in the denominator gives rise to a partial fraction . So altogther we have
x+1
2x2 − x − 2 A
= + (Bx + C)
x+1 x+1
Multiplying both sides by x + 1 we find
2x2 − x − 2 = A + (Bx + C)(x + 1) = Bx2 + (C + B)x + (C + A)
Equating coefficients of x2 gives B = 2.
Equating coefficients of x gives −1 = C + B and so C = −1 − B = −3.
Equating the constant terms gives −2 = C + A and so A = −2 − C = −2 − (−3) = 1.
Finally, we have
2x2 − x − 2 1
= + 2x − 3
x+1 x+1

Exercise
Express each of the following improper fractions in terms of partial fractions.
x+3 3x − 7 x2 + 2x + 2 2x2 + 7x + 7
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d)
x+2 x−3 x+1 x+2
3x5 + 4x4 − 21x3 − 40x2 − 24x − 29 4x5 + 8x4 + 23x3 + 27x2 + 25x + 9
(e) , (f)
(x + 2)2 (x − 3) (x2 + x + 1)(2x + 1)

Answers
1 2 1 1
(a) 1 + ’ (b) 3 + , (c) 1 + x + (d) 2x + 3 + ,
x+2 x−3 x+1 x+2
1 1 1 1 1
(e) 2
+ + + 3x2 + x + 2, (f) 2x2 + x + 7 + + 2
(x + 2) x+2 x−3 2x + 1 x + x + 1

HELM (2015): 71
Section 3.6: Partial Fractions
NOTES  
 Index for Workbook 3

Admittance 69 Partial fractions 60-71

Annulus 27 Pipe mass 27
Polynomial 32
Coefficient 3, 32 Polynomial equations 31-41
Completing the square 17 Proper fractions 61-67
Continuous function 40
Cubic 32 Quadratic 14, 33
Quadratic equations 13-30
Degree 22, 32
Quadratic formula 21-22
Denominator 61
Quartic 36
Double root 16
Repeated root 16
Electronic circuits 25, 69
Root 3, 14, 36
Elimination 43
Equations - linear 2
Solving equations
- polynomial 31
- coefficients 37
- quadratic 13
- elimination 43
- simultaneous 42
- factors 15, 37
Factorisation 15, 34 - formula 21,37
Formula 21, 37 - graph 39
Fraction - improper 61, 70-71 - linear 2-11
- proper 61-67 - polynomial 31-41
- quadratic 13-30
Graphs 29, 48, 57 - simultaneous 42-49

Improper fractions 61, 70-71 Solving inequalities

Inconsistent equations 46 - by algebra 54
Inequalities 51-59 - by graph 57
Inequality symbols 51
Undersea cable 25
Kirchhoff’s law 10
EXERCISES
Linear equations 2-11 5, 11, 15, 17, 21, 29, 30, 35, 36, 39, 41,
Linear factor 3, 33, 62, 65 47, 49, 53, 57, 59, 62, 65, 67, 70, 71
Modulus function 53
ENGINEERING EXAMPLES
Numerator 61 1 Undersea cable fault location 25
2 Estimating the mass of a pipe 27
Ohm’s law 25 3 Admittance 69