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PROGRAMMING & DATA STRUCTURES

1 C PROGRAMMING

All C programs must have a function in it named as main().

(a) Execution starts in function main
(b) C is case sensitive
(c) Comments start with /* and end with */. Comments may span over many lines.
(d) C is a “free format” language
(e) All C statements must end in a semicolon (;).
(f) The #include <stdio.h> instruction instructs the C compiler to insert the entire contents of
file stdio.h in its place and compile the resulting file.

1. PRINTF () FUNCTION IN C LANGUAGE

▪ In C, printf() function is used to print on the output screen the "character, string, float value,
integer value, octal value, and hexadecimal value"

Data Type Format Specifier

Int %d

char %c

float %f

double %lf

short int %hd

unsigned int %u

long int %li

long long int %lli

unsigned long int %lu

unsigned long long int %llu

signed char %c

unsigned char %c

long double %Lf

Table 1.1: Data types and format specifiers

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Here's a list of commonly used C data types and their format specifiers.
Example Program for printf in C
1. #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch = 'A';
char str[20] = "byjus.co ";
float flt = 10.234;
int no = 150;
double dbl = 20.123456;
printf("Character is %c \n", ch);
printf("String is %s \n" , str);
printf("Float value is %f \n", flt);
printf("Integer value is %d\n" , no);
printf("Double value is %lf \n", dbl);
printf("Double value upto 2 decimal is %2lf \n", dbl);
printf("Octal value is %o \n", no);
printf("Hexadecimal value is %x \n", no);
return 0;
}
Output:
Character is A
String is byjus.co
Float value is 10.234000
Integer value is 150
Double value is 20.123456
Double value upto 2 decimal is 20.12
Octal value is 226
Hexadecimal value is 96

2. #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Displays the string inside quotations
printf("C Programming");
return 0;
}

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Output
C Programming.

3. #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int testInteger = 5;
printf("Number = %d", testInteger);
return 0;
}
Output
Number = 5

2. SCANF() FUNCTION IN C LANGUAGE

• The scanf() function is used in the programming language C to read the character, string
and numeric keyboard data.
• Consider the example below where a character is entered by a user. This is assigned to and
then displayed in the variable "ch."
• Then the user enters a string and this value is assigned to the variable “str” and then
displayed.
Example-
1. #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch;
char str[100];
printf("Enter any character \n");
scanf("%c", &ch);
printf("Entered character is %c \n", ch);
printf("Enter any string ( upto 100 character ) \n");
scanf("%s", &str);
printf("Entered string is %s \n", str);
}
Output:
Enter any character
a
Entered character is a
Enter any string ( upto 100 character )
hero
Entered string is hero

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▪ The format specifier %d is used in scanf() statement. So, the value entered is received as
an integer and %s for string.
▪ Ampersand is used before the variable name “ch” in scanf() statement as &ch.

2. #include <stdio.h>
int main () {
char str1[20], str2[30];

printf("Enter name: ");

scanf("%s", str1);

printf("Enter your website name: ");

scanf("%s", str2);

printf("Entered Name: %s\n", str1);

printf("Entered Website:%s", str2);

return(0);
}
Output:
Enter name: admin
Enter your website name:xyx

Entered Name: admin

Entered Website:xyz

3. #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
scanf("This is the value %d", &a);
printf("Input value read : a = %d", a);
return 0;
}
Input : This is the value 100
Output : Input value read : a = 100

3. C – DATA TYPES

There are four data types in the C language. They are

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Types Data Types

Basic data types int, char, float, double

Enumeration data type enum

Derived data type Pointer, array, structure, union

Void data type void

Table 1.2: Data types in C

3.1. Integer type
Integers are used to store whole numbers.

Type Size(bytes) Range

int or signed int 2 -32,768 to 32767

unsigned int 2 0 to 65535

short int or signed short int 1 -128 to 127

unsigned short int 1 0 to 255

long int or signed long int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295

Table 1.3: Range of integer type

3.2. Floating point type

Floating type is used for storing real numbers.
Size and range of the 16-bit machine floating type.

Type Size(bytes) Range

Float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38

double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308

3.4E-4932 to
long double 10
1.1E+4932

Table 1.4: Range of floating type

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3.3. Character type
Character type is used to store the value of the character.
Size and range of character type on 16-bit machine

Type Size(bytes) Range

-128 to
char or signed char 1
127

unsigned char 1 0 to 255

Table 1.5: Range of char type

3.4. Void type
Void type means no value. This is usually used to specify the type of functions which
returns nothing. We will get acquainted with this datatype as we start learning more
advanced topics in C language, like functions, pointers etc.
In C programming, data types are declared for variables. This determines the type and
size of data associated with variables.
For example:
int myVar;
Here, myVar is a variable of int (integer) type. The size of int is 4 bytes.
int
Integers are whole numbers that can have both zero, positive and negative values but
no decimal values. For example, 0, -5, 10
We can use int for declaring an integer variable.
int id;
Here, id is a variable of type integer.
You can declare multiple variables at once in C programming. For example,
int id, age;
The size of int is usually 4 bytes (32 bits). And, it can take 232 distinct states from -
2147483648 to 2147483647.
float and double
float and double are used to hold real numbers.
float salary;
double price;
In C, floating-point numbers can also be represented in exponential. For example,
float normalization factor = 22.442e2;

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What's the difference between float and double?
The size of float is 4 bytes. And the size of double (double precision float data type) is 8
bytes.

char
Keyword char is used for declaring character type variables. For example,
char test = 'h';
The size of the character variable is 1 byte.
void
void is an incomplete type. It means "nothing" or "no type". You can think of void
as absent.
For example, if a function is not returning anything, its return type should be void.
Note that, you cannot create variables of void type.
short and long
If you need to use a large number, you can use a type specifier long. Here's how:
long a;
long long b;
long double c;
Here variables a and b can store integer values. And c can store a floating-point
number.
If you are sure, only a small integer ([−32,767, +32,767] range) will be used, you can
use short.
short d;
You can always check the size of a variable using the sizeof() operator.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
short a;
long b;
long long c;
long double d;
printf("size of short = %d bytes\n", sizeof(a));
printf("size of long = %d bytes\n", sizeof(b));
printf("size of long long = %d bytes\n", sizeof(c));
printf("size of long double= %d bytes\n", sizeof(d));
return 0;
}

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signed and unsigned
In C, signed and unsigned are type modifiers. You can alter the data storage of a data
type by using them. For example,
unsigned int x;
int y;
Here, only zero and positive values can be found in variable x because the unsigned
modifier has been used.
Considering the size of int is 4 bytes, variable y can hold values from -231 to 231-1,
whereas variable x can hold values from 0 to 232-1.
Other data types defined in C programming are:
● bool Type
● Enumerated type
● Complex types
Derived Data Types
Data types derived from basic data types are derived. For instance: arrays, points,
types of functions, structures, etc.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int testInteger = 5;
printf("Number = %d", testInteger);
return 0;
}
Output
Number = 5
We use %d format specifier to print int types. Here, the %d inside the quotations will
be replaced by the value of testInteger.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float number1 = 13.5;
double number2 = 12.4;

printf("number1 = %f\n", number1);

printf("number2 = %lf", number2);
return 0;
}

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Output
number 1 = 13.500000
number2 = 12.400000
To print float, we use %f format specifier. Similarly, we use %lf to print double values.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char chr = 'a';
printf("character = %c", chr);
return 0;
}
Output
character = a

4. C TOKENS

The smallest individual units are known as C tokens. C has six types of tokens: Keywords,
Identifiers, Constants, Operators, Delimiters / Separators and Special symbols.
4.1. Keywords: All keywords are mainly character sequences which have a fixed meaning or
more.
o Keywords are predefined words in a C compiler.
o Each keyword is meant to perform a specific function in a C program.
o since keywords are referred names for the compiler, they can’t be used as variable
names.
o All C keywords must be written in lowercase letters.
4.2. Identifiers: C identifier is a name for the identification of a user-defined variable,
function, or other object.
RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING IDENTIFIER NAME IN C:
• First character should be an alphabet or underscore.
• Succeeding characters might be digits or letters.
• Punctuation and special characters aren’t allowed except underscore.
• Identifiers should not be keywords.
4.3. Constants: Fixed values that do not change during the execution of a C program.
Example: 100 is integer constant, 'a' is character constant, etc.
4.4. Operators: O Operator is a symbol telling a computer to perform certain logical or
mathematical manipulations.
Example: Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), Logical operators, Bitwise operators, etc.
4.5. Delimiters / Separators: The constants, variables and statements are separated.
Example: comma, semicolon, apostrophes, double quotes, blank space etc.

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4.6. Strings: String constants are specified in double quotes.
Example: "gateexam" is string constant
Example of token-
int main()
{
int x, y, total;
x = 10, y = 20;
total = x + y;
printf ("Total = %d \n", total);
}
where,
● main – identifier
● {,}, (,) – delimiter
● int – keyword
● x, y, total – identifier
● main, {, }, (, ), int, x, y, total – tokens
IDENTIFIERS IN C LANGUAGE:
● Each program element in a C program is given a name called identifiers.
● Names given to identify Variables, functions and arrays are examples for identifiers.
eg. x is a name given to the integer variable in the above program.
RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING IDENTIFIER NAME IN C:
1. The alphabet or underscore should be the first character.
2. Digits or letters may be the following characters.
3. Punctuation and special characters aren’t allowed except underscore.
4. Identifiers should not be keywords.
KEYWORDS IN C LANGUAGE:
● Keywords are predefined words in a C-Compiler.
● A specific function in a C-Program must be done in each keyword.
● Keywords are compiler referred names, so variable names cannot be used.

5. TYPES OF OPERATORS

Figure 1.1: Types of operators in C

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Operators Symbols

Arithmetic operators +, -, *, /, %, ++, --

Assignment operator =, +=, -=, *=, etc

Relational operators <, <=, >, >=, !=, ==

Logical operators &&, ||, !

Bitwise operators &, |, ~, ^, <<, >>

Special operators sizeof(), comma, 🡪

Pointer operators * - Value at address (indirection), & - Address Operator

Table 1.6: Operators and symbols

5.1. Post Increment & Pre-Increment

Example 1: Arithmetic Operators
// Working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int a = 9, b = 4, c;

c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);
c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);
c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);
c = a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);
c = a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);

return 0;
}
Output
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1

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The operators +, - and * computes addition, subtraction, and multiplication respectively
as you might have expected.
In normal calculation, 9/4 = 2.25. However, the output is 2 in the program.
It is because both the variables a and b are integers. Hence, the output is also an
integer. The compiler neglects the term after the decimal point and shows
answer 2 instead of 2.25.
The modulo operator % computes the remainder. When a=9 is divided by b=4, the
remainder is 1. The % operator can only be used with integers.
Suppose a = 5.0, b = 2.0, c = 5 and d = 2. Then in C programming,
// Either one of the operands is a floating-point number
a/b = 2.5
a/d = 2.5
c/b = 2.5

// Both operands are integers

c/d = 2
Unary operators (Increment and Decrement Operators)
C programming has two operators increment ++ and decrement -- to change the value
of an operand (constant or variable) by 1.
Increment ++ increases the value by 1 whereas decrement -- decreases the value by 1.
These two operators are unary operators, meaning they only operate on a single
operand.
Example 2: Increment and Decrement Operators
// Working of increment and decrement operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;

printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);

printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);

return 0;
}
Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
--d = 99.500000

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Here, the operators ++ and -- are used as prefixes. These two operators can also be
used as postfixes like a++ and a--
Assignment Operators
An assignment operator is used for assigning a value to a variable. The most common
assignment operator is =

Operator Example Same as

= a=b a=b

+= a += b a = a+b

-= a -= b a = a-b

*= a *= b a = a*b

/= a /= b a = a/b

%= a %= b a = a%b

Table 1.7: Types of assignment operators

Example 3: Assignment Operators

// Working of assignment operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, c;

c = a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c += a; // c is 10
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c -= a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c *= a; // c is 25
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c /= a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c %= a; // c = 0
printf("c = %d\n", c);

return 0;
}

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Output
c=5
c = 10
c=5
c = 25
c=5
c=0

Relational Operators
The relationship between two operands is checked by a relation operator. If the
relationship is true, the value returns 1; if the relationship is false, the value returns 0.

Meaning of
Operator Example
Operator

== Equal to 5 == 3 is evaluated to 0

> Greater than 5 > 3 is evaluated to 1

< Less than 5 < 3 is evaluated to 0

!= Not equal to 5 != 3 is evaluated to 1

Greater than or equal

>= 5 >= 3 is evaluated to 1
to

<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 3 is evaluated to 0

Table 1.8: Types of relational operators

Example 4: Relational Operators

// Working of relational operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;

printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, b, a == b);

printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, c, a == c);

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printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, b, a > b);
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, c, a > c);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, b, a < b);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, c, a < c);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, b, a != b);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, c, a != c);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, b, a >= b);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, c, a >= c);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, b, a <= b);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, c, a <= c);

return 0;
}
Output
5 == 5 is 1
5 == 10 is 0
5 > 5 is 0
5 > 10 is 0
5 < 5 is 0
5 < 10 is 1
5 != 5 is 0
5 != 10 is 1
5 >= 5 is 1
5 >= 10 is 0
5 <= 5 is 1
5 <= 10 is 1

Logical Operators
An expression containing a logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether
the expression results true or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision
making in C programming.

Operator Meaning Example

Logical AND. True only if all If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression

&&
operands are true ((c==5) && (d>5)) equals to 0.

Logical OR. True only if either If c = 5 and d = 2 then, expression

||
one operand is true ((c==5) || (d>5)) equals 1.

Logical NOT. True only if the If c = 5 then, expression !(c==5)

!
operand is 0 equals to 0.

Table 1.9: Types of logical operators

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Example 5: Logical Operators
// Working of logical operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;

result = (a == b) && (c > b);

printf("(a == b) && (c > b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a == b) && (c < b);

printf("(a == b) && (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a == b) || (c < b);

printf("(a == b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a != b) || (c < b);

printf("(a != b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = !(a != b);

printf("!(a != b) is %d \n", result);

result = !(a == b);

printf("!(a == b) is %d \n", result);

return 0;
}
Output

(a == b) && (c > b) is 1

(a == b) && (c < b) is 0

(a == b) || (c < b) is 1

(a != b) || (c < b) is 0

!(a != b) is 1

!(a == b) is 0

Explanation of logical operator program

● (a == b) && (c > 5) evaluates to 1 because both operands (a == b) and (c > b) is 1

(true).

● (a == b) && (c < b) evaluates to 0 because operand (c < b) is 0 (false).

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● (a == b) || (c < b) evaluates to 1 because (a = b) is 1 (true).

● (a != b) || (c < b) evaluates to 0 because both operand (a != b) and (c < b) are 0

(false).

● !(a != b) evaluates to 1 because operand (a != b) is 0 (false). Hence, !(a != b) is 1

(true).

● !(a == b) evaluates to 0 because (a == b) is 1 (true). Hence, !(a == b) is 0 (false).

Bitwise Operators

Mathematical operations such as: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc., are

converted into bits during computation, thus speeding up processing and saving power.

In the programming of C, bit-level operators are used to perform operations.

Meaning of operators
Operators

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

~ Bitwise complement

<< Shift left

>> Shift right

Table 1.10: Types of bitwise operator

Comma Operator
Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:
int a, c = 5, d;
The size of operator
The size of is a unary operator that returns the size of data (constants, variables, array,
structure, etc).

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Example 6: Size of operator
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));

return 0;
}
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes
Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte

Ternary operator
The Ternary operators “? :” are just like an if-else statement except that because it is an
operator we can use it within expressions. ? : are ternary operators in that it takes three
values. They are the only ternary operator in C language.
Syntax→ Boolean Expression? First Statement: Second Statement
flag = (x < 0) ?0: 1;
This conditional statement can be evaluated as follows with an equivalent if else
statement.
if (x < 0) flag = 0;
else flag = 1;
Example 7: int a=100, b=200,c=300,x;
x = (a>b) ? ((a>c)? a : c) : ((b>c) ? b : c);
Sol: a>b false so we evaluate (b > c) which is again false.
therefore x = c

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Example 8:
Syntax
use the ternary operator:
int a = 10, b = 20, c;

c = (a < b) ? a : b;

printf("%d", c);
Output of the example above should be:
10
c is set equal to a, because the condition a < b was true.
Remember that the arguments value_if_true and value_if_false must be of the same
type, and they must be simple expressions rather than full statements.
Ternary operators can be nested just like if-else statements. Consider the following
code:
int a = 1, b = 2, ans;
if (a == 1) {
if (b == 2) {
ans = 3;
} else {
ans = 5;
}
} else {
ans = 0;
}
printf ("%d\n", ans);
Here's the code above rewritten using a nested ternary operator:
int a = 1, b = 2, ans;
ans = (a == 1 ? (b == 2 ? 3 : 5) : 0);
printf ("%d\n", ans);
The output of both sets of code above should be:
3

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6. OPERATOR PRECEDENCE RELATIONS

Operator precedence relations are given below from highest to lowest order:

Precedence Operator Description Associativity

++ -- Suffix/postfix increment and decrement
() Function call
[] Array subscripting
1 . Structure and union member access Left-to-right

Structure and union member access through

->
pointer
(type){list} Compound literal(C99)
++ -- Prefix increment and decrement
+- Unary plus and minus
!~ Logical NOT and bitwise NOT
(type) Type cast
2 Right-to-left
* Indirection (dereference)
& Address-of
Sizeof Size-of
_Alignof Alignment requirement(C11)
3 */% Multiplication, division, and remainder
4 +- Addition and subtraction
5 << >> Bitwise left shift and right shift
< <= For relational operators < and ≤ respectively
6
> >= For relational operators > and ≥ respectively
7 == != For relational = and ≠ respectively Left-to-right
8 & Bitwise AND
9 ^ Bitwise XOR (exclusive or)
10 | Bitwise OR (inclusive or)
11 && Logical AND
12 || Logical OR
13 ?: Ternary conditional
= Simple assignment
+= -= Assignment by sum and difference
Assignment by product, quotient, and Right-to-Left
14 *= /= %=
remainder
<<= >>= Assignment by bitwise left shift and right shift
&= ^= |= Assignment by bitwise AND, XOR, and OR
15 , Comma Left-to-right
Table 1.11: Precedence chart

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The operator's priorities decide whether to group terms and how to evaluate an expression.
Some operators have higher precedence than others, e.g. the multiplication operator is higher
than the additon operator.
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has a higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then add into 7.
The highest precedence operators appear on the top of the table, and the lowest is on the
bottom of the table. Higher operators are evaluated first within an expression.
Example:-
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a = 20;
int b = 10;
int c = 15;
int d = 5;
int e;
e = (a + b) * c / d; // ( 30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of (a + b) * c / d is : %d\n", e );
e = ((a + b) * c) / d; // (30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
e = (a + b) * (c / d); // (30) * (15/5)
printf("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : %d\n", e );
e = a + (b * c) / d; // 20 + (150/5)
printf("Value of a + (b * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );
return 0;
}
When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Value of (a + b) * c / d is : 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : 90
Value of a + (b * c) / d is : 50

7. C VARIABLE

• C variable is a named memory location for a programme to manipulate the data. The variable
value is stored at this location.
• The value can change in the programme of the C variable.
• C variable may be included in any type of data such as int, float, char etc.
7.1. DECLARING & INITIALIZING C VARIABLE:
• Before use in the C programme, variables should be declared.
• Space in memory for a variable is not assigned during declaration. It only occurs on
definition of variable.
• Initialization of variables means that the variable is assigned a value.

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Type Syntax

data_typevariable_name;
Variable declaration
Example: int x, y, z; char flat, ch;

data_typevariable_name = value;
Variable initialization
Example: int x = 50, y = 30; char flag = ‘x’, ch=’l’;

Table 1.12: Initialization of a variable

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF VARIABLES IN C PROGRAM

1. Local variable
2. Global variable
3. Environment variable
7.1.1 LOCAL VARIABLE IN C:
• The scope of local variables is declared only within the function, which are not accessible
outside the function.
7.1.2 GLOBAL VARIABLE IN C:
• Global variables are going to be covered in the entire programme. These variables are
available throughout the programme from anywhere.
• Defines this variable outside of the main function. The main function and all other
subfunctions can also see this variable.
7.1.3 ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES IN C:
• Environment variable is a variable that will be available for all C applications and C
programs.
• We can access these variables without declaring and initialising them into an
application or a c programme from anywhere in a C programme.
• • Environment features are called the embedded functions for accessing, modifying,
and setting the environment variables.
Variable Definition in C
A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to create for the
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more
variables of that type as follows −
type variable_list;
Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, w_char, int, float, double, bool,
or any user-defined object; and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier
names separated by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here −
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

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The line int i, j, k; declares and defines the variables i, j, and k; which instruct the
compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type int.
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer
consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows −
type variable_name = value;
Some examples are −
extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.
For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are implicitly
initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all other variables
are undefined.
Variable Declaration in C
A variable statement provides the compiler with assurance that there is a variable with
the given type and name so that the compiler can compile further without the variable
being detailed. The compiler requires an actual variable definition when the programme
is linked to a variable definition when the compiler is compiled only.
When you use multiple files, a variable declaration is useful, and you define the variable
in one of the files that are available when you link the programme. To declare a variable,
you use the external keyword. Even if in your C programme you can declare a variable
several times, the variable can only be defined once in a file, function or block of code.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
// Variable declaration:
extern int a, b;
extern int c;
extern float f;

int main () {

/* variable definition: */
int a, b;
int c;
float f;
/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;
c = a + b;
printf("value of c : %d \n", c);
f = 70.0/3.0;
printf("value of f : %f \n", f);
return 0;
}

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When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
value of c: 30
value of f: 23.333334
The same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function name at
the time of its declaration and its actual definition can be given anywhere else. For
Example :
// function declaration
int func();

int main() {

// function call
int i = func();
}

// function definition
int func() {
return 0;
}

8. TYPE CONVERSIONS

8.1. Implicit Type Conversion: Some cases occur in which data will be converted
automatically from one type to another:
8.1.1. When data is being stored in a variable, if the data being stored does not match
the type of the variable.
8.1.2. The stored data is converted to a storage variable type.
8.1.3. When an operation is being performed on data of two different types. The "smaller"
data type will be converted to match the "larger" type.
• The following example converts the value of x to a double precision value before
performing the division. Note that if the 3.0 were changed to a simple 3, then integer
division would be performed, losing any fractional values in the result.
• average = x / 3.0;
8.1.4. When data is passed to or returned from functions.
8.2. Explicit Type Conversion: Data may also be expressly converted, using the typecast
operator. The example below converts x into a double-precision value before the division
is performed. (y will then be implicitly promoted, following the guidelines listed above.)
8.2.1. average = (double) x / y;
8.2.2. Note that x itself is unaffected by this conversion.

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Implicit Type Conversion
Also known as ‘automatic type conversion’.
● Done by the own compiler, without externally triggered by the user.
● Generally, takes place when in an expression more than one data type is present. In
such conditions type conversion (type promotion) takes place to avoid loss of data.
● All the data types of the variables are upgraded to the data type of the variable with
the largest data type.
● bool -> char -> short int -> int ->
● unsigned int -> long -> unsigned ->
● long long -> float -> double -> long double
It is possible for implicit conversions to lose information, signs can be lost (when signed
is implicitly converted to unsigned), and overflow can occur (when long long is implicitly
converted to float).

// An example of implicit conversion

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 10; // integer x
char y = 'a'; // character c

// y implicitly converted to int. ASCII

// value of 'a' is 97
x = x + y;

// x is implicitly converted to float

float z = x + 1.0;

printf("x = %d, z = %f", x, z);

return 0;
}
Output-
x = 107, z = 108.000000

Explicit type conversion-

This process is also called type casting and it is user defined. Here the user can type cast
the result to make it of a particular data type.
The syntax in C:
(type) expression
Type indicates the data type to which the final result is converted.

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// C program to demonstrate explicit type casting
#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
double x = 1.2;

// Explicit conversion from double to int

int sum = (int)x + 1;

printf("sum = %d", sum);

return 0;
}

Output:
sum = 2
Advantages of Type Conversion
● This is done to take advantage of certain features of type hierarchies or type
representations.
● It helps us to compute expressions containing variables of different data types.

9. C FLOW CONTROL STATEMENTS

The Control Declaration is one of a programming language instructions, statements or group

of statements that determines how other instructions or statements are to be executed. Two
flow control styles are provided by C.
a. Branching (conditional) (deciding what action to take)
b. Looping(iterative) (deciding how many times to take a certain action)
c. Unconditional
9.1. If Statement:
It takes a parenthesis expression and a declaration or block of declarations. If the values
evaluated are non-zero, expressions shall be assumed to be true.
Syntax of if Statement:
(i)
if (condition) statement
(ii)
if (condition)
{
statement1
statement2
:
}

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Example of if statement
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 20;
int y = 22;
if (x<y)
{
printf("Variable x is less than y");
}
return 0;
}
Output: Variable x is less than y

We can use multiple if statements to check more than one condition.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x, y;
printf("enter the value of x:");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("enter the value of y:");
scanf("%d", &y);
if (x>y)
{
printf("x is greater than y\n");
}
if (x<y)
{
printf("x is less than y\n");
}
if (x==y)
{
printf("x is equal to y\n");
}
printf("End of Program");
return 0;
}

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In the above example the output depends on the user input.
Output:
enter the value of x:20
enter the value of y:20
x is equal to y
End of Program
9.1.1. If else statement
if (condition)
{statements}
else
{statements}

How if...else statement works?

If the test expression is evaluated to true,
● statements inside the body of if are executed.
● statements inside the body of else are skipped from execution.
If the test expression is evaluated to false,
● statements inside the body of else are executed
● statements inside the body of if are skipped from execution.

Example: if...else statement

// Check whether an integer is odd or even

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d", &number);

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// True if the remainder is 0

if (number%2 == 0) {
printf("%d is an even integer.",number);
}
else {
printf("%d is an odd integer.",number);
}

return 0;
}
Output
Enter an integer: 7
7 is an odd integer.
When the user enters 7, the test expression number%2==0 is evaluated to false. Hence,
the statement inside the body of else is execute
9.2. The switch Statement:
The switch declaration will test a variable value (or expression) for a list of cases, and a
block of statements related to that case is made when a match is found.
switch (control variable)
{
case constant-1: statement(s);
break;
case constant-2: statement(s);
break;
:
case constant-n: statement(s);
break;
default: statement(s);
}
Note: Here constant can be either character or integer
Example of Switch Case in C
Let’s take a simple example to understand the working of a switch case statement in a C
program.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num=2;
switch(num+2)

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{
case 1:
printf("Case1: Value is: %d", num);
case 2:
printf("Case1: Value is: %d", num);
case 3:
printf("Case1: Value is: %d", num);
default:
printf("Default: Value is: %d", num);
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Default: value is: 2
Explanation: In switch I gave an expression, you can give variable also. I gave num+2,
where num value is 2 and after addition the expression resulted in 4. Since there is no
case defined with value 4 the default case is executed.
9.3. Loop Control Structure :
Loops offer a way for commands and control to be repeated. This involves repeating a
certain portion of the programme until a particular condition is fulfilled by a certain
number of times.
9.3.1. while Loop:
The syntax of the while loop is:
while (testExpression)
{
// statements inside the body of the loop
}
∙ Variable initialization. (e.g int x = 0;)
∙ Condition (e.g while(x <= 10))
∙ Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or x = x + 2 )
(a) Entry Controlled Loop
(b) A while loop in C programming repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a
given condition is true.
Example:
While loop with Break:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ int num = 5;
while (num> 0)

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{ if (num == 3)
break;
printf("%d\n", num);
num--;
}
}
Output: 5 4
9.3.2. do while Loop:
The syntax of the do...while loop is:
do
{
// statements inside the body of the loop
}
while (testExpression);
(a) Exit Controlled Loop
(b) The do while loops runs at least once in any condition(even if the loops control
condition is false)
9.3.3. for Loop:
The syntax of the for loop is:
for (initializationStatement; testExpression; updateStatement)
{
// statements inside the body of loop
}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num=10, count, sum = 0;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// for loop terminates when num is less than count
for(count = 1; count <= num; ++count)
{
sum += count;
}

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;
}
Output: 55

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9.4. Unconditional Flow Control Statements
(break, continue, goto, return)
9.4.1. The break Statement: The break statement is used to jump out of a loop
instantly, without waiting to get back to the conditional test.

9.4.2. The continue Statement: The 'continue' statement is used to take the control
to the beginning of the loop, by passing the statement inside the loop, which has not yet
been executed.

9.4.3. Goto statement

C supports an unconditional control statement, goto, to transfer the controller into a C
programme from one point to another.
Below is the syntax for goto statement in C.

{
…….
go to label;
…….
…….
LABEL:
statements;

****

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