Steam Nozzles

18.1. Introduction. 18.2. Steam flow through nozzles-Velocity of steam-Discharge through the nozzle and conditio
its maximum value. 18.3. Nozzle efficiency. 18.4. Supersaturated or metastable expansion of steam In a n;s :or
18.5. General relationship between area, velocity and pressure In nozzle flow. 18.6. Steam Injector-Worked exam~ e.
Highlights-Objective Type Questions-Theoretic al Questions-Unsolved Examples. Pes.

11:I ■ INTRODUCTION nozzle there is no divergence after the throat as shown in

Fig. 18.2.
A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of
varying cross-section, through which heat energy of steam
is converted to kinetic energy. Its major function is to produce
steam jet with high velocity to drive steam turbines. A turbine
nozzle performs two functions :
(i) It transforms a portion of energy of steam Entry - - - - - • Exit
(obtained from steam generating unit) into kinetic energy.
(ii) In the impulse turbine it directs the steam jet of
high velocity against blades, which are free to move in order
to convert kinetic energy into shaft work. In reaction
turbines the nozzles which are free to move, discharge high
velocity steam. The reactive force of the steam against the Fig. 18.2. Convergent nozzle.
nozzle produces motion and work is obtained. In a "convergent-diverg ent nozzle", because of the
The cross-section of a nozzle at first tapers to a higher expansion ratio, addition of divergent portion
smaller section (to allow for changes which occur due to produces steam at higher velocities as compared to a
changes in velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction as convergent nozzle.
the steam expands) ; the smallest section being known as
throat, and then it diverges to a large diameter. The nozzle
which converges to throat and diverges afterwards is known
lt:tll STEAM FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
as convergent-diver gent nozzle (Fig. 18.1). In convergent The steam flow through the nozzle may be assumed
as adiabatic fiow since during the expansion of steam in
nozzle neither any heat is supplied nor rejected, work,
14-,:___-.i,.,i...__ _ _ _Divergent _ _ _ _~
however, is performed by increasing the kinetic energy of
part
the steam. As the steam passes through the nozzle it loses
its pressure as well as the heat. The work done is equal_ to
the adiabatic heat drop which in turn is equal to Rankine
Entry - -Exit
area.
18.2.1. Velocity of Steam
Steam enters the nozzle with high pressure and 1?"'
Throat •rm·t·a1
1 ve1oc1ty
• (it is so small as compared to the final velocitY
.
·t. . h e1oc1tY
th a t 1 is generally neglected) and leaves it with big
Fig. 18.1. Convergent-divergen t nozzle. v
,,.....--
------------ --------
NOzzt.ES------:----:--------------------
Sre,tlo This is due to the reason that heat energy
~p
. t·1c energy as 1·t (steam) passes
ressure,rted into kine C2 n
10 or
~ sJ1l is conve le The final or outlet velocity of steam can -
2
= --(p 1V 1 -p2V2)
n -1
~5te the 0 ozz •
~~b 35 follows :
iiefo\}lld C:::: Velocity of steam at the section considered ... (18.3)
Let (rofsec),
h == Enthalpy of steam entering the nozzle, Also n _ n
1 P1V1 - P2V2
_ Enthalpy of steam at section considered, and
2
: : Heat drop during expansion of steam is the or V2 = (.!!1_)1/n ... (18.4)
d nozzle= (h1 - h2). Vi P2
Considering 1 kg of steam and flow to be frictionless
. we have:
,djabatic,_ Ul. kinetic energy= Adiabatic heat drop
or u2 = u1 (;J" .. (18.5)
GIUD
c2
Putting the value of v,jv 1 from eqn. (18.4) in
- =hd eqn. (18.3), we get
2
C = .J2 x 1000 hd , where hd is in kJ
= 44.72 jh; ... (18.1)
C
2

2 •
_ _ n
n-1
P v
1 1
[l- P2
P1 P2
11
(.!!1_) n]

In practice, there is loss due to friction in the nozzle

and its value varies from 10 to 15. per. c~n~ of total heat
dro . Due to this, total heat drop 1s mirum1zed. Let heat
dro~ after deducting friction loss be khd.
- n ~1 p,u,[i-(::r~]
The velocity,(?= 44.72 .Jkhd ... (18.2)

1u.2. Discharge through the Nozzle and Conditions for

its Maximum Value
Let p 1 = Initial pressure of steam,
= n~l p,u, [ -(::f']
1

v1 =Initial volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure 1

P1 (m3),
p2 = Steam pressure at the throat,
c2 =2 (-n)
n-1
v
P 11 [1 -( P 2
P1
)n ~ ]

v2 = Volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p 2 (m3 ),

A = Cross-sectional area of nozzle at throat
(m2), and
C = Velocity of steam (mis). ... (18.6)
The steam flowing through the nozzle follows
'Rlroximately the equation given below : If mis the mass of steam discharged in kg/sec.,
pvA=C AC
Then m= - ...(18.7)
V2
the value of v 2 from eqn. (18.5) in
 TH

Substit uting the value of El. from

A . Pi eqn, (18
=- eqn. (18.8), we get the maximum discharge, ,9)¾

m = A 2(_!:_J P1V1
max V1 n-1
A
=-

... (18.8)
It is obvious from above equation that there is only
one value of the ratio (called critical pressure ratio) p/p
1
which will produce the maximum discharge. This can be
obtained by differentiating 'm' with respect to (p/p ) and A
1
equating it to zero.
As other quantit ies except the ratio p/p are
1
constant,

=A
... d

=A

or P2 ~-1
n = n + 1 ( P2 )1/n
(
P1
)
2 P1 =A 2(i:i)(~)(¾i)~[(;hJS -1
or (:r" =(n; lr (::J
or (:r•-1 =(n; lr
=A 2(i:i](~)(¾i)~[(;hf-1]
(n :J-l
n

or :: = .. (18.9) =A 2 (n~1)(:)(¾i)~(T)
Hence the discharge through the nozzle will be the
maximum when critical pressure ratio, i.e.,

Throat pressure p 2 ( 2 -1 Jn
n
i.e., m..., = A n ( ~:) ( n: f: .
1
From the above equation it is evident that the
(18.101

Inlet pressure = p 1 = n + 1 maximum mass /7,ow depends only on the initial condition
For satura ted steam : n =1.135 of the steam (p 1, viJ and the throat area and is independent
1.135 1.135
of the final pressure of steam i.e., at the exit of the nozzle.
P2 =(2 )1.135-1 = ( 2 )0.135 = _
0 58
The addition of the divergent part of the nozzle after the
P1 1.135 + 1 2.135 throat does not affect the discharge ofsteam passing through
For superh eated steam : n = 1.3 the nozzle but it only accelerates the steam leaving the nozih.
It may be noted that the discharge through nozzle
increases as the pressure at the throat of the nozzle (pJ
- -2-) 1.!·~ 1 _- ( - 2 )~:: =0.546
P2 _ (
Pl 1.3 + 1 2.3 decreases, when the supply pressure p is constanl~ .
1
once the nozzle pressure p reaches the critical value [given
2
r .,-11
Noµ--
ES
',r.A~ )] the discharge reache s a mn~~m
5w. (18.9 ' ""44 um and
dtioJl throat pressu re and mass flow h
v" tbe r .
~,ell tltat ctive of the pressu re at the exit ema1ns
ri ef ifl'espe •
~ 1,t iocity of steam at the throat of the nozzle h
i.!1S ve . • bt • d b w en
, 'fllerge is II1ax11num is o a1ne Y substi tuting the
3
~scb
~ pz froIIl eqn. (18.9) into eqn. (18.6).
f .:--
~ve O pi
n-1 atu ration

1-(2-)~ 7
n+l
line

...___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,.5

Fig. 18.3. Effect of friction on steam flow through a nozzle.

than 1-3. Let this heat drop be 1-3'. From 3' draw a
horizontal line which cuts the same pressure line on which
2(~)P 1V1 ( : : ~) point 3 lies, at the point 2' which repres ents the final
condition steam. It may be noted that dryness fraction of
steam is more at point 2' than at point 3. Hence the effect
C,nax= 2 (n:l)P 1V1 ... (18.11) of friction is to improve the quality of
(t, steam. The value of
The above equation indicates that the velocity is also co-efficient 'k' in the equation for the velocity of expanding
dint on the initial condit ions of the steam. steam is given by :
~ftn
k= Actual heat drop = 1- 3' = hi - ha'
1f1 NOZZLE EFFICIE~CY Isentropic heat drop 1- 3 hi - ha
The actual expansion is repres ented by the curve
When the steam flows throug h a nozzle the final 1-2-2' since the
friction occurs mainly between the throat
velocity of steam for a given pressu re drop is reduced due and exit.
10
the following reasons : On the other hand, if the steam at entry to nozzle
(i) The friction between the rwzzle surface and steam : were superh eated correspondin
g to the point 4, the
(ii) The internal friction of steam itself; and expansion can be represented by the vertical line 4-6 if
(iii) The shock losses. friction were neglected and by 4-5-5' if the friction
were taken into account. In this case, k = 4-6'/4-6
Most of these frictional losses occur between the
= (h -h ')/(h h 6). The point 5' repres ents the final
-
lhroat and exit in convergent-divergent nozzle. These 4 6 4

condition of steam. It may be noted that the friction tends

lrictional losses entail the following effects : to superheat steam. Therefore it can be concluded that
(i) The expansion is ,w more isentropic and enthal py friction tends to decrease the
velocity of steam and increase
mip is reduced ; the final dryness fraction or superheat the steam.
(ii) The final dryness friction of steam is increased as The nozzle efficie ncy is therefore defined as the
~ kinetic energy gets converted into heat due to friction ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the
isentropy enthalpy
and is absorbed by steam ; drop between the same pressures,
(iii) The specific volume of steam is increased as the
lleam becomes more dry due to this frictional reheating. i.e., Nozzle efficiency = hh1 - h3 ' or h4 - h6 ' as the case
1 -ha h4 -h5
Fig. 18.3 represents on Mollier diagra m the effect of may be. ... (18.12)
friction on steam flow throug h a rwzzle. If the actual velocity at exit from the nozzle is C '
2
The point 1 represents the initial condition of steam and the velocity at exit when the flow is isentropic is C ,

thi then using 3

~ ~h e~ters the nozzle in a dry satura ted state. If the we have the steady flow energy equation, in each case
~on. neglected, the expansion of steam from entry to
lS

!he at 18 represented by the vertical line 1-2 and that from

~lothroat to the exit by 2-3. Now if the friction were taken
account the heat drop would have been somewhat less
 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- :-: -:- --= =- == ~: -::THERM --
AL I:"

which would have been reached if therm . . ~~~

a1 e 1;.NQ1N
C12 C ,2 C ,2 - c/ been main taine
and h1 + 2 = h2' + -}- or h1 - h2' = 2 2
d. Cons equen tly, enthalpy lUih? li~
and the condition of the_ final ste~ is improved0~1s req ¼
2 condition ofunder-cooling at which condensat· • ~lirri~
( In MKS units : ~ to be represented by
2~~ ]
and is assumed to restore conditions of n ion co~~!ti'
equilibrium is called the "Wilson Line". 01'1nal th,~
C2 ,2 - C12 It may be noted that when metastabl
:. Nozzle efficiency = revail the h-s chart I diagram should not be e co11.dit1o·
2 2 ... (18.13) P
Cs -Ci expansion must be consi'dered to 1t.ollow the l Used a11d ~~
When the inlet velocity, C1' is negligibly s~all then i.e., with the index ofexpansion for superheateda;/V1•3 ::1C
C2'2 Q~·'ln'
Nozzle efficiency =--2 ... (18.14) n-1
~ l) P1 v1
'
Cs Enthalpy drop = (n 1- ! )"';;"
Sometimes a "velocity co-efficient" is defined as the (
ratio of the actual exit velocity to the exit velocity when
the
flow is isentropic between the same pressures, h
.
i.e., Velocity co-efficient - C2'
... (18.15)
- C3 1
It can be seen from eqns. (18.14) and (18.15) that
the "velocity co-efficient" is the square root of the nozzle
Superheat region
efficiency, when the inlet velocity is assumed to be negligible.
A

Il l SUPERSATURATED OR METASTABLE
EXPANSION OF STEAM IN ANOZZLE
When steam flows through a nozzle, it would
normally be expected that the discharge of steam throu Saturation line
gh I
the nozzle would be slightly less than the theoretical value I (X = 1)
. I
But it has been observed during experiments on flow ~ ---- ---; -~~ =~~ ---
of
wet steam that the discharge is slightly greater than Decrease in heat drop
that
calculated by the formula. This phenomenon is explained
as follows_ : The converging part of the nozzle is so short
and the steam velocity so high that the molecules of steam ncrease in entropy
have insufficient time to collect and form droplets so
that Fig. 18.4. Super satura ted flow of steam.
normal condensation does not take place. Such rapid
n-1
expansion is said to be metastable and produces The relationship, T ,jT = (p/p )_n_may be used to
a 1 1
supersaturated state. In this state of supersaturation the
calculate supercooled temperature. The 'degree ofundercooling
steam is undercooled to a temperature less than
that is then the difference between the saturation temperature and
corresponding to its press ure; consequently the densi
ty of the supercooled temperature.
steam increases and hence the weight of discharge.
Prof. Wilson through experiments showed that Effec ts of supersaturation. In a nozzle in which
dry supersaturation occurs the effec ts may be summarised as
satur ated steam, when suddenly expanded in the absen
ce follows:
of dust, does not condense until it density is about 8 times
that ofthe saturated vapour ofthe same pressure. This effect (i) There is an increase in the entropy and specific
is discussed below : volume of steam.
Refer to Fig. 18.4. The point 1 represents initial state (ii) The heat drop is reduced below that for the~~
of the steam. The steam expands isentropically without equilibrium as a consequence the exit velocity 0
any
condensation to point 2, 2 being on the superheat const steam is reduced.
ant
press ure curve AB produced. At point 2 the limit (iii} Since the condensation does not take place d~
of
super.saturation is reached and steam reverts to its norm
condition at 3 at the same enthalpy value as 2, and at
al su~a tura ted expansion, so the teinperature 8
th8l1
thJ •ch the supersaturation occurs will~ lessto the
ame press ure. The steam continues expanding
;sentropically to a lower pressure to point 4 instead fmation temperature corresponding
of ,,,
 zit.ES
,:,~ N° Therefore, the density ofsupersaturated
5r......- sure- M 6C 6v
pres ill be more than that for the equilibrium or, +---=0
stea;;:t:ns which gives the increase in the mass A C V

c0ri ,n discharged. and in limits dA + dC _ dv = 0 ...(18.16)

O{ stea . f t . .
e dryness fraction o s earn 1s improved. A C V

(iv) flt bl ,ns on supersaturated flow cannot be solved Since the flow is isentropic,
fhePro ,/unless Wilson line is drawn on it. :. pv Y = constant
,
10 [[i£f chal •ty of steam at the end of expansion is found :. loge p + 'Y loge v = loge K, where K is constant.
b1 ,,,, e \Te oc1 .
'fb be relation, Differentiating this and dividing by pv, we get
' 'Jlg t
dp dv dv 1 dp
•
, bYt)Sl

Cz ==
( n)
2x n - 1 P1V1 1-
(
P2
P1
)~
n p
+y.-=0
V
or-=--.-
V "( p
Also, from isentropic flow, we have from the momentum
equation,
CdC =-vdp
specific volume,
or, dC = _ vd; (Dividing both sides by C2)
n-1
C C
By substituting these values in equation (18.16), we
l
l
Apparent temperat ure, T2 -- Tl (1::)~
r i
get
f _ mxv2
lj and
A 2-
c ~+(-~f)-(-~d:) =0
dA _ vdp + !_ dp = o
Ii GENERAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN or,
A C2 'Y P
1
l
AREA, VELOCITY AND PRESSURE IN
dA vdp 1 dp
NOZZLE FLOW A = C2 - P y
1
--
In Fig. 18.5 is shown a nozzle in which. a steady and = !_ dp (vdp x yp _ 1')
an isentropic flow is taking place. Let us consider two y p C2 dp )
1
1 transverse plane sections at a distance ox apart, assuming

i that the nozzle is running full and the velocity is uniform 1 dp (ypv - l)
'Y P c2
1 across any section.
l
1 and writing Cs for the sonic velocity at pressure p and
1l
{
L. specific volume v, we get (as sonic velocity is given by
C/ = yRT = ypv in this case)

Steam ...(18.17)
-.
out The ratio of the velocity cC' to the local sonic velocity
cc/ is known as the Mach number and is denoted by the
letter 'M .
Fig. 18.5
Using continuity equation, we ha~e .·.
A
dA
y p
= .!_
dp -_M_)
M2
2
(-1 ... (18.18)

AC (A+ M)(C + 6C) Equations (18.17) and (18.18) give a useful insight
m=-=· m,to the changes of nozzle area under certain conditions.
v (v +6v)
e e may be explained as follows :
or, v + ov (A + M) (C + 60)
-
V AC
-dp negat"1ve (nozzle),
or,
l+ ~ =( A:6A)(C::8C) p
• ction.
.

= (1+ 61 )(1+ 6g)

ust be negative. This
ent part of the nozzle.
 THERMAL~~•
. ,,Q,~~:
As soon as C reaches the value Cs (i.e., M 'ch the kine tic ene rgy 1s reduced and
= 1), W h 1 . =-~Ila.'
ress ure ene r~. Thi s pres sure e~ergy ~~ ~
then dA = 0 and the thro at of the nozz is e~,
A le is pvercome the boiler pres sure and hfts the w8Uflicte~~
reached. o The pres sure of wat er on leaving the
H b' deli·,. ater t s
be about 20% high er than the boile . very ,
r pressure . PlJ>elll
(ii) C > C , M > 1. Then dA mus t
be positive. This over com e all resistances. ~e ga~ between the i~ ?"cier~
s A and diverging cone is proVIded with an outle
corresponds to the divergent part of the t thrlllbting ~
nozzle. any excess wat er may overflow during
. tor. starti nough \libii
dp inJeC g Of St.A-~
•.'
Type offfo w -Ne gati dp
ve (Nozzle) • • (D 'ffi
-Po sitiv et)
p i eren
p Feed water

1. Subsonic
(M < 1) ----
-+
~
Convergent nozzle
~
--t___
tank
Diverging
cone
onverging
Divergent diffuser cone
2. Supersonic
(M> 1)
~
--t___
Divergent nozzle
-+----
~
Convergent diffuser Water nozzle
Mixing cone
Atmospheric
Fig. 18.6 pressure
Cas e II. Dec eler ated flow, dp positive Fig. 18.7. Stea m injector.
. (Diffuser)
p Let, C8 = Velocity of stea m leaving the nozzle
This applies to diffuser in which the kine ,
of flow is converted into pressure energy tic energy Cw =Velocity of wat er at entry to
(little application the steam
in steam turbine). nozzle,
Cm = Velocity of mixture leaving the
(i) C < C, M < 1. Here dA mus t
s A be positive, i.e.,
the diffuser must be of divergent type. Cwd = Velocity of wat er in the deliv
combined
nozzle or ente ring the water nozzle,
ery pipe,
l
mw =Mass of wat er drawn from
feed water tank
C > C , M > 1. Here dA must be negative,
(ii) per kg of stea m supplied to the steam
s A i.e., the
nozzle,
diffuser must be of the convergent type.
These forms are summarised in Fig. 18.6 ms = Mass of stea m supplied per sec,
. Hw = Wat er level over the steam injector,
lt:19 STEAM INJECTOR Hb = Boiler inle t level over the steam injecto
r,
and
A steam injector is employed to force wate Pb = Absolute pres sure insid
boiler under pressure. It makes use of r into the e the boiler.
the principle of Assuming that the stea m flow through the
a steam nozzle by which it utilises the kine maximum, the stea m velocity at exit of nozzle~
tic energy of a the nozzle is given
stea m jet for increasing the pressure
a corresponding quantity of water. and velocity of by r-------

The arrangement of injector for feeding

from a tank to a boiler is shown in Fig.
from the boiler is expanded to a high velo
the wat er
18.7. The steam
city be pas • •
26 (n: 1)P1V1
thro ugh a convergent nozzle'. The stea
m jet enters 5 JnDDZZle X hd in M.K.S. uill'f$
mix ing cone and imparts its momentum
to the inco
wat er supply from the feed water tank in S.I. units,
(the tank m&Y.j
above or below the level of the steam • ts '3'
injector). Th! equation at polll
wat er causes the stea m to conde~e. The
resulting ·et
formed by the stea m ~d water 18 ~t atmo
spheric pres
and has a larg e velocity. Th~ ~u re
then eAte ¢ .'
delivery pipe at 3 thro ugh a diverging + 108 'ts
cone or •
in M,JC.S. uJJJ •
 can be found.
tical purposes, genera11y, H b'
• c2wd
- - and Area of steam nozzle at the exit is given by
sJl prac 2g
fol'
A = _m_s_v ... (18.25)
4 Illall compared toC;, and may be neglected. n Cs
i .o3s~ ares where vis the specific volume of steam at exit.
1/ios 5
ure at entry to the boiler is considered nearly Area of the discharge end of the combined nozzle or
terPre \han the absolute boiler pressure for entrance of water nozzle is given by
t1tte"'11 ter .
"J''11, gre8 11 resistances.
io,..MlJJlillg
8
c 2 kp x 104 A - -ms (l+mw)
---2~-~~ ... (18.26)
I 0,,e1"- _!!L = --"--b_ __ 103 xCm
wn -
...(18.19)
! . 2g 103
It is assumed that all the steam is condensed before
•• and it lies between 1.2 and 1.3 as per assumed
coming out of the combined nozzle (mixing cone).
1
,here~ ~; conditions.
or re<JUlre . g the momentum of water and steam before
E~:t:aer mixing, the following equation may be \ WORKED EXAMPLES \
j$ing a ,
111
• ed Example 18.1. (a) Mention the types of nozzles you know.
• obtain • Cs mw I2 H - mw + 1 C Where are these used ?
-+ V g w - X m
g g g (b) From first principles, prove that maximu~
the above equation, it has been assumed that the discharge per unit area in a steam nozzle at the throat is
, In ter flowing per kg of steam supplied is m . given by the expression
-i~ --- w
Ill Cs "1w t2 H
cm= fflw + 1 + "1w + 1 • v g w ••• (18.20)
If the water tank is below the injector, then (U.P.S.C)

cm= ::~ l - mw": l ✓ 2gHW ••• (18.21) Solution. (a) Types of nozzles :
If H is neglected, then eqns. (18.20) or (18.21) 1. Convergent nozzle. It is a smoothly varying cross-
l W
I !)ecome sectional area duct which is used for accelerating a steadily
I flowing fluid. The purpose of this nozzle is to convert the
... (18.22) internal energy of the fiuid into the kinetic form .
2. Convergent-divergent nozzle. This type of
2 2 nozzle is a modification of the convergent type where there
C 1 ( c ) ... (18.23) is a divergent section which acts as an accelerator for
2; = 2g mW ~1
supersonic flow.
Now equating eqns. (18.19) and (18.23), 3. Steam nozzles. This is a special purpose
2 4 convergent nozzle used in steam turbine for accelerating
1 ( cs ) = kpb x 10 the steam at the expense of its pressure.
2g mW +1 103 4. Flow nozzle. It is a device used for the measurement
of discharge.
Cs
mw+l
_ .J 20 gkpb in M.K.S. units. (b) Refer to Art. 18.2.2.
... (18.24) Example 18.2. Dry saturated steam enters a frictionless
loth FJ:om the above equation, the mass of water supplied adiabatic nozzle with negligible velocity at a temperature of
e boiler per kg of steam supplied to the steam nozzle 300°C. It is expanded to a pressure of 5000 kPa. The mass
fiow rate is 1 kg Is. Calculate the exit velocity of steam.

Properties of Steam
Sat. temp. Sat. press- Specific volume
(OC) ure (kPa) (mB/kg)

300 8593 0.0216

263.91 5000 • 1154.6 0.0394

(GATE)
 L--- --- --- --- --- --- ::- --- ::- ::~ =~ --- -;: -T H~ ER MA L E~
Solu tion. Given h = 2751 kJ/k g; s = 5.7081 kJ/kg
1 1
sr-i = 2.9206 kJ/kg K ;
°C
From Motlier char t, hl - h2:: 120 kJlkgQ1~t
Specific volume, v :: 0.345 ins
~s ·
Velocity at the throat, C2 = 44.7 ~
8 fg 8
2 ( g2 -
8(
2 ) = (5.9735 - 2.9206) 2
hr2 = 1154.5 kJ/k g; hg = 2794.2 kJ/kg. = 489.88 tn/s
2
Throat area, A2 = rhv = 3 x 0.345
h
c2 489.ss
= 0.0021 m2. (A.n
.
Exam ple 18.4. Stea m havin g pressure of _s,)
b
0.95 dryness is expa nded throu gh a converoe10 t5
_a,. a11q
2 nozzle and the press ure of steam leavingo·n~ ~
th erge~
noz~le ~
.___ _ _ _ _ _.,.s 0.85 bar. Find the velocity at the throat fore
discharge conditions. Inde x of expansion may b::irn
Fig. 18.8 ~~
as 1.135. Calculate mass rate of f7,ow of steam thro 8
Since the steam expands isentropically, therefore, ~~
nozzle.
ug t~
S1 =S2 Solu tion. The press ure at throa t for maximum di
5.7081 =2.9206 + x2 (5.9735 - 2.9206) n scharge I

... X = 5.70 81- 2.9206 =0 913 P2 = P1 ( 2 1)n- l = 10.5 (

2
5.9735 - 2.9206 2 )~
• n+ 1.135+1
h2 = hr2 + x2 hrc2
= 1154.5 + 0.913 (hg2 -
hrc2)
= 10.5 35c.: r- 41

= 6.06 bar
The velocity C2 at throa t for maximum discharge is
=1154.5 + 0.913 (2794.2 - 1154.5)
given by eqn. (18.11)
= 2651.5 kJ/kg.
Now, c?
2 = h1-h 2
or c1 = .J2 (h1 - I½) -
1.135
2 X - - - X 10.5 X 106 (0.95 X0.185)
1.135 + 1
= ✓2 (275 1- 26515) X 103
=446.1 mis. (Ans.) = 443 mis
[C2 can also be obtained with the help of
Example 18.3. Steam is expanded in a set of nozzl
es from steam table s or Motlier chart also]
10 bar and 200°C to 5 bar. What type of nozzl
e is it ?
Neglecting the initia l velocity find mini mum area P1Vt = P2V t
of the 10.5(0.95 X 0.185) 1•136 = 6.06 X v/· 135
nozzle required to allow a fiow of 3 kg Is under
the given
conditions. Assume that expansion of steam to be :. u2 = 0.285 m3/kg
isentropic.
(AMI E) Mass f7,ow rate, m. = -"'----
~C2 lx44 3
- =- -
Solution. Steam pressure at the entry to the steam
nozzles, V2 0.285
p 1 = 10 bar, 200°C = 1554.4 kg/m2 of throat area.
Steam exit pressure, p = 5 bar (Ans,)
1
Example 18.5. In a steam nozzle the steam expand
s from
We know that, 2 1 4 bar to 1 bar. The initia l velocity' is 60 m Is dnd
: =(n !1l~ =[(1 3 +]) f the initial
temperature is 200°C. Determine the exit velocity if
the nozzle
2 )4.333 e~ieB ,Jy is 92%.
= ( 2.3 = 0.5457 l~i,. f...,.w,w. m~~ c try to the nozzle,
... = P1 X 0.5457
P2 = 4 bar, 200°C
1
= 10 x 0.5457 = 5.5 bar the nozzle,
Since throa t pressure (pJ is greater than the
exi 1 bar
pressure, the nozzle used is convergent-divergent
nozzle. ~e
mini mum area will be at throa t, wher e the press
ure 1s
om/s
5.5 bar. 2%
 ~1JS
NOµ,
l . i$1t
"eJocity, C2 :
m tables only :
Example 18.6. Dry saturated steam enters a steam nozzle
•.. d stea o
at a pressure of 15 bar and is discharged at a pres_sure of
[[sir"[, ... bar, 200 C : 2.0 bar. If the dryness fraction of discharge steam i~ ~-~6,
4
~tP1... 2s60.5 kJ/kg, S1 = 7.171 kJ/kg what will be the final velocity of steam ? Neglect initial
h ::: velocity of steam.
; 1 bar:
Jth kJ/k If 10% of heat drop is lost in friction, find the
hrs ::: 417.5 g, hfg2 = 2257.9 kJ/kg,
percentage reduction in the final velocity.
1,3027 kJ/kg K
Sf2 :::
8
fg2 = 6.0571 kJ/kg K Solution. Initial pressure of steam, p 1 = 15 bar, x 1 = 1
• i to Fig, 18•9) Final pressure of steam, p 2 =2.0 bar, x 2 = 0.96
(Jle1er From steam tables :
tJoW,
S1 =S2
At p 1 = 15 bar, x1 = 1 :
= 7.171 = 8{2 + X2 8 fg 2
h 1 = hg = 2789.9 kJ/kg
= 1.3027 + X2 X 6.0571
Atp2 =2 bar:
7.171- 1.3027
X2 = --6.-05_7_1_ = 0·969 h12 =504. 7 kJ/kg,
h2 = hr2 + x2 hrg2 htg2 =2201.6 kJ/kg
=417.5 + 0.969 X 2257.9 h2 = hr2 + x2 htg2
=2605.4 kJ/kg =504.7 + 0.96 x 2201.6 = 2618.2 kJ/kg
Enthalpy drop (isentropic) The velocity of steam at discharge from nozzle in
=h1 - h2 S.I. units is given by :
= 2860.5 - 2605.4 = 255.1 kJ/kg
Using Mollier chart :
C2 = 44.72 J,;; =44.72 .J(l11_ - h2)
Refer to Fig. 18.9. =44.72 .J (2789.9- 2618.2) =585.9 mis
h1 =2860 kJ/kg
h2 =2605 kJ/kg i.e., Final velocity of steam = 585.9 mis. (Ans.)
Enthalpy drop (isentropic) In case 10% of heat drop is lost in friction, nozzle
co-efficient
=hl - h2 =2860 - 2605 =255 kJ/kg
Actual enthalpy drop = 1.0 - 0.1 =0.9
Hence the velocity of steam
=llnozzle X (hl - h2)
=0.92 X 255.1 = 234.69 kJ/kg = 44.72 ✓khd
h (kJ/kg) I..
=44.72 .J 0.9(2789.9- 2618.2) = 555.9 mis
~ Percentage reduction in velocity
~
585.9 - 555.9
200°c = 585_9 X 100 = 5.12%. (Ans.)
Example 18.7. Steam initially dry and saturated is
expanded in a nozzle from 15 bar at 300°C to 1.0 bar. If the
frictional loss in the nozzle is 12% of the total heat drop
Saturation calculate the mass of steam discharged when exit diameter
line of the nozzle is 15 mm.
Solution. Refer to Fig. 18.10.
Pressure, p 1 = 15 bar, 300°C
-----------► s (kJ/kg K)
Fig. 18.9 Pressure...;;_.,,,,.,~,.-!, p 2 = 1.0 bar
Fri ==~"!l!IIIMIIJ'" 12%
Also, C2'2 -C 2 ~ QM
2
1 =Enthalpy drop (actual) .
le.,
I 2 N
C2' - 602 = 2 x 234.69 x 1000 nozzle,
the veloci by
C2' = .J602 + 2 x 234.69 x 1000
tr
llen.ce .
=687.7 mis
exit velocity of steam = 687.7 mis. (Ans.)
 THE

Dryness fraction of steam at discharge pressure, n

x2' = 0.93 Now, P2= (2)~

P1 n +1
Specific volume of dry saturate d stean1 at 1.0 bar,

Vg2 = 1.694 m3/kg

Hence mass of steam discharged through nozzle per
=( ua! + 1 )1-!~~~ 1

1.135
hour
= ( 2.:35 )°'135 =0.58
- A 2 C2 ' X 3600
X2 Vg2 or P2 = 0.58 x P1 = 0.58 x 11 ::: 6,38
2 • From Mollier chart (Fig. 18.11) point . bar.
= rr/4 X (15/1000) X 958.5 1
X
3600 on the dry saturat ion line correspo~ 1~ca~
0.93 X 1694 11 bar pressure. ding ~
= 387 kg/h. (Ans.)
• From '1' vertical line 1-3 is drawn cuttin
h (kJ/kg)
pressur e line 2 bar. gt~
• Point '2' corresponding to throat
6.38 bar is located on the vertical line. Pressure
Adiabatic heat drop between inlet and throat
,
hd = h1 -h2
= 2780 - 2679 = 101 kJ/kg
x2 = 0.96
Vg = 0.297 m 3/kg
2
..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,. s (kJ/kg K) Throat velocity, C2 = 44. 72

Fig. 18.10 Jk; = 44. 72 ✓101 = 449.4 mis

Examp le 18.8. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 11 bar Also, m. -- A2C2 -- Ar/]2
enters a convergent-divergent nozzle and leaves at a pressure V2 X2Vg2
of2 bar. If the flow is adiabatic and frictionless, determine : (where m = Mass flow rate in 4's)
(i) The exit velocity of steam. m X2 Vg 2
or Throat area,
(ii) Ratio of cross-section at exit and that at throat. C2
Assume the index of adiabatic expansion to be 1.135. mX 0.96 X 0.297
Solutio n. Refer to Fig. 18.11. 449.4
h (kJ/kg)
= 0.000634 m
From Motlier chart, x3 = 0.9
From steam tables,
Vg3 = 0.885 m 3/kg (at 2 bar)
h,; =Adiabatic heat drop between inlet and exit
= - h3 =2780 - 2480 =300 kJ/kg
Jhl
X2 = 0.96
r Saturation line
(x = 1)
300
s. (Ans.)
,;,,xo.9xO.~
774.6

Fig. 18.11
p 8 =2 bar;
am
p 1 =11 bar; am
p = Throat pressur e; n =1.135 s.)
2
 ---------------------- ...

~ES
s'f~~Noµ-~
18,9•
~==-:;.,-:-;.:;:=~~~-=----- ------ ----------
The nozzles of a Delaval steam turb.ine are
d t D = 2.5 mm,
~AJJlple ·th dry saturate . s eam at a pressure of 9 bar 2
2
P"i;td lJ)t t the outlet is 1 bar. The turbine h t •
1PPpressure ~hroat diameter of 2.5 mm. Assumingas wlo A2 = ~4 D2 2 X 2 = 7t
4
X (
25
• )
1000
X 2
as a90% and t hat of t urb ine nozz
"heJes tJJith • rotor 35%, find e
,, the = 9.82 X 10-6 m 2
fcit~stearn used per hour and the power developed. Mass of steam used per sec.,
~~1tY p == 9 bar, Ps = 1 bar, P 2 = throat pressure 9.82 x 10-6 x 424.2
' . A2 C2'
saioti011' Number of nozzles = 2 m= =
X2' Vg
2
0.96 X 0.361
P2_( 2 ) ~ = 0.012 kg/s
We knOW that, P1 - n +1 Energy supplied by the steam to the wheel per sec
2 2
S' ce the steam is dry and saturated, n =1.135 = rh C3' _ 0.012 x 816 = 3995 W = 4 kW.
Ul 1.136 2 2
P2 ( 2 )1.136-1 :. Useful work
- = --- =0.58
Pl 1.135 + 1
. =llturbine X 4 = 0.35 X 4 = 1.44 kW.
p 2 = 0.58 p 1 = 0.58 x 9 =5.22 bar. i.e., Power developed = 1.44 kW. (Ans.)
rJ
Example 18.10. An impulse turbine having a set of
h (kJ/kg) 16 nozzles receives steam at 20 bar, 400°C. The pressure of
steam at exit is 12 bar. If the total discharge is 260 kg/min
and nozzle efficiency is 90%, find the cross-sectional area of
the exit of each nozzle. If the steam has a velocity of 80 mis
at entry to the nozzles, find the percentage increase in
discharge.
Solution. Set of nozzles = 16, p 1 = 20 bar, 400°C
Total discharge= 260 kg/min, 11nozzle = 90%.
Saturation
line h (kJ/kg)

.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___. h (kJ/kg K)

Fig. 18.12
f 3~;~
hd
From Mollier chart :
hl = 2770 kJ/kg, h2 = 2670 kJ/kg * h,=
3065
h3 = 2400 kJ/kg
~
X2' = 0.96, x3' =0.88
Now, hd = h 1 - h2 = 2770 - 2670 = 100 kJ/kg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - • s (kJ/kg K)
hd' = h 1 - h 3 =2770 - 2400 = 370 kJ/kg X1 = 0.97

From steam tables :

vg 2 = 0.361 m3/kg (at 5.22 bar) pli.ed to the nozzle is superheated,
= 1.694 m3/kg (at 1.0 bar)
vg3

Velocity of steam at throat,

C2' = 44.72 .Jkhd = 10.9 bar

= 44.72 .J0.9 X 100 = 424.2 mis

Exit velocity, C3' = 44.72 ,p;;;;;;

=44.72 J0.9 X 370
= 816 mis
-- -~ -- -~ J l: :" 'I I- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
....-
1

THE
Since the press ure is less than the exit pressure of h (kJ/kg)
steam from nozzle, as such the nozzle is convergent
type
From Mollier char t :
hl = 3250 kJ/kg ;
h 2 = 3065 kJ/kg ;
hd = hl - h2 = 3250 - 3065 = 185 kJ/kg. I 2850
d

Velocity at exit neglecting initial velocity of steam,

Saturation
C2' = 44.72 Jkhd = 44.72 Jo.9 x 185 = 577 1 line
mis
Specific volume at exit,
v2' = 0.235 m3/kg (From Mollier chart)
Area at exit for one nozzle, s (kJfkg~
Fig. 18.14
A _ mxv2 ' From Mollier chart,
2
- C2 ' x no. of nozzles
h 1 = 2980 kJ/kg, h 2 = 2850 kJ/kg
= 260 x 0.235 = 1.1 x 10-4 m2. (Ans. ) h3 = 2490 kJ/kg, X31 = 0.921
60 x577 x16
Taking into account the initial velocity of steam as v2 = 0.287 m 3/kg (From Mollier chart)
80 mis, the velocity of steam at exit, C ' is calculated hd = h 1 - h 2 = 2980 - 2850 = 130 kJ/kg
2 as
follows: hd ' = h1 - h3 = 2980 - 2490 = 490 kJ/kg
C2 ,2 C 2 For thro at:
- 1 = khd
2
i.e., C2' 2 = 2 khd + Ci2
C2 = 44.72 Jk;
= 2 X 0.9 X 185 X 1000 + 802 = 339400 = 44. 72 ✓130 = 509.8 mis
:. C2' = 582.6 mis .
Percentage increase in velocity Now, m = A2C2
V2
= A20.287
X 509.8

582.6 -577
= - -- - -
577
X 100 = 0.97%. ... A _ mx0. 287
2 - 509.8
This will resul t in 0.97% increase in discharge as
specific volume will not be affected by velocity of appro 500 X 0.287
ach. - - - - - = 7.82 x lo-5 m2
Hence percentage increase in discharge 3600 X 509.8
. 1t
= 0.97%. (Ans. ) i.e., -4 Dl = 7.82 x 10-5
~ Exam ple 18.11. A convergent-divergent nozzle is to be
designed in which steam initially at 14 bar and 80°C
superheat is to be expanded down to a back press
1.05 bar. Determine the necessary throat and exit diame
ure of
of or

ters
D
2
= (7.82 X :0-5 X 4 r 2

ofthe nozzle for a steam discharge of500 kg I hour, assum = 0.009978 m or 9.9 mm
ing i.e.,
that the expansion is in thermal equilibrium throughout Throat diam eter =9.9 mm. · (Ans.)
and
friction reheat amou nting to 12% of the total isentr
opic At
entha lpy drop to be effective in the divergent partr;p ,
f-,1.
nozzle.
Solut ion. p 1 = 14 bar, tsup - t 8 = 80°C 2) X 490 = 928,6 mfs
or t sup = t s + 80 = 195 + so = 21s0 c ; 3
.69 = t.556 in /ki
p 3 = 1.05 bar
We know that,
n 1.3
p 2 = ( 2 )n-1
p1 n +l
=( 1.3+2 1 )1.3-1 =

i.e., P2 =Pi x 0.546 =14 x 0.546 ="1.

 zit.ES
l ,;-;,P.4 ~o
112
; 5r., = (0.0002327 X 4)
Da 1t Frictional heating
= 0.0172 m or 17.2 mm = 0.12 (hl - h3)
= 0.12 (2738 - 2080) = 78.96 kJ/kg
. d'ameter = 17.2 mm. (Ans.)
&xit i Thus by frictional reheating the point 3 gets shifted
~e., Je 18.12. Steam at a pressure of 15 bar and to 3' on the constant pressure line such that
1,nJJlP ction 0.97 is discharged through a convergent- ha' = ha + frictional reheating
,ness {ra,iozzle to a back pressure of 0.2 bar. The mass
= 2080 + 78.96 = 2158.96 kJ/kg
Jt)J•,i1rgenJ • 9 kglk Wh. If the power developed is 220 kw
w· rote is ' Thus the steam conditions in the nozzle from inlet
~o(l) '11£:
~ter,nL . Throat pressure.
to exit are shown by 1-2-3'.
~~) Number of nozzles required if each nozzle has a Steam consumption,
(u) tangular cross-section of 4 mm x 8 mm. 9 220
t of rec ll . . m= x = 0.55 kg/s
1nroa ••') If 12% of the overa isentropic enthalpy drop 60x60
(iii • d'
b friction the steam in ivergent portion find the Velocity at throat,
,Jieats t~ n of the exit rectangle.
,oss-sec w C2 = 44.72 jk; = 44.72 ✓<h1 -h2)
c • P = 15 bar ; x 1 =0.97 ; p 3 = 0.2 bar
Solution. 1
Mass flow rate =9 kg/kWh ; = 44.72 ✓(2738- 2630) =464.7 mis
Power developed =220 kW Total area at throat,
Throat dimensions =4 mm x 8 mm ,n X V2 mx2Vg2
The isentropic index expansion for wet steam A2 = C2 = C2
n = 1.035 + 0.1 X1 0.55 X 0.935 X 0.223
= 1.035 + 0.1 X 0.97 = 1.132 = 464.7
= 2.467 X 10-4 m2
h (kJ/kg)
Throat area per nozzle
=4 x 8 x 10-6 = 0.32 x lo--4 m 2
. . Number of nozzles

= 2.467 x 1
0.32 X 10
0: = 7.7 say 8. (Ans.)
(iii) Cross-section at the exit :
h2=2630 ---

x1 =0.97
r Saturation
line
Velocity at exit from the nozzle,
Ca'= 44.72 ✓<h1 - ~')
~ =0.935 =44. 72 ✓(2738 - 2158.96) =1076 mis
hf:2080 -------- mv3
• I • I
mxa vcs
3 :. Exit area, Aa = Ca' = Ca'
L__-----------~S (kJ/kg K)
0.55 X 0.778 X 7.65
Fig. 18.15
1076
(i) Throat pressure, p2 : =0.003042 m2
1.132
p ( 2 )n _ 1
n
( 2 ) 1.132 -1
= O.oo3o42 =0.0003802 m2
8
p: = n + 1 = 1.132 + 1 •o for the rectangle, and
= (0.938)8,575 =0.577
P2 = 0.577 X P1
= 0.577 X 15
= 8.65 bar. (Ans.) m or 13.78 mm
(ii) Number of nozzles :
hl = 2738 kJ/kg ; h2 =2630 kJ/kg, (Ans.)
h 3 = 2080 kJ/kg
F

TH
:. Number of nozzles required
Example 18.13. A Delaval type impulse turbine is to develop
150 kW with a probable consumption of 7. 5 kg of steam 0.3125
perkWh with initial pressure being 12 bar and the exhaust = 0.04806 =6•5 say 7. (J\.n
0.15 bar. Taking the diameter at the throat of each noz~le S,)
At exit:
as 6 mm, find the number of nozzles required. Assuming
Quality of steam leaving the nozzle x,
that 10 per cent of the total drop is lost in diverging part of I _ ' 3 :::: 0,8
the nozzle, find the diameter at the exit of the nozzle and the hd = h~ - ha - 2780 - 2110:::: 670
quality of steam which is to be fully expanded as it leaves Velocity at the mat, kJl\g
the nozzle. C3' =44.72 Jkh/
Solution. p 1 = 12 bar, p 3 = 0.15 bar
Assuming the steam to be initially dry and saturated, =44. 72 J0.9 X 670 = 109S
rn/s
Area at the exit,

;: = (n !i)"~
=( us!+
1
if:: = 0 •58

:. p 2 =12 x 0.58 =6.96 bar

Refer to Fig. 18.16.
h (kJ/kg) 2
1t D3 X 1098
4
... 0•04806
= 0.8 X 10.022
I

0.04806 X 4 X 0.8 X 10.022

i.e., D32 - -------- -.:..:=
- 1t X 1098

:. D3 = 0.0211 m or 21.1 mm
h2 = 2680 Diameter at the exit of the nozzle
i.e.,
=21.1 mm. (Ans.)
~ Example 18.14. A steam nozzle is supplied steam at
h'
3 15 bar 350°C and discharges steam at 1 bar. If the diverging
h3 =2110
portion of the nozzle is 80 mm long and the throat diameter
..___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s (kJ/kg K) is 6 mm, determine the cone angle of the divergent portion.
Assume 12% of the total available enthalpy drop is lost in
Fig. 18.16
friction in the divergent portion. Also determine the velocity
From Mollier chart : and temperature of the steam at throat.
h 1 =2780 kJ/kg ; h2 =2680 kJ/kg Solution. p 1 = 15 bar, 350°C, Pa =1 bar,
x 2 =0.96, ha =2110 kJ/kg, xa' =0.8
k = 1 - 0.12 = 0.88
From steam tables :
When steam supplied to the nozzle is superheated,
Vg 2 =0.274 m3/kg, Vg3 =10.022 ma/kg the pressure at throat,
The steam consumption of all nozzles per second p 2 =0.546 p 1 =0.546 x 15 =8.19 bar
7.5 X 150
- 3600 = 0.3125 kg h (kJ/kg)

h1 = 3150 ---------
C2 =44.72 J,;; = 44.72 J<hi -h2)
= 44.72J(278 0-2680) = 447.2 mis
A2 =7r/4 Dl = 7r/4 x (6/1000)2
= 0.2827 X 10-4 m2
A2C2
m=
X2Vg2

0.2827 X 10-4 X 447.2 =0.04806 kg/s

- 0.96 X 0.274 !;..;.....--~
s (kJ'1<9 I()
 s'#~ r,JOZZLES
!Jollier chart:
:~;~==~::::::::::::::::::_-~~~~~~~~~~=
frOnili ::: 3150 kJ/kg, h 2 = 2992 kJ/kg Solution. Power developed by the steam turbine
1
3
=
/ == o.24 ro /kg, h 3 2580 kJ/kg = 184 kW
j ~ - 1 75 m3/kg, t2 = 270°C Steam consumption = 16.45 kg/kWh
j \:r~ture of the steam at throat Steam entry pressure, p 1 = 11.8 bar, 220°C
i
7~,,,
'feJJl ::: 270°C. (Ans.) Steam exit pressure, p 2 = 1.18 bar
t itY of steam at throat, Diameter of the nozzle at the throat
l \feloc • ,_.__ _
) C2::: 44.72 Jk; = 44.72 ✓<h1 -h2) =7 mm = 0.007 m
Total enthalpy drop = 8%
= 44.72 ✓(3150- 2992) Steam pressure at throat, p 2 = 0.545 x p 1
= 562.12 mis. (Ans.) = 0.545 X 11.8
frOtU the conditions at nozzle throat, mass flow rate, =6.43 bar
A 2C2
,ii ::: h (kJ/kg)
V2

1t I 4 (6 / 1000)2 x 562.12
== _ = 0.0662 kg/s
0 24 2857
At exit:
c3
' = 44.72 ~ = 44.72 '✓0.88 x (h -h 1
3
)

::: 44.72 ✓0.88 X (3150 - 2580) = 1001.5 m/s

Exit area of the nozzle,
mX V3 0.0662 X 1.751

As= Cs' - lOOl.5 = 0.0001156 m2

2492
ie., ~ D/ = 0.0001156 2460
I 4
I( 112 '---------~-----___..s (kJ/kg K)
4 X 0.0001156)
D3 = ( 7t = 0.012 m or 12.1 mm Fig. 18.18

If 0 be the cone angle of nozzle, Fig. 18.18 shows the expansion and values of enthalpy
and specific volume at various points on Mollier chart.
(12.1- 6)
tan 0 = 2 x 80 = 0.03812 or 0 = 2° 11' h3' = 2857 - (1- ~ ) ~2857 - 2460)
100
Thus, cone angle= 2 x 2° 11' = 4° 22'. (Ans.)
=2491.7 kJ/kg
.
Steam flow, m = 1843600
X 16.45
=0.8407 kg/s
Velocity of steam at throat,
c2 =44.72 ✓(2857 - 2749) =464.7 mis
m = A2C2 xN
Fig. 18.17 (a) V2
Etainple 18.15. A steam turbine develops 184 kW, with a .•. Number of nozzles,
I :nsumption of 16. 45 kg/kWh. The pressure and 0.8407x0.3
I rnperature of the steam entering the nozzle are 11.8 bar 0.0072 X 466.6
2O°C. The steam leaves the nozzle at_ 1.18 bar. The
I ~
(Ans.)
: of ter ofthe nozzle at the throat is 7 mm. Find the number
! 71-0zzles.
! ~uer _If 8% of the total enthalpy drop is lost in friction io,
1
~t gfing Part of the nozzle determine the diameter at the
O the nozzle and exit velocity
' • steam.
of the leaving
(D.U.)
 THE
m= _A___3c__3_x_N_ Between inlet and exit:
or
V3
2
c?
h 1 + - = h'
3+-
C3'2
0.8407 = 1t I 4
D3 x 855.4 x 14 2 2
1.4 75 x 75 C ,2
2790 +
... D 2 _ 0.8407 x 1.4 x 4 2 1000 = 2498 + 3 _
3
X 2 X 1000
- 1t X 854.4 X 14
or C ,2
D3 = 0.0112 m or 11.2 mm 2792.8 = 2498 + 3
Hence diameter at the exit of the nozzle 2000
= 11.2 mm. (Ans.) h (kJ)

Exam ple 18.16. (a) What are the important consi

derations
for selection of the blade material for a steam turbi
ne ?
(b) A convergent-divergent nozzle is requi 2790
red to
discharge 2 kg of steam per second. The nozzle
is supplied
with steam at 6.9 bar and 180°C and discharge
takes place 2663
against a back pressure of 0.98 bar. Expansion upto
throat
is isentropic and the frictional resistance between
the throat
and exit is equivalent to 62. 76 kJ I kg of steam Saturation
. Takin g 2498 ----------
approach velocity of 75 mis and throat pressure 2435 ---------- line
3.9 bar,
estim ate:
(i) Suitable areas for the throat and exit. s (kJ/kg K)
(ii) Overall efficiency of the nozzle based Fig. 18.19
on the
enthalpy drop between the actual inlet press
ure, and ... C3' = 767.8 mis
temperature and the exit pressure.
(AMI E)
Solution. (a) The selection of mate rial besides Area at exit, A _ mv3 ' _ 2x16
desirable 3- C
3' - 767.8
properties largely depends on cost. The following
are the =0.004167 or 41.67 cm2• (Ans,)
materials which are generally used for blade s:
(ii) Over all effic ienc y:
(i) Bras s (ii) Nickel brass
(iii) Phosphor bronze h1 - ha' 2790-2498
(iv) Manganese copper
(v) Monel metal
l'loverall = h1 - ha - 2790 - 2435
(vi) Nickel steel
(vii) Stainless steel. =0.8225 or 82.25%. (Ans.)
(b) The expansion and values obtained from Exam ple 18.17. (a) Show that, when critical
Mollier occurs, the velocity of a compressible fiuid atpressure ratw
the exi.t of a
chart are shown in Fig. 18.19.
convergent nozzle is given by
(i) Areas for thro at and exit :
Between inlet and throat :
C2 C2
C2 = vr+1
•u1
fT--:;
h+- 1-= h+- 2-
1 2 2 2 where a 1 is the sonic velocity corresponding to
the intial
75 x 75 2
2790
+ 2 X1000 =2663
C2
+ 2 X1000
conditions. Assume criti.cal pressure ratio = ( y )f,i'
1 !
2 iabatic •II.IULJ ~

2792.8 =2663 + C2 which nozzl~ efficienC'J

2000
... C2 = 509.5 mis.
height ofa Delaval
Area at throat, ~= TnV2 = 2 X 0.45 per minute.. The
C2 509.5 kPa ,especttvel~-
= 0.001766 m2 le efficie4,;
throat•
= 17.66 cm2• (Ans .) • atic indd
• •kf)
Vni"etsJ'1·
 2 )y~l I
P2 -
Pl - ( r +1 ... Given
'®
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ L ___ ___ ___ _ _
480 kPa,
--- ---
Convergent
nozzle 808 K

Fig. 18.20
'fhe exit Mach. number is 1, :. T2 =rpr. Fig. 18.21

t_ = (p*)y;l T2 _ _ 2_ _ 2
- - - - = 0.8333
T1 y +1 1.4 + 1
Ti P1
y-1 ... T2 = 808 x 0.8333 =673.3 K

= (1!1)1: 1
-'Y- _ 1!1 R= •
8 314
29
=0.2867 kJ/kg°C
Ry 0.2867 x 1.4
C =--=
P y- 1 (1.4 - 1)
The exit velocity is sonic velocity, = 1.0034 kJ/kg°C
= JyRT2 = ✓YRT *
Now, 2c? =cP(T1 - T2)
= 1R J 2Ti
y+l
= /21 x bRT1
V1+ or c? =2c/T1 - T2)
= 2 X 1.0034 X 1000(808 - 673.3)

= J1
1 !
a1 • Prov ed.
c2 = 519.9 mis

mg =P~2C 2 = J!:L A2C2

(b) The factors on whi ch nozz le effic ienc y RT 2 .
depends are : mgRT2
1. Material of the nozzle. ... A2 = ----- --
P~2
2. Workmanship of the manufacture of nozzle.
(27 / 60)(0.2867 X 1000) X 673.3
3. Size and shape of the nozzle. = -- -- -- -- --
(253.44 X 1000) X 519.9
4. Reynolds number of flow.
= 6.59 X 10-4 m2
5. Angle of divergence of divergent portion. at
:. Height of nozzle (square section) at thro
6. Nature of fluid flowing and its· state.
7. Turbulence in fluid and its state. = ✓6.59 X 10-4
(c) Given : mg =27 kg/min ; p 1 = 480 kPa ; • 0.0257 m or 25.7 mm. (Ans.)
p = 138 kPa ; T1 = 535 + 273 = 808 K;
3
= 90%,
11nozzle
Molecular weight of the gas = 29 ; y = 1.4.
'Y
h =( 2 J1-1
P1 y+l
1.4

=( 2 )1.4- 1 =0.528
1.4+ 1
P2 = 480 x 0.528 =253.44 kPa
 THERMA

.
Taking logarithms, and the differentials, \lie

Ti -Ts'
dA dC - ~ == 0 ~~
T\nozzle = T1 - Ts
A+ c v
dA dv
sos-Ts' - -dC
-
09 = or A== V C
or • 808 - 565-9 • _ 590.1 K '•,It)
T3' = 808 - 0.9 (808 - 565.9) -
For isentropic flow, from first law of thennodYnatxu
... Tds == dh - vdp =0 ~
C ,2 T ') dh = vdp
Now, J._ = c/T1 - s , or
2 From steady flow energy equation
C ,2 - 2c (Tl - T3)
or
= 2 X 1.0034 X 1000(808 - 590.1)
3 - p
cz
h + - = consta nt
or c31 = 661.27 mis 2
mRTs' dh=-C dC
... A3 = C,
or
From (ii) and (iii), we have
.,,(iii)

(~ /60) X (0.2867 X 1000) X 590.1

dC= - vdp
= (138 X 1000) X 661.27 C ...(fo)
=8.343 X 10-4 m2 • For an ideal gas, isentropic relation,
:. Height of nozzle (square section) at the exit pv r = consta nt
= ✓8.343 X 10-4
=0.02888 m or 28.88 mm. or ~+y ~=O
(Ans.) p V
Example 18.18. (a) Justify the statement "Nozzles are more dv l dp
efficient than diffusers". -=---
. . or V 'Y p
(b) Derive the following expression for nozzle fiow •
Substit uting from (iv) and (v) in (i), we get
dA = !:.. dp
A 'Y p
(1 -~
M
J, the symbols having usual
2 dA
- = --- + 2
A
l dp
'Y P
vdp
C
meanings.
(c) It is proposed to design steam nozzles for the = !_ dp (pv2Y
'Y P C
-1)
following data :
Initial pressure =30 bar = -1 -dp(yR2T -1) , as pv =RT
Initial temperature =450°c 'Y P C
Back pressure =6 bar Furthe r, noting that sonic velocity Csonic = ✓YRT,
Nozzle efficiency =90% and M =Mach Number= C , the above relation reduces
Initial steam velocity =60 m Is to Csonic
Mass fiow rate =2 kg Is 2
Assuming circular cross-section, calculate the inlet, dA = !_ dp [C sonic _ 1] = ! dp [ ~ -1]
throat and exit diameter of nozzle. (AMIE) A 'Y p C2 y p M2
Solution. (a) Nozzles are more efficient than diffusers
2
because in nozzles the fiow is in the direction of decreasing or -dA = -1 -dp[l-
-- M-] the requir
ed denva• tin.
0
pressure (favourable pressure gradient). Hence the boundary A 'Y p M2 '
layer is thin and the frictional losses are less. In diffusers (c) Refer to Fig. 18.22.
the boundary layers are thick due to adverse pressure
gradients. This has greater frictional effects. Further, the ' = 60 m/s, m=2kfis.
supersonic diffusers have invariably a normal, shock ate
even when operating under design conditions. This fu
reduces the efficiency.
(b) From continuity equation,

m• =pAC =constant = -AC _.,ni,ar)

1 .... 41V
V
 p1 = 30 bar
... C3' = 44.72.J(3344.8 - 2949) .=. 890 mis
P = 16.38 bar - mv3' - 2 X 0.4 = 0 000899 m2
··••• a= 6 bar As - C ' - 890 •
3
7t 2

r
or
9155 •••• •·
........ 4 Ds = 0.000899.
2
rtfJ5 ..••·. or Ds = ( 0.000!99 x 4
= 0.0338 m or 33.8 mm. (Ans.)
Example 18.19. Determine the throat area, exit area and
exit velocity for a steam nozzle to pass a mass flow of 0.2 kg/s
when inlet conditions are 10 bar and 250°C and the final
- - - - - - - - - - - . s (kJ/kg K) pressure is 2 bar. Assume expansion is isentropic and that
Fig. 18.22 the inlet velocity is negligible. Use pv 1•3 constant. Do not
calculate from h-s chart. (N.U.)
Afso, m= A1C1
Vt
Solution. Mass of steam flowing through the nozzle,

mV1 2 X 01078
m = 0.2 kg/s
8

A1 = c1 =
60
= 0.003593 m2 Inlet pressure, p 1 = 10 bar
Inlet temperature, T1 = 250 + 273 = 523 K
2
~D1 = 0.003593 Specific volume at 10 bar, 250°C
or 4
112
=0.233 m3/kg
0.003593 X 4) (From steam tables)
D1 = ( = 0.0676 m
7t
Final pressure, p 3 = 2 bar
(Ans.)
= 67.6 mm. Throat area (~), exit area (Aa) and exit velocity
Throat : Assume that frictional losses occur in (Cs):
diverging part only; i.e., flow upto throat is frictionless.

P2 = 0.546
P1
;: = ( n
1
! )n ~l = ( 1.3\ ly!·~ 1
= 0.5457

p 2 = 30 x 0.546 = 16.38 bar :. p 2 = 0.5457 x p 1 =0.5457 x 10 = 5.457 bar

For superheat steam n = 1.3 At throat:
n 13
n-1
P2 =( 2 Jn-1 = ( 2 )1.3-1 = 0.546
P1 n+1 1.3 + 1 Velocity C2 = 2n
--p1v1 1- (P2)-n
-
n-1 P1
From Mollier chart :
h2 = 3155 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.19 m3/kg
c2 = 44. 72 .J(3344.8 - 3155) = 616 m/s 2 3 5 57 13-1]
13
5
= X l. X (10 X 10 ) X 0.233 1-( .4 )
A - riiv2 - 2 x 019 - 0 000617 2 1.3-1 [ 10
2- C - 61~ - • m
2
or 2
: D2 = 0.000617 = J2019333.3 (1- 0.8696) = 513.15 mis

D2 = ( 0.000~17 x 4 J/2 ! = 0.233 (5.457

10 )~

E. = 0.028 m or 28 mm.
xit : From MolUer chart :
h3 = 2905 kJ/kg, v3' = 0.4 m3/kg
hs' = ho1 - 11nozzle (hot - h3) ~X 513.15
= 3344.8 - 0.9(3344.8 - 2905) 0.3712
= 2949 kJ/kg
 THERMA

=
0.2 X 0.3712
Thr oat are a, A2 = 513.15
or
=1.446 x lo-" m 2• (An s.)
At exi t:
n -1 Velocity of sound is given by

C3= 2n1V 1 1-( Pp 13) 7

-P
a2 =-v2 (dp )
dV s
Velocity, n- l
it is assumed that
For con sta nt ent rop y process,
pvn =con sta nt
1.3-1]
_ 2 X l.3 X (10
5
X 10 ) X 0.233
{
1- .3
(~)1
l0
Differentiating thi s and on sub
a2=npv
stitution, we have
'
- 1.3 -1
a = Jnp2v2 =C2
.45 m/s ...
= J2019333.33 X 0.3102 = 791 ditions of maximu
This proves tha t und er the con
1 at thr oat is equal to the son:
11 discharge the velocity offiu id
P1) n =0.233 (120)13 =0.8035 m3fkg velocity at the thr oat con diti ons
.
V3 =V1 ( p3
tall atio n 5.2 kg Is ofsteam at
. A3C3 A3X 791 45 ~ Ex am ple 18.21. In an ins
= or 0.2 = 0.8035 d to gro up of six nozzles in a
Mass flow rate, m 5 v
3 30 bar and 350 °C is sup plie
4 bar. Determine:
0.2 X 0.8035 wheel dia met er ma int ain ed at
ofrectangular cross.
or Exit area, A 3 = 79145 (i) The dim ens ion s ofthe nozzles
ect rat io 3 : 1. The expansion
=2.03 x 10-4 m 2. (Ans.) sectional fiow area wit h asp
and friction is neglected;
pressure ratio of a nozzle ma y be considered me tas tab le
Example 18.20. Define critical (ii) Degree of und erc ool ing and
supersaturation;
ic velocity determines the
and discuss why attainment ofson p due to irreversibility;
maximum mass rate of fiow thro
ugh steam nozzle. (iii) Los s in ava ilab le hea t dro
Solution. The critical pre ssu re
rati is given by
o (iv) Increase in ent rop y ;
h metastable expansion
n (v) Rat io ofma ss fiow rat e wit
;: = (n !i]n-1 to tha t if expansion is in the rma
Solution. Ref er to Fig. 18.23.
l equilibrium.

The velocity at thro at From Motlier cha rt:

n =
hl 3115 kJ/ kg ; h 3 =2675 kJ/kg
C2 = 2-- (p1 V1 - P2V 2) 3
u3 =0.46 m /kg.
n-1 VI = 0.09 m3/kg ;
re and velocity at the throat]
[where p 2 and C2 are the pressu h (kJ/kg)
••
h1= .
~

'
.,.,,

I
3115 3
o.09 •
I I m_~51-...... .
---
0

Loss In available
2 we get,
heat drop
Sub stit utin g the value of P ,
P1 h
2

;..; .-_ .,s (JcJ/kg f(J

 ~es
~,~ sions of the nozzle :
sr~ •t11et1 :. Degree of undercooling

fof' :r
(i) V• ,saturated steam, the index of expansion is
as for superheated steam, i.e., n = 1,3_
pied sO . ntropic enthalpy drop,
= 143.6 - 118.2 = 25.4°C. (Ans.)
Saturation pressure corresponding to 118.2°C
.::. 1.9 bar
,-4 ,rb\ls 1se .•. Degree of super saturation
n-1
5
P1V1 X 10 (P2J7 4
103 1- - kJ/kg = = 2.1. (Ans.)
Pi 19
(iii) Loss in available heat drop :
Isentropic enthalpy drop for expansion under
1.3-1
30 X 0.09 X 105 thermal equilibrium conditions as read out from Mollier
1.3
:: 1,3 - 1X 103 l-C~)12 chart
h 1 - h3 = 3115 - 2675 = 440 kJ/kg
:: 1170 (1 - 0.6282) = 435 kJ/kg :. Loss of available heat drop
= 440 - 435 = 5 kJ/kg.
Velocity at point 2,
(iv) Increase in entropy
c2 = 44.72 ✓Ch1 -h2) 5
= 44. 72 ✓435 =932. 7 mis = (143.6 + 273)
1 1 = 0.012 kJ/kg K. (Ans.)

Also v2 = V1 (;: Y 3
= 0.09 x ( ; )o.a = 0.4239 m31kg
(v) Ratio of mass flow rate:
Exit velocity from the nozzle with expansion in
thermal equilibrium is given by
Mass flow rate,
C = 44.72 ✓---(hi---h-3)
. A 2 xC2 3
m= = 44. 72 ✓440 = 938 mis
V2
Also specific volume at 4 bar at state point 3 from
A2 x 932.7
5•2 = Mollier chart,
0.4239 v3 = 0.46 m3/kg
5.2 X 0.4239 • Mass fiow rate for metastable fiow
A2 = _ = 0.002363 m2
932 7 Mass flow rate for metastable flow
Since aspect ratio is 3 : 1, if we assume breadth as x Mass flow rate for thermal equilibrium flow
the length will be 3x and area of six nozzles will be = Area of flow x C2 x v3
A 2 =6x3xxx v2 Area of flow x C3
0.002363 = 18x2
= v3C2 = 0.46 x 932.7 = 1.07. (Ans.)
112
= ( 0.002363 ) v2C3 0.4239 x 938
X 18 Example 18.22. Air enters a convergent nozzle from a
=0.0114 m or 11.4 mm. (Ans.) reservoir at 2200 kPa and 100°C. If the exit area is 3.25 cm2,
length = 3 x 11.4 = 34.2 mm. (Ans.) what is the maximum mass fiow rate that this nozzle can
mid
handle ? Assume the process to be isentropic and that the
, (ii) Degree of undercooling and supersatura- air behaves as an ideal gas. (D.U.)
!ion:
Solution. For maximum mass flow rate, and y = 1.4, the
Temperature at point 2 is found as follows : pressure at the exit will be critical, .
n-1

~: = (~)_n_ p" =
2 )[y/(y-1))
i+l
(14/14,l)

L3-l
4)1.3
=(273 + 350) X ( 30 and

= 623 x 0.628 = 391.2 Kor 118.2°C

From steam tables saturation temperature at 4 bar
= 143.6°C
 THERMAL EN
GINE~1
friction/ ad· ~
Ex am ple 18.24. Air enters a ess
10 bar 500 K With iabatit
Sonic velocity, converging nozzle at
a region a:;cligib~
C* = JyRT* velocity. The nozzle disch~rges to
cm2, find the fl ba,., 11
the exit area of the nozzle is 2.5
= Jl.4 X 287 X 310.78 = 353.37 m/s o{a ir through the nozzle. Ass um e
for air c _ OUJ ,.0,.
p - 1005 "
J1,_
p* - p* = 1161.6 = 13.02 kg/ms Ka nd c = 718 Jlk g •K • (G ~
7 x 310. 78 V A~)
RT * 0.28 Solution. Refer to Fig. 18.26.
3 25
m = p*A C* = 13.02 x IO• 4 x 353.37 P1 A,
e

= 1.495 kg/s. (Ans.)

rsibly and adiabatically
Example 18.23. Air is expanded reve
a pressure of 6 bar. The
in a nozzle from 13 bar and 150°C to
1
2
ll and the process occurs
inlet velocity ofthe nozzle is very sma
Cal culate the exit velocity h
under steady state fiow conditions. (U.P.S.C.)
of the nozzle.
= 150 + 273 = 423 K ;
Solution. Given : p 1 = 13 bar ; T1
P2 = 6 bar ; cl = 0
Exit velocity, C2 : s
'1' and '2', we get
Applying the energy equation at Fig . 18.26
= 10 ba r; Tl= 500 K; cl= O;
m [h1 + 'f + Z1g] + Q = [ ¾ + C{ + Zig ] + W
... (i) Given : P1
p 2 = 2 bar ; A 2 =2.5 cm2 ;
and adiabatically cP = 1005 J/k g K ; cv
= 718 J/kg K
. Since the air is expanded reversibly
efor e,
m a nozzle from condition 'l' to '2', ther Flo w rat e of air , Q :
cP 1005
y=~ = 718 = l.4
nozzle,
For the isentropic process 1-2 in the
1
:! = (~r;l
1.4- 1

or 500 (10 )1. 4 = 1.584

Fig. 18.25 T2 = 2
Q = 0 ; Also w= 0 and zl = Z2
:. Eqn . (i) reduces to : ... T = 500
2 _
_
- 315 .6 K
1 584
c2 C2
hl + _!_ = h + --L
2 2 2 C22 -C1 2
Now, 2 = hl - h2
But cl= 0
:. C22 = 2(h l -h2 ) or 2
C2 - ci2 = 2( h1 -h2)
or
J
C2 = 2 <hi -~ ) = J2xcP (T1 -T2
) or C2 = J2(h,_ -"2 )
...(ii)

Now,
T2
7f"
1
=
(
P2
Pi
).!..:.!
Y = (~)14 _
13
14 -1
- 0.8018

:. T2 = 423 X 0.8018 = 339.16 K

") we get
Substituting the values in eqn• (n,
C2 = J2
x 100 5 (423 _ 33916) 608.8
= 12.98 mis. (Ans.) •• (ADS-)