Unit 1

Q.Explain Big Data Analytics (Advantage , disadvantage and application of Big data analytics ) and its
characteristics

Big Data Analytics refers to the complex process of examining large and varied data sets (big data)
to uncover hidden patterns, correlations, market trends, customer preferences, and other useful
information. This data can be used to help organizations make better decisions and improve
operational efficiency.

Characteristics of Big Data

Big Data is typically characterized by the following “5 Vs”:

1. Volume: The amount of data being generated is enormous. From social media to sensors,
vast amounts of data are continuously created.

2. Velocity: Data is generated at an incredible speed, requiring real-time or near real-time

analysis.

3. Variety: Data comes in multiple formats such as structured, unstructured (text, videos,
images), and semi-structured (JSON, XML).

4. Veracity: Data can be unreliable or uncertain, leading to challenges in ensuring its accuracy
and quality.

5. Value: The key goal is to extract meaningful and valuable insights from the data.

Advantages of Big Data Analytics

1. Enhanced Decision-Making: Real-time data analysis helps organizations make quick,

informed decisions.

2. Improved Customer Insights: Big data provides in-depth insights into customer behavior and
preferences, allowing businesses to offer personalized experiences.

3. Operational Efficiency: By analyzing data, businesses can streamline operations, reduce

costs, and identify inefficiencies in their processes.

4. Innovation and New Product Development: Big data analysis helps in discovering new
trends and developing innovative products to meet emerging customer needs.

5. Risk Management: Data analytics can predict and mitigate risks by recognizing patterns and
anomalies.

6. Competitive Advantage: Businesses using big data analytics can outperform competitors by
identifying trends and making proactive adjustments.

Disadvantages of Big Data Analytics

1. Data Security and Privacy Concerns: Handling vast amounts of data increases the risk of
breaches, raising privacy and security concerns.
 2. High Cost of Infrastructure: Setting up and maintaining big data infrastructure can be
expensive, including costs for data storage, processing, and skilled professionals.

3. Complexity: The sheer volume and variety of data can be overwhelming and require
advanced tools and expertise to manage.

4. Data Quality Issues: Not all data is reliable, and poor-quality data can lead to inaccurate
conclusions.

5. Skill Gap: A shortage of professionals with big data expertise makes it difficult for many
organizations to effectively utilize analytics.

6. Compliance: Organizations need to comply with various data protection regulations (e.g.,
GDPR), which can be challenging when dealing with vast data sets.

Applications of Big Data Analytics

1. Healthcare: Big data is used to analyze patient records, treatment plans, and medical
histories to improve care, reduce costs, and predict disease outbreaks.

2. Retail: Retailers use big data to optimize inventory, track consumer behavior, and create
personalized marketing strategies.

3. Finance: Financial institutions use big data to detect fraud, assess risk, and improve customer
service by analyzing transaction data.

4. Manufacturing: Big data helps optimize production lines, reduce downtime, and improve
product quality through predictive maintenance.

5. Government: Governments use big data analytics for national security, tax fraud detection,
and improving services like transportation and infrastructure planning.

6. Telecommunications: Telecom companies use big data for network optimization, predictive
maintenance, and customer churn analysis.

7. Education: Educational institutions use big data to improve student performance, optimize
curriculum planning, and identify at-risk students.

8. Marketing: Marketers use big data to analyze customer preferences and behaviors to
improve targeting and campaign effectiveness.

Q.Explain the following terms a) Roll/ characteristics of Data science/scientist b) business intelligence

a) Role/Characteristics of Data Science/Data Scientist

Data Science is a multidisciplinary field that combines statistics, mathematics, programming,

and domain expertise to extract actionable insights from data. It involves using various
techniques such as machine learning, data mining, and predictive analytics to solve complex
problems and support decision-making.

Role of a Data Scientist

 A Data Scientist is responsible for analyzing and interpreting large volumes of complex data
to help organizations make data-driven decisions. Their role includes:

1. Data Collection: Gathering large sets of structured and unstructured data from various
sources.

2. Data Cleaning: Preparing data for analysis by removing inconsistencies, missing values, and
inaccuracies.

3. Data Exploration: Conducting exploratory data analysis (EDA) to identify trends, correlations,
and patterns in the data.

4. Model Building: Developing predictive models using statistical and machine learning
techniques to forecast outcomes and generate insights.

5. Data Interpretation: Presenting insights and findings in a clear and actionable manner to
stakeholders, often using data visualization tools like Power BI, Tableau, or Python libraries
such as Matplotlib.

6. Collaboration: Working closely with business analysts, engineers, and other stakeholders to
understand the business problem and align data insights with organizational goals.

7. Optimization: Continuously improving data models and algorithms to enhance accuracy and
efficiency.

8. Deployment: Implementing machine learning models into production systems to automate

decision-making processes.

9. Staying Current: Keeping up with the latest tools, technologies, and trends in the data
science field.

Key Characteristics of Data Scientists

1. Analytical Mindset: Ability to break down complex problems and analyze data to find
solutions.

2. Strong Statistical Knowledge: Expertise in statistics, probability, and mathematics to develop

accurate models.

3. Programming Skills: Proficiency in programming languages like Python, R, SQL, and

frameworks like TensorFlow and Scikit-learn for data manipulation and analysis.

4. Curiosity and Innovation: A deep curiosity to explore data and an innovative approach to
solving problems.

5. Business Acumen: Understanding of the business context to align data insights with strategic
goals and make decisions that add value.

6. Communication Skills: Ability to explain technical findings to non-technical stakeholders in a

clear and concise way.

7. Problem-Solving Skills: Critical thinking and problem-solving to turn data into actionable
business insights.
 b) Business Intelligence (BI)

Business Intelligence (BI) refers to the technologies, processes, and strategies used by
organizations to analyze business data and present actionable information that helps
executives, managers, and other end-users make informed decisions.

Key Components of Business Intelligence

1. Data Warehousing: Storing large volumes of data in a centralized repository for easy access
and analysis.

2. Data Integration: Combining data from multiple sources into a unified view.

3. Data Analysis: Using techniques such as querying, reporting, and data mining to find insights
and patterns in business data.

4. Dashboards and Reports: Visual representations of data (charts, graphs, KPIs) to monitor
and analyze performance at a glance.

5. ETL (Extract, Transform, Load): A process that involves extracting data from various sources,
transforming it into a usable format, and loading it into a data warehouse or BI platform.

6. OLAP (Online Analytical Processing): Tools that allow for complex querying and reporting of
multi-dimensional data.

7. Real-Time BI: Some systems provide real-time access to data, enabling businesses to react to
changes quickly.

Benefits of Business Intelligence

1. Data-Driven Decision Making: Provides accurate, timely data that supports strategic and
operational decisions.

2. Improved Efficiency: Automates data collection and reporting, saving time and reducing
manual errors.

3. Performance Monitoring: Helps in tracking key performance indicators (KPIs) and identifying
areas for improvement.

4. Increased Competitiveness: Provides insights that can help businesses stay ahead of
competitors by identifying trends and market opportunities.

5. Enhanced Customer Insights: Analyzes customer data to improve satisfaction, retention, and
targeting.

6. Risk Management: Identifies potential risks by analyzing historical and current data.
Q. Explain the Big Data Ecosystem/ Hadoop Ecosystem

Big Data Ecosystem / Hadoop Ecosystem

The Big Data Ecosystem comprises various tools and technologies designed to store,
process, and analyze large and complex datasets. A core part of this ecosystem is the
Hadoop Ecosystem, a framework that enables distributed data storage and processing.

Core Components of Hadoop Ecosystem

1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

o A distributed storage system that splits large data into blocks and stores them
across multiple nodes. It ensures fault tolerance by replicating data, allowing for
reliable storage of large datasets.

2. YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):

o Manages and allocates computational resources (like CPU and memory) to various
data processing tasks running on a Hadoop cluster, enabling efficient job execution
and resource sharing.

3. MapReduce:

o A programming model for processing large datasets in parallel across a distributed

cluster. It works by splitting tasks into two phases:

▪ Map Phase: Breaks down data into smaller chunks for parallel processing.

▪ Reduce Phase: Aggregates the results of the map tasks to produce the final
output.

4. Hadoop Common:

o A collection of utilities and libraries used by other Hadoop components for

performing essential tasks like input/output operations and data serialization.

2. Other Key Components in the Hadoop Ecosystem

1. Hive:

o A data warehouse infrastructure built on top of Hadoop that allows users to query
large datasets using SQL-like syntax (HiveQL). It simplifies querying and analyzing
data without needing to write complex MapReduce programs.

2. Pig:

o A scripting platform that uses Pig Latin, a high-level language, for transforming and
analyzing large datasets. It simplifies complex data transformations by abstracting
the underlying MapReduce jobs.

3. Sqoop:

o A tool used to transfer structured data between Hadoop and relational databases
(e.g., MySQL, Oracle). It helps import/export data efficiently to and from HDFS.
Unit 2:

Exploratory Data Analysis?

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is a crucial step in the data analysis process, helping
analysts and data scientists gain an initial understanding of their dataset, identify
patterns, and uncover insights before applying more advanced models. It uses visual
and statistical techniques to explore data thoroughly.

1. Key Steps in Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

a) Data Understanding (1 mark)
• This involves checking the data structure, such as the number of rows (observations) and
columns (features), and identifying the types of data (e.g., numerical, categorical, or
textual).
b) Handling Missing Values (1 mark)
• Missing Data can be identified and handled by methods such as removing rows with
missing values or filling missing data with appropriate measures like the mean, median, or
mode.
c) Descriptive Statistics (1 mark)
• Summary statistics such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, minimum, maximum,
and percentiles provide insights into the central tendency and variability of the data.
d) Data Visualization (2 marks)
• Visualizing data helps in identifying trends, patterns, and outliers. Common techniques
include:
o Univariate Analysis: Histograms and box plots to understand the distribution of a
single variable.
o Multivariate Analysis: Scatter plots, pair plots, and correlation matrices to explore
relationships between variables.
e) Outlier Detection (1 mark)
• Outliers can skew data and affect models. Tools like box plots and statistical methods (e.g.,
Z-scores) help in identifying and treating these anomalies.
f) Correlation Analysis (1 mark)
• Correlation matrices or heatmaps help detect relationships between numerical variables,
identifying positive or negative correlations that may guide feature selection in further
analysis.

Importance of EDA
EDA provides a foundation for:
• Understanding the dataset’s characteristics.
• Identifying potential biases or errors (e.g., missing data, outliers).
• Formulating hypotheses for modeling and guiding feature selection.
• Detecting underlying patterns and relationships between variables.
Q. Explain the Hypothesis Testing : Z test, T test, Anova , Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test along with
numerical

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences or decisions about

population parameters based on sample data. It involves formulating two competing
hypotheses:
• Null Hypothesis (H₀): No effect or no difference.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): There is an effect or a difference.
We use different tests based on the data type, sample size, and assumptions of
normality. Below are four key hypothesis tests, along with examples.

1. Z-Test (2 marks)
A Z-test is used to determine if there is a significant difference between sample and
population means when the population standard deviation is known and the sample
size is large (n > 30). It assumes the data follows a normal distribution.
Example (Z-Test for Single Mean):
• A company claims that the average weight of a product is 500g. A sample of 50 products
has a mean weight of 505g with a standard deviation of 5g. Is there evidence to suggest
the mean weight is different from 500g?
o H₀: μ = 500g (The population mean is 500g)
o H₁: μ ≠ 500g (The population mean is not 500g)
Formula:

A Z-value of 7.07 is greater than the critical value (±1.96 for 95% confidence), so we
reject H₀, concluding the mean is significantly different from 500g.
 2. T-Test (2 marks)
A T-test is used when the population standard deviation is unknown and the sample
size is small (n < 30). It compares means and assumes the data is approximately
normally distributed.
Types of T-Test:
1. One-Sample T-Test: Compares a sample mean to a known value.
2. Independent T-Test: Compares the means of two independent groups.
3. Paired T-Test: Compares means from the same group at two different times.
Example (Independent T-Test):
• Two groups of students take different preparation courses. Group A (n = 15) scores an
average of 85 with a standard deviation of 5, while Group B (n = 12) scores an average of
80 with a standard deviation of 4. Is there a significant difference between their means?
Formula:

With 25 degrees of freedom and a t-value of 2.74, the result is significant at the 5%
level, meaning the two groups have significantly different scores.

3. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) (2 marks)

ANOVA is used to compare the means of three or more groups. It determines whether
the differences among group means are statistically significant. It is especially useful
when comparing multiple groups simultaneously.
Example (One-Way ANOVA):
• A researcher wants to compare the mean test scores of students from three different
teaching methods. The sample means are 80, 85, and 90.
Steps:
1. Null Hypothesis (H₀): All group means are equal.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): At least one group mean is different.
 Formula (F-Statistic):

• Interpretation: If the F-value is large enough (compared to a critical value from the F-
distribution table), reject H0H₀H0 and conclude there is a significant difference between
group means.

4. Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test (1 mark)

The Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test is a non-parametric test used to compare two
independent samples when the assumption of normality is violated. It tests whether
the distributions of two independent samples are equal.
Example:
• Two groups of patients are given different treatments. Their pain reduction scores (not
normally distributed) are compared using the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test.
Steps:
1. Rank all observations from both groups combined.
2. Compute the sum of ranks for each group.
3. Use the rank sums to compute the test statistic and compare it to a critical value.
• If the rank-sum test statistic is significant, we reject H0H₀H0 and conclude that there is a
difference between the two groups' distributions.

Q.Explain the Type I and II Errors/ Confusion Matrix / Accuracy precision and recall

1. Type I and Type II Errors

• Type I Error (False Positive):

o Definition: Occurs when the null hypothesis (H0H_0H0) is true, but we incorrectly
reject it.

o Implication: We conclude that there is an effect or difference when there isn’t one.

o Example: A medical test incorrectly indicates a disease is present in a healthy

person.

o Significance Level (α\alphaα): The probability of making a Type I error is denoted

by α\alphaα. A common threshold is 0.05 (5%).

• Type II Error (False Negative):

o Definition: Occurs when the null hypothesis (H0H_0H0) is false, but we fail to reject
it.

o Implication: We conclude that there is no effect or difference when there actually

is one.

o Example: A medical test fails to detect a disease in a sick person.

 o Power (1−β): The probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis (avoiding a
Type II error) is called power.

Summary of Errors:

Error Type Null Hypothesis Status Decision Made

Type I Error True Reject H0 (False Positive)

Type II Error False Fail to reject H0 (False Negative)

2. Confusion Matrix

A confusion matrix is a tool used to evaluate the performance of a classification model. It

compares the actual target values with those predicted by the model, summarizing the results into
a table format.

Predicted Positive Predicted Negative

Actual Positive True Positive (TP) False Negative (FN)

Actual Negative False Positive (FP) True Negative (TN)

Key Components:

• True Positive (TP): The number of instances correctly predicted as positive.

• True Negative (TN): The number of instances correctly predicted as negative.

• False Positive (FP): The number of instances incorrectly predicted as positive (Type I error).

• False Negative (FN): The number of instances incorrectly predicted as negative (Type II
error).

Example:

In a binary classification for disease detection:

• TP: Patients with the disease correctly predicted as having it.

• TN: Healthy patients correctly predicted as healthy.

• FP: Healthy patients incorrectly predicted as having the disease.

• FN: Patients with the disease incorrectly predicted as healthy.

3. Accuracy, Precision, and Recall

These metrics help evaluate the performance of a classification model based on the results from
the confusion matrix.

a) Accuracy:
 • Definition: The overall correctness of the model, measuring how often the classifier is
correct.

• Formula:

• Interpretation: High accuracy indicates that the model performs well overall.

b) Precision:

• Definition: The proportion of true positive results in all predicted positive results. It reflects
the quality of positive predictions.

• Formula:

• Interpretation: High precision indicates that when the model predicts a positive result, it is
likely correct.

c) Recall (Sensitivity or True Positive Rate):

• Definition: The proportion of true positive results out of all actual positives. It reflects the
model's ability to find all positive instances.

• Formula:

• Interpretation: High recall indicates that the model successfully identifies most of the
positive instances.

Q.explain the Statistical Methods: Central tendency of measure(Mean, Midian,Mode) and

measures of dispersion (Range, Standard Deviation , Variance ) Test along with numerical

1. Central Tendency Measures

 Central tendency refers to the statistical measures that describe the center or typical value
of a dataset. The three main measures are:

a) Mean

• Definition: The average of a dataset.

• Formula:

b) Median

• Definition: The middle value when the dataset is ordered. If the number of observations is
even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.

• Calculation:
 c) Mode

• Definition: The value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset can have one
mode, more than one mode (bimodal or multimodal), or no mode at all.

Example: For the dataset 5,10,10,20,255, 10, 10, 20, 255,10,10,20,25:

Mode=10(as it appears most frequently) 5,10,15,20:

• There is no mode since all values appear only once.

2. Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion describe the spread or variability of a dataset. Common measures

include range, standard deviation, and variance.

a) Range

• Definition: The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a dataset.

• Formula: Range=Maximum−Minimum

For ex the dataset 5,10,15,20,255, 10, 15, 20, 255,10,15,20,25:

Range=25−5=20

b) Variance

• Definition: A measure of how much the values in a dataset differ from the mean. It is the
average of the squared differences from the mean.
 c) Standard Deviation

• Definition: The square root of the variance, providing a measure of dispersion in the same
units as the data.

• Formula:
Unit 3:

1) Explain the Logistic Regression along with numerical

Logistic Regression is a widely used statistical method for binary classification in Big Data Analytics
(BDA). It helps in predicting the probability of a categorical outcome based on one or more
predictor variables. Due to its simplicity, interpretability, and effectiveness, logistic regression is
particularly popular in various fields such as finance, healthcare, and marketing.

Key Features of Logistic Regression in BDA:

1. Binary Classification: Logistic regression is primarily used for problems where the outcome
variable is binary (e.g., yes/no, pass/fail).

2. Probability Outputs: Unlike linear regression, which predicts continuous values, logistic
regression provides probabilities that can be used for classification.

3. Model Interpretability: The coefficients of the model indicate the relationship between
predictor variables and the log-odds of the outcome, making it easy to interpret.

4. Scalability: Logistic regression can efficiently handle large datasets, making it suitable for
big data scenarios.

5. Feature Importance: The model can help identify significant predictors influencing the
outcome.

Scenario: Consider a dataset from a university predicting whether a student will pass (1) or fail (0)
an exam based on hours studied.

Dataset:

Hours Studied (X) Result (Y)

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 1

5 1

6 1

Fitting the Model:

Assume we fit a logistic regression model to this dataset and obtain the following coefficients:

• Intercept β0=−4

• Coefficient for Hours Studied β1=1

• The logistic regression equation is:

z=−4+1⋅X
 1) Explain the Naïve Bayes Classifier / conditional probability along with numerical

Naïve Bayes Classifier is a probabilistic classification method based on Bayes' Theorem. It

assumes that the presence of a particular feature in a class is independent of the presence
of other features, which simplifies the computation of probabilities. This classifier is widely
used in various applications, including spam detection and sentiment analysis.

Numerical Example of Naïve Bayes Classifier

Scenario: Classifying emails as "Spam" or "Not Spam" based on the presence of keywords.

Dataset:

Email Contains "Buy" Contains "Discount" Class

1 Yes Yes Spam

2 Yes No Spam

3 No Yes Not Spam

4 No No Not Spam

Probabilities:

• Prior probabilities:

o P(Spam)=0.5P

o P(Not Spam)=0.5
 • Likelihoods:

o P(Buy=Yes∣Spam)=1

o P(Buy=Yes∣Not Spam)=0

o P(Discount=Yes∣Spam)=0.5

o Discount=Yes∣Not Spam)=0.5

Classifying a New Email:

For a new email containing both "Buy" and "Discount":

1. Posterior Probability for Spam:

P(Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes)=1⋅0.5⋅0.5=0.25

2. Posterior Probability for Not Spam:

P(Not Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes)=0⋅0.5⋅0.5=0

Prediction:

• P(Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes)=0.25

• P(Not Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes)=0

Since P(Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes)>P(Not Spam∣Buy=Yes,Discount=Yes) the new email

is classified as Spam.

Q.Explain the Linear Regression along with numerical

Linear Regression is a statistical method used to model the relationship between a

dependent variable and one or more independent variables by fitting a linear equation to
observed data. It is widely used for prediction and forecasting in various fields, including
finance, economics, and social sciences.

Key Features:

1. Simple and Multiple Linear Regression:

o Simple Linear Regression: Involves one independent variable.

o Multiple Linear Regression: Involves two or more independent variables.

2. Equation of the Line: The general form of the linear regression equation is:

Y=β0+β1X1+β2X2+...+βnXn+ϵ

Where:

o Y: Dependent variable (response).

o Xi: Independent variable(s) (predictors).

 o β0:Intercept (constant term).

o βi: Coefficients for each independent variable.

o ϵ: Error term (residuals).

3. Least Squares Method: This method minimizes the sum of the squares of the residuals (the
differences between observed and predicted values) to find the best-fitting line.

Numerical Example of Linear Regression

Scenario: Let's predict the price of a house based on its size (in square feet).

Dataset:

Size (X) Price (Y)

1500 300,000

2000 400,000

2500 500,000

3000 600,000

3500 700,000

Model:

Assuming the calculated coefficients are:

• Intercept β0=0

• Slope β1=200

The linear regression equation is:

Y=0+200X

Predicted Prices:

1. For Size = 1800 sq ft:

Y=200×1800=360,000

2. For Size = 2200 sq ft:

Y=200×2200=440,000

3. For Size = 2700 sq ft:

Y=200×2700=540,000

4. For Size = 3200 sq ft:

 Y=200×3200=640,000

5. For Size = 3700 sq ft:

Y=200×3700=740,000Y = 200

Summary of Predictions:

Size (sq ft) Predicted Price (Y)

1800 360,000

2200 440,000

2700 540,000

3200 640,000

3700 740,000
Unit 4:

Q.Explain the K-means along with numerical

K-Means Clustering

K-Means is an unsupervised machine learning algorithm used to partition a dataset

into kkk distinct clusters based on feature similarity. The algorithm groups data
points so that points in the same cluster are closer to each other than to those in
other clusters.
Key Features:
• Centroid-Based: Each cluster is defined by its centroid, which is the average of all points in
that cluster.
• Distance Metric: Typically uses Euclidean distance to measure how far each data point is
from the centroids.
• Iterative Process: The algorithm iteratively refines the positions of centroids and the
assignments of points to clusters until convergence.

Numerical Example of K-Means Clustering

Scenario: Suppose we want to cluster the following 2D data points into 2 groups:
Point X Y

A 1 2

B 1 4

C 1 0

D 10 2

E 10 4

F 10 0

Process:
1. Choose k=2k = 2k=2 and randomly initialize centroids:
o Centroid 1 (C1) = (1, 2)
o Centroid 2 (C2) = (10, 2)
2. Assign each point to the nearest centroid based on Euclidean distance:
o Points A, B, and C are assigned to Cluster 1 (C1).
o Points D, E, and F are assigned to Cluster 2 (C2).
3. Update the centroids based on the mean position of the points in each cluster:
o New Centroid for Cluster 1 (C1) = (1, 2)
o New Centroid for Cluster 2 (C2) = (10, 2)
4. Since the centroids have not changed, the algorithm converges.
Final Clusters:
• Cluster 1 (C1): Points A, B, C (near (1, 2))
• Cluster 2 (C2): Points D, E, F (near (10, 2))
Q.Explain the Apriori Algorithm along with numerical

The Apriori Algorithm is a fundamental algorithm in data mining used for discovering frequent
itemsets and generating association rules. It helps identify relationships between items in large
datasets, commonly applied in market basket analysis.

Key Concepts:

• Frequent Itemsets: Sets of items that appear together in transactions with a frequency
above a specified support threshold.

• Support: The proportion of transactions that contain a specific itemset.

Support(A)=Number of transactions containing A/Total number of transactions

• Confidence: The likelihood that a transaction containing item AAA also contains item BBB.
Confidence(A→B)=Support(A∪B)/Support(A)

Numerical Example:

Consider a retail store with the following transactions:

Transaction ID Items

1 {Bread, Milk}

2 {Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs}

3 {Milk, Diaper, Beer, Cola}

4 {Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer}

5 {Bread, Milk, Cola}

Assuming a minimum support threshold of 40% (0.4):

1. Frequent 1-Itemsets:

o {Bread}: Support = 4/5 = 0.8

o {Milk}: Support = 4/5 = 0.8

o {Cola}: Support = 2/5 = 0.4

Frequent 1-itemsets: {Bread}, {Milk}, {Cola}

2. Frequent 2-Itemsets:

o {Bread, Milk}: Support = 4/5 = 0.8

o {Milk, Cola}: Support = 2/5 = 0.4

Frequent 2-itemsets: {Bread, Milk}, {Milk, Cola}

3. Association Rules:

o Rule: Bread → Milk

▪ Support: 0.8, Confidence: 1.0

 o Rule: Milk → Bread

▪ Support: 0.8, Confidence: 1.0

o Rule: Cola → Milk

▪ Support: 0.4, Confidence: 1.0

The Apriori Algorithm efficiently identifies associations between items, allowing

retailers to understand consumer behavior and optimize marketing strategies based on
the relationships among products.

Q.Explain the Association Rules along with numerical

Association Rules are a key concept in data mining, particularly used to discover interesting
relationships between variables in large datasets. They help identify how items are associated
with each other, making them crucial in applications such as market basket analysis.

Key Concepts:

• Rule Format: An association rule is typically represented as A→BA, indicating that

if itemset A is present, itemset B is likely to be present as well.
• Support: The support of an itemset is the proportion of transactions that contain that
itemset, calculated as:

Support(A)=Number of transactions containing A/Total number of transactions

• Confidence: Confidence measures the likelihood that a transaction containing item A

also contains item B:

Confidence(A→B)=Support(A∪B)/Support(A)

• Lift: Lift evaluates the strength of the association rule by comparing the confidence of
the rule with the overall support of item B:

Lift(A→B)=Confidence(A→B)/Support(B)

Numerical Example of Association Rules

Consider a retail store with the following transactions:

Transaction ID Items
1 {Bread, Milk}
2 {Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs}
3 {Milk, Diaper, Beer, Cola}
4 {Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer}
5 {Bread, Milk, Cola}
With a total of 5 transactions, we can calculate the following:

• Support:
o Support for {Bread} = 0.8
o Support for {Milk} = 0.8
o Support for {Diaper} = 0.6
o Support for {Beer} = 0.6
o Support for {Cola} = 0.4

Generated Association Rules:

1. Rule: Bread → Milk

o Support: 0.8
o Confidence: 1.0
2. Rule: Milk → Bread
o Support: 0.8
o Confidence: 1.0
3. Rule: Diaper → Beer
o Support: 0.6
o Confidence: 1.0
4. Rule: Cola → Milk
o Support: 0.4
o Confidence: 1.0

Conclusion

Association rules effectively reveal strong relationships between items in transactions. In this
example, the rules indicate that items like Bread and Milk are frequently purchased together,
which can guide retailers in their marketing strategies and inventory management.

Q.Explain the Data Visualization and its type

Data Visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By using visual
elements like charts, graphs, and maps, data visualization tools provide an accessible way to
see and understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. Effective data visualization helps
stakeholders make informed decisions based on insights derived from data analysis.

Importance of Data Visualization:

• Enhances Understanding: Visuals can simplify complex datasets, making it easier to

grasp significant insights.
• Identifies Patterns: It enables quick identification of trends, correlations, and
anomalies.
• Facilitates Communication: Well-designed visuals can communicate findings
clearly to diverse audiences, fostering better discussions and decisions.
• Supports Decision-Making: By presenting data in an intuitive format, stakeholders
can make quicker and more informed decisions.
Types of Data Visualization

1. Charts:
o Bar Charts: Used to compare quantities of different categories.
o Line Charts: Ideal for showing trends over time by connecting data points
with a line.
o Pie Charts: Represents proportions of a whole, useful for showing percentage
distributions.
2. Graphs:
o Scatter Plots: Displays values for typically two variables for a set of data,
helping to identify correlations or patterns.
o Bubble Charts: A variation of scatter plots where a third variable is
represented by the size of the bubble.
3. Maps:
o Choropleth Maps: Used to represent data values in geographic areas, helpful
for showing demographic data or election results.
o Heat Maps: Displays data density over a geographical area or through a grid,
where color intensity indicates concentration.
4. Infographics:
o Combines visuals with text to explain complex information in an engaging and
easy-to-understand manner.
5. Dashboards:
o Integrates multiple visualizations into a single view, allowing for real-time
data monitoring and analysis.
6. Histograms:
o Used to show the distribution of numerical data by dividing the range into
intervals (bins) and counting the number of observations in each interval.
7. Box Plots:
o Summarizes the distribution of a dataset, highlighting the median, quartiles,
and potential outliers.
8. Network Diagrams:
o Visualizes relationships and connections between different entities, often used
in social network analysis or organizational charts.
Unit 5:

Q.Explain The Hadoop Ecosystem: Pig, Hive, HBase, Mahout

The Hadoop Ecosystem is a collection of open-source software components that

facilitate the storage, processing, and analysis of large datasets using the Hadoop
framework. It provides tools for various functionalities like data storage, data
processing, and data analysis, allowing organizations to leverage big data
effectively.

Key Components of the Hadoop Ecosystem:

1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

o The primary storage system of Hadoop that distributes data across multiple
machines, providing high throughput and fault tolerance.
2. YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):
o A resource management layer for Hadoop that manages and schedules
resources across the cluster.

Data Processing and Analysis Components:

1. Apache Pig:
o Description: A high-level platform for creating programs that run on Hadoop.
Pig uses a scripting language called Pig Latin, which is designed for data
analysis.
o Use Cases: Ideal for processing large data sets and performing data
transformations. It abstracts the complexity of writing MapReduce programs.
o Example: A Pig script can be written to filter and aggregate data from HDFS
without needing to write low-level Java code.
2. Apache Hive:
o Description: A data warehouse infrastructure built on top of Hadoop,
providing data summarization, query, and analysis capabilities using a SQL-
like language called HiveQL.
o Use Cases: Suitable for users familiar with SQL, allowing for easy querying
and analysis of large datasets stored in HDFS.
o Example: A user can run a Hive query to perform aggregations and joins
similar to standard SQL operations.
3. Apache HBase:
o Description: A NoSQL database that runs on top of HDFS, providing real-
time read/write access to large datasets. HBase is designed for random access
to structured data.
o Use Cases: Useful for applications requiring fast access to large amounts of
data, such as online transaction processing (OLTP) systems.
o Example: Storing user profiles or product catalogs where quick access and
updates are necessary.
4. Apache Mahout:
o Description: A machine learning library designed to provide scalable
algorithms for data mining tasks. Mahout works well with Hadoop and can be
used for building machine learning models.
 o Use Cases: Suitable for clustering, classification, and recommendation
systems.
o Example: Using Mahout to build a recommendation engine that suggests
products to users based on their previous interactions.

Q.Explain The Hadoop Ecosystem: HDFS, Map Reduce and YARN, Zookeeper, HBase,
Hive, Pig, Mahout etc.

The Hadoop Ecosystem is a comprehensive framework that enables the storage, processing,
and analysis of large datasets across distributed computing environments. It consists of
various tools and technologies that work together to facilitate big data management and
analytics. Below are the core components of the Hadoop ecosystem:

1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)

• Description: HDFS is the primary storage system of Hadoop. It divides large files
into smaller blocks (typically 128 MB or 256 MB) and stores multiple copies of these
blocks across the cluster to ensure fault tolerance and high availability.
• Key Features:
o Scalability: Can handle petabytes of data by scaling horizontally across
commodity hardware.
o Fault Tolerance: Data is replicated (default is 3 copies) across different
nodes, so if one node fails, data can still be retrieved from other nodes.

2. MapReduce

• Description: MapReduce is a programming model for processing large datasets in

parallel across a Hadoop cluster. It consists of two main functions: the Map function,
which processes and filters data, and the Reduce function, which aggregates and
summarizes the results.
• Key Features:
o Parallel Processing: Allows for the distributed processing of data, improving
performance for large data sets.
o Flexibility: Can be used for various data processing tasks, from simple
transformations to complex analytics.

3. YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator)

• Description: YARN is a resource management layer for Hadoop. It manages and

schedules resources across the cluster, enabling multiple data processing engines to
run simultaneously on the same Hadoop cluster.
• Key Features:
o Resource Management: Allocates resources to various applications running
on the cluster.
o Multi-Tenancy: Allows different applications (e.g., MapReduce, Spark) to
share the same cluster resources efficiently.

4. Apache ZooKeeper
 • Description: ZooKeeper is a centralized service for maintaining configuration
information, naming, and providing distributed synchronization in large distributed
systems.
• Key Features:
o Coordination: Helps manage distributed applications by providing essential
services like leader election and configuration management.
o Reliability: Ensures that distributed applications are fault-tolerant.

5. Apache HBase

• Description: HBase is a NoSQL database that runs on top of HDFS, providing real-
time read/write access to large datasets. It is modeled after Google’s Bigtable and is
suitable for sparse data sets.
• Key Features:
o Random Access: Allows for quick read/write access to structured data.
o Scalability: Can scale to billions of rows and columns.

6. Apache Hive

• Description: Hive is a data warehouse infrastructure built on top of Hadoop, allowing

users to perform SQL-like queries on large datasets stored in HDFS using HiveQL.
• Key Features:
o Ease of Use: Provides a familiar SQL-like interface for querying and
managing data.
o Batch Processing: Optimized for batch processing of large datasets.

7. Apache Pig

• Description: Pig is a high-level platform for creating programs that run on Hadoop. It
uses a language called Pig Latin, which simplifies data processing tasks.
• Key Features:
o Data Flow: Suitable for data transformations and data manipulation tasks.
o Abstraction: Abstracts the complexity of writing MapReduce programs.

8. Apache Mahout

• Description: Mahout is a machine learning library that provides scalable algorithms

for clustering, classification, and collaborative filtering.
• Key Features:
o Scalability: Designed to work seamlessly with Hadoop and can handle large
datasets.
o Algorithm Diversity: Includes a variety of machine learning algorithms
suitable for different applications
UNIT 6:

Q.What is NOSQL, Explain Key value and documents store in NOSQL, also Describe object data store
in terms of schema less management

NoSQL (Not Only SQL) refers to a category of database management systems that are designed to
handle large volumes of unstructured or semi-structured data. Unlike traditional relational databases
(RDBMS), which rely on structured query language (SQL) and a fixed schema, NoSQL databases are
more flexible, scalable, and capable of accommodating diverse data formats. They are particularly
suited for big data applications, real-time web apps, and distributed data storage.

Types of NoSQL Databases

NoSQL databases can be broadly categorized into several types, including:

1. Key-Value Stores

2. Document Stores

3. Column-Family Stores

4. Graph Databases

1. Key-Value Stores

Key-Value Stores are the simplest type of NoSQL database, where data is stored as a collection of
key-value pairs. Each key is unique, and it points to a value that can be a simple data type (like a
string or number) or a more complex data structure (like a list or a JSON object).

• Characteristics:

o Schema-less: There is no fixed schema; values can have different formats and
structures.

o High Performance: Fast read and write operations due to the simplicity of the data
model.

o Scalability: Can easily scale horizontally by adding more nodes.

• Use Cases:

o Caching (e.g., Redis)

o Session management

o User preferences storage

• Example: In a key-value store, you might have:

o Key: "user:1001"

o Value: {"name": "John", "age": 30, "email": "[email protected]"}

2. Document Stores

Document Stores are a type of NoSQL database that stores data in documents, typically using
formats like JSON, BSON, or XML. Each document is a self-contained unit of data that can contain
multiple fields and nested data structures.
 • Characteristics:

o Schema-less: Documents can have different structures and fields, allowing for
flexible data representation.

o Rich Query Capabilities: Supports complex queries and indexing on various fields
within documents.

o Hierarchical Data Representation: Can represent complex relationships in a single

document.

• Use Cases:

o Content management systems

o E-commerce product catalogs

o User profiles

• Example: In a document store, you might have:

o Document ID: "product:1001"

o Document:

"productName": "Laptop",

"brand": "BrandX",

"specifications": {

"processor": "Intel i7",

"ram": "16GB",

"storage": "512GB SSD"

},

"price": 1200

3. Object Data Stores

Object Data Stores are designed to manage data as objects rather than as rows and columns. These
databases store complex data types and are particularly suited for applications that require the
storage of large binary objects (BLOBs), like images, videos, or any complex data type.

• Characteristics:

o Schema-less Management: Similar to key-value and document stores, object data

stores do not enforce a schema, allowing for flexible and dynamic data structures.

o Complex Data Handling: Supports the storage and retrieval of complex data types,
which can include metadata along with the actual data.
 o RESTful API Support: Often, object stores can be accessed through RESTful APIs,
facilitating integration with web applications.

• Use Cases:

o Media asset storage (images, videos)

o Big data analytics where diverse data formats are used

o Content delivery networks (CDNs)

• Example: An object store might store an image file with the following attributes:

o Object ID: "image:101"

o Metadata:

"filename": "vacation.jpg",

"contentType": "image/jpeg",

"size": 2048000,

"uploadedBy": "user123",

"uploadDate": "2024-10-01T12:00:00Z"

}
Q. Write a use case of graph and network organization

Use Case: Social Network Analysis

Context: A social media platform wants to understand user interactions to improve engagement,
recommend content, and identify influential users within their network. The data involves users,
their connections (friends/followers), and the interactions (likes, comments, shares) among them.

Objective

To analyze the relationships and interactions between users, identify key influencers, and improve
content recommendations based on user behavior.

Key Components

1. Nodes: Each user is represented as a node in the graph.

2. Edges: Connections (friendships or follows) between users are represented as edges.

3. Interactions: Additional edges can represent interactions, such as likes and comments on
posts.

Graph Structure

• Node Attributes:

o User ID

o User Profile (name, age, interests)

o Engagement Metrics (number of posts, likes received)

• Edge Attributes:

o Connection Type (friend, follower)

o Interaction Type (like, comment, share)

Analysis Techniques

1. Degree Centrality: Identify users with the highest number of connections to find potential
influencers in the network.

2. Community Detection: Use algorithms (like Louvain or Girvan-Newman) to identify clusters

of users with similar interests or behaviors. This can help in targeted marketing or content
recommendations.

3. Path Analysis: Analyze the shortest paths between users to understand how information
spreads across the network and to identify key pathways for viral content.

4. Sentiment Analysis: Combine interaction data with text analysis to gauge user sentiment
towards different content types.

Benefits

• Influencer Identification: By identifying users with high centrality measures, the platform can
target influencers for promotional campaigns or partnerships.
 • Content Recommendations: Understanding user interactions allows the platform to
recommend content that is more likely to resonate with users based on their network
behavior.

• Enhanced Engagement: Analyzing community structures can help the platform create
targeted marketing strategies to boost user engagement within specific user groups.

• Fraud Detection: Detecting unusual patterns of connections or interactions can help identify
potential fraudulent activities, such as bot accounts or spam.

Q. 3) Explain what is text analysis, how it will perform with the help of suitable example

Text Analysis, also known as Text Mining or Natural Language Processing (NLP), involves the process
of deriving meaningful information from unstructured text data. It employs various techniques and
algorithms to extract insights, identify patterns, and transform text into structured data that can be
analyzed quantitatively.

Key Objectives of Text Analysis

1. Information Extraction: Extract relevant information from text, such as entities,

relationships, or events.

2. Sentiment Analysis: Determine the sentiment or emotional tone expressed in the text
(positive, negative, neutral).

3. Topic Modeling: Identify topics or themes present in a collection of documents.

4. Text Classification: Categorize text into predefined categories or labels.

5. Keyword Extraction: Identify significant words or phrases that capture the essence of the
text.

How Text Analysis is Performed

Text analysis typically involves several steps, which may vary depending on the specific objectives.
Here’s a generalized workflow:

1. Text Preprocessing:

o Tokenization: Splitting text into individual words or phrases (tokens).

o Normalization: Converting text to a standard format (e.g., lowercasing, removing

punctuation).

o Stop Word Removal: Filtering out common words that do not add significant
meaning (e.g., "and," "the").

o Stemming/Lemmatization: Reducing words to their base or root form (e.g.,

"running" to "run").

2. Feature Extraction:

o Transforming the cleaned text into a numerical representation that can be processed
by machine learning algorithms. Common methods include:
 ▪ Bag-of-Words (BoW): Represents text as a collection of word frequencies.

▪ Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF): Weighs the

importance of words based on their frequency in a document relative to
their frequency across multiple documents.

3. Analysis:

o Applying various techniques, such as machine learning algorithms or statistical

methods, to analyze the text data. This may involve classification, clustering, or
regression techniques.

4. Visualization and Reporting:

o Presenting the results of the analysis in a comprehensible manner, often using

visualizations like word clouds, bar charts, or sentiment graphs.

Example of Text Analysis: Sentiment Analysis of Product Reviews

Scenario

A company wants to analyze customer feedback on their product to understand customer

sentiments and improve their services. They collect thousands of product reviews from various
platforms.

Steps Involved

1. Data Collection: Gather product reviews from sources like Amazon, Google Reviews, or social
media.

2. Text Preprocessing:

o Tokenization: Split reviews into words.

o Normalization: Convert all text to lowercase.

o Stop Word Removal: Remove common words (e.g., "is," "the").

o Stemming: Reduce words to their root forms.

3. Feature Extraction:

o Use TF-IDF to create a matrix representing the importance of words in the reviews.

4. Sentiment Analysis:

o Apply a sentiment analysis model (e.g., using machine learning or pre-trained

models like VADER or BERT) to classify each review as positive, negative, or neutral.

o For example, the review “The product is excellent and works perfectly!” would be
classified as positive, while “I am disappointed; it stopped working after a week”
would be classified as negative.

5. Visualization and Reporting:

o Create visualizations to display the distribution of sentiments across the reviews,

such as pie charts or bar graphs showing the percentage of positive, negative, and
neutral sentiments.
 o Generate reports summarizing key insights, such as common positive attributes (e.g.,
“quality,” “ease of use”) and recurring negative feedback (e.g., “durability,”
“customer service”).

Q.What is data visualization? Explain the objective of data visualization.

Data Visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By using visual elements
like charts, graphs, and maps, data visualization tools provide an accessible way to see and
understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. It transforms complex data sets into visual formats
that are easier to comprehend, interpret, and communicate.

Key Components of Data Visualization

• Visual Elements: Common visual elements include bar charts, line graphs, scatter plots, heat
maps, pie charts, and dashboards.

• Tools and Software: Various tools are used for data visualization, such as Tableau, Power BI,
Google Data Studio, and programming libraries like Matplotlib, Seaborn, and D3.js in Python
and JavaScript, respectively.

Objectives of Data Visualization

Data visualization serves several important objectives:

1. Simplification of Complex Data:

o Objective: To make complex data more understandable.

o Explanation: By representing data visually, intricate datasets can be simplified,

allowing users to grasp complex information quickly. For example, a line graph
showing sales trends over time is much easier to interpret than a table of raw
numbers.

2. Identifying Patterns and Trends:

o Objective: To reveal insights that may not be obvious in raw data.

o Explanation: Visualization helps to uncover patterns, correlations, and trends in the

data. For instance, scatter plots can show relationships between two variables,
helping to identify correlations that inform decision-making.

3. Enhanced Communication:

o Objective: To facilitate better communication of insights.

o Explanation: Visual representations are more engaging and easier to share with
stakeholders than traditional reports. Data visualizations can effectively convey
findings in presentations, making it easier to communicate results and
recommendations.

4. Support for Data-Driven Decision Making:

o Objective: To aid in informed decision-making.

o Explanation: By presenting data visually, organizations can quickly analyze the

information at hand and make decisions based on insights derived from the data. For
 instance, dashboards that display key performance indicators (KPIs) help managers
make timely decisions based on current performance metrics.

5. Facilitating Data Exploration:

o Objective: To encourage interactive data exploration.

o Explanation: Interactive visualizations allow users to explore data dynamically,

filtering, zooming, and drilling down into specific areas of interest. This exploratory
approach helps users discover insights that might not be evident from static reports.

6. Storytelling with Data:

o Objective: To narrate a compelling story through data.

o Explanation: Data visualization can be used to tell a story, guiding the audience
through the findings and emphasizing important points. This narrative approach
helps in making complex data more relatable and memorable.

7. Highlighting Outliers and Anomalies:

o Objective: To bring attention to unusual data points.

o Explanation: Visualizations can easily highlight outliers or anomalies in data,

prompting further investigation. For instance, a box plot can indicate values that fall
outside the normal range, signaling potential issues or areas for further analysis.