17CV742 GW&H Module-1&2

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ATME College of Engineering

13th K M Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore – 570028
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21)
SUBJECT: GROUND WATER AND HYDRAULICS
SUBJECT CODE: 17CV742
SEMESTER: 7TH

INSTITUTE
Vision of the Institute
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and

globally competent human resources.
Mission of the Institute
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive and
capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torchbearers of tomorrow's society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.
DEPARTMENT
Vision of the Department
To develop globally competent civil engineers who excel in academics, research and are
ethically responsible for the development of the society.
Mission of the Department
 To provide quality education through faculty and state of the art infrastructure.
 To identify current problems in the society pertaining to Civil Engineering disciplines
and to address them effectively and efficiently.
 To inculcate the habit of research and entrepreneurship in our graduates to address current
infrastructure needs of society.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)
PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice. 44
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)
Graduates who complete their UG course through our institution will be,
PEO l- Engaged in professional practices, such as construction, environmental,

geotechnical, structural, transportation, or water resources engineering by using technical,
communication and management skills.
PEO 2- Engaged in higher studies and research activities in various Civil Engineering fields
and a life time commitment to learn ever changing technologies to satisfy increasing demand
of sustainable infrastructural facilities
PEO 3- Serve in a leadership position in any professional or community organization, or

local/state engineering board
PEO 4- Registered as a professional engineer or developed a strong ability leading to

professional licensure being an entrepreneur.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)
PSO 1: To prepare plans and maps of the infrastructures by undertaking the process of
engineering survey
PSO 2: To analyse, design, estimate and supervise infrastructure construction activities.
PSO 3: To assess and provide solutions for impact of anthropogenic activities leading to
pollution of land, water and air.

Course Title: GROUND WATER & HYDRAULICS

[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
SEMESTER:VII
Subject Code 17CV742 IA Marks 40
Number of Lecture Hours/Week 03 Exam Marks 60
Total Number of Lecture Hours 40 Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 03 Total Marks-100
Course objectives: This course will enable students
• To characterize the properties of ground water and aquifers.
• To quantify the ground water flow.
• To locate occurrence of ground water and augment ground water resources.
• To synthesize ground water development methods.
Module -1
Introduction: Importance, vertical distribution of subsurface water, occurrence in
different types of rocks and soils, definitions-aquifers, aquifuge, aquitard, aquiclude,
confined and Unconfined aquifers.
L1, L2
Module -2
Fundamentals of Ground Water Flow: Aquifer parameters, specific yield and specific
retention, porosity, storage coefficient, derivation of the expression, Darcy’s law,
hydraulic conductivity, coefficient of permeability and intrinsic permeability,
transmissibility, permeability in isotropic, unisotropic layered soils, steady one
dimensional flow: cases with recharge.
L2, L3
Module -3
Well Hydraulics: Steady Flow, Radial flow in confined and unconfined aquifers,
pumping test Unsteady Flow, General equation, derivation; thesis method, Cooper
and Jacob method, Chow’s method, solution of unsteady flow equations, leaky
aquifers (only introduction), interference of well, image well theory.
L2, L3, L4
Module -4
Ground Water Exploration: Seismic method, electrical resistively method, Geo-
physical techniques, electrical logging, radioactive logging, induction logging, sonic and

fluid logging.
L2, L3
Module -5
Ground Water Development: Types of wells, methods of construction, tube well
design, dug wells, pumps for lifting water, working principles, power requirement,
Conjunctive use, necessity, techniques and economics.
Ground Water Recharge: Artificial recharge, groundwater runoff
L2, L3
Course outcomes: After studying this course, students will be able to:
• Find the characteristics of aquifers.

• Estimate the quantity of ground water by various methods.
• Locate the zones of ground water resources.
• Select particular type of well and augment the ground water storage.
Program Objectives:
3. Engineering knowledge
4. Problem analysis
5. Interpretation of data
Text Books:
1. H.M. Raghunath, “Ground Water”, Wiley Eastern Publication, New Delhi.
2. K. Todd, “Ground Water Hydrology”, Wiley and Sons, New Delhi.
3. Bower. H., “Ground Water Hydrology” McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
Reference Books:
1. Garg Satya Prakash, “Ground Water and Tube Wells”, Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.
2. W. C. Walton, “Ground Water Resources and Evaluation” McGraw Hill, Delhi.
3. Michel, D. M., Khepar, S. D., Sondhi, S. K., “Water Wells and Pumps” McGraw Hill,
Delhi.

Ground water and Hydraulics (17CV742)
MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
Structure
1.1 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Ground water
1.1.2 Ground water Hydrology
1.2 Occurrence of ground water
1.3 Vertical distribution of subsurface water
1.4 Aquifer, Aquiclude, Aquifuge and Aquitard
1.5 Confined and Unconfined aquifers
1.6 Occurrence of ground water in different types of rocks
1.7 Replenishment of ground water
1.8 Advantages and dis advantages of ground water resources over canal for irrigation
1.9 Selecting Location of Wells
1.10 Guide lines for success of wells
1.1 Objective
The module will introduce the students to ground water and aquifers, occurrence of ground water in
nature.
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Ground water

It is the water that has infiltrated, passed down ward into the earth, and occurs beneath the water table in soils
and geological formations that are fully saturated. Ground water is that part of the subsurface water which
occurs within the saturated zone of the earth‟s crust where all pores are filled with water
1.1.2 Ground water Hydrology

The science deals with the occurrence, distribution and movement of ground water is called as ground water
hydrology.
1.2 Occurrence of ground water

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 1
Ground water source is replenished through the processes of infiltration and percolation. Infiltration is the
process by which the precipitation and surface water move downward into the soil. Percolation is the vertical
and lateral movement through the various openings in the geological formations. Natural sources of
replenishment include rainwater, melting snow or ice and water in stream channels, and lakes or other natural
bodies of water. Rainwater may infiltrate into the ground directly or while flowing over the land enroute to a
river, or stream, or other water bodies.
Artificial sources of replenishment (or recharge) include the following:

(i) Leakage from reservoirs, conduits, septic tanks, and similar water related structures.
(ii) Irrigation, or other water applications including deliberate flooding of a naturally porous area.
(iii) Effluents discharged to evaporation or percolation ponds.
(iv) Injection through wells or other similar structures.
1.3 Vertical distribution of subsurface water

The subsurface medium within which ground water occurs is either porous or fractured or both. The subsurface
occurrence of ground water can be divided into two zones :
(i) the vadose zone or unsaturated zone or zone of aeration, and
(ii) the phreatic zone or saturated zone or zone of saturation.
In the saturated zone, all pores or voids are filled with water whereas in the unsaturated zone, pores contain
gases (mainly air and water vapours) in addition to water.
The water table is defined as the upper limit of the saturated zone. However, it should be noted that all the pores
near the base of the capillary water zone (which itself may range from practically nothing in coarse material to
about 2.5 m or more in clay materials) may be completely saturated. The number of pores filled with water
decreases in the upward direction of the capillary water zone. One can, therefore, expect the upper limit of
actual saturation to be an irregular surface. Water table should, therefore, be redefined as the upper limit of
saturation at atmospheric pressure.

Fig: Vertical distribution of subsurface water
1.4 Aquifer, Aquiclude, Aquifuge and Aquitard

Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground geological formation that contains water and sufficient amount of water can be
extracted economically using water wells. Aquifers comprise generally layers of sand and gravel and fracture
bedrock.
Aquiclude
An aquiclude may be defined as a geological formation of relatively impermeable material which permits
storage of water but it is not capable of transmitting water in sufficient quantity.
Aquifuge
It is a geological formation which is incapable to absorb or transmit water through it. Thus it is an impermeable
formation.
Aquitard
An aquitard is an underground geological formation which contains water but significant amount of water
cannot be extracted using water wells. Aquitard comprises of generally layers of clay soil with low hydraulic
conductivity.

Fig: Water-bearing formations beneath the ground (Source: Quora)
Fig: distribution of Aquifer, Aquitard, Aquiclude and Aquifuge

(Source: Globespotes)
1.5 Confined and Unconfined aquifers

When water table serves as the upper boundary of the aquifer, the aquifer is known as unconfined aquifer.
Normally, there will be presence of capillary zone above the water table. However, in most of the analysis, the
capillary zone is neglected and water table is considered as the upper boundary of the aquifer. The unconfined
aquifer is also known as water table aquifer and phreatic aquifer. An impervious layer is generally served as the
bottom boundary of an unconfined aquifer.

Fig: Unconfined aquifer

Sometime, the bottom of an unconfined aquifer may be semipervious and water may gain and lose through the
semipervious bottom layer. The aquifer is then known as leaky unconfined aquifer
Fig: Leaky Unconfined aquifer
An aquifer which is bounded by two impervious layers at top and bottom of the aquifer is called confined
aquifer. In case of confined aquifer, if we insert a piezometer into the aquifer, the water level will rise above the
top impervious layer as the pressure in the aquifer is more than the atmospheric pressure. As such, the confined
aquifer is also known as pressure aquifer. Top and bottom layer of a confined aquifer is generally impervious.

Fig: Confined aquifer
Sometimes these layers may be semi-pervious in nature. In such a situation, the water may gain or lose through
these semi-pervious layers. The aquifer is then called as leaky confined aquifer.
Fig: Leaky confined aquifer

Fig: Aquifers and wells
Artesian aquifer scheme:

1. Aquifer
2. Impervious strata
3. Infiltration area
4. Artesian well
5. Saturation level
6. Subartesian well
7. Artesian spring

1.6 Occurrence of ground water in different types of rocks

1.7 Replenishment of ground water

Ground water source is replenished through the processes of infiltration and percolation. Infiltration is
the process by which the precipitation and surface water move downward into the soil. Percolation is
the vertical and lateral movement through the various openings in the geological formations. Natural
sources of replenishment include rainwater, melting snow or ice and water in stream channels, and
lakes or other natural bodies of water. Rainwater may infiltrate into the ground directly or while
flowing over the land enroute to a river, or stream, or other water bodies.
Artificial sources of replenishment (or recharge) include the following:

(i) Leakage from reservoirs, conduits, septic tanks, and similar water related structures.
(ii) Irrigation, or other water applications including deliberate flooding of a naturally porous
area.
(iii) Effluents discharged to evaporation or percolation ponds.
(iv) Injection through wells or other similar structures.
1.8 Advantages and dis advantages of ground water resources over canal for irrigation
i) In the canal irrigation system, major structures, such as headworks, main and branch
canals, etc. must be constructed prior to the start of proportionate agricultural activity
which grows gradually because of the availability of irrigation facility. But, wells can be
constructed gradually to keep pace with the development of the agricultural activities of
the area.
(i) Transit losses in well irrigation are much less than those in canal irrigation system.
(ii) Isolated patches of high lands can be better served by well irrigation.

(iii) Well irrigation offers an effective anti-waterlogging measure of the affected lands and
reduces the chances of waterlogging of canal-irrigated lands.
(iv) Well irrigation ensures relatively more reliable supply of water at the time of need. This
results in better yield. Besides, farmers can switch over to more remunerative crops due to
the availability of assured supply.
(v) Well irrigation needs energy for pumping. Installation and maintenance of pumps and the
cost of running the pumps make well irrigation costlier.
(vi) Failure of power supply at the time of keenest demand may adversely affect the yield in
case of well irrigation systems.
1.9 Selecting Location of Wells
• A well should be sunk after ascertaining groundwater availability.
• The well site should be such that the well after completion will be in a position to command the
surrounding area to the fullest extent. The well, if situated in the centre of an area, gives good
command. At the same time care should be taken to see that the well site is on the highest patch
of the area so that water can flow by gravity.
• Location of shallow wells creates no problem when the capacity of the well is moderate and the
underground conditions are favorable, that is when the water-table is sufficiently high and
subsoil formation is pervious.
• Wells should be located in a region where drainage water does not bring in water of bad
quality. It is harmful to crop production. While locating all the wells more particularly shallow
wells, care should be taken to keep the selected site always away from the sources of pollution.
• The wells should be located in such a way that their circles of influence under maximum
drawdown conditions do not enter the neighboring property lines. If the withdrawal of water is
from beneath some property, it may damage the property itself.
• Two wells of any area should be spaced in such a way that the cones of depression or circles of
influence of the wells do not cross each other. It reduces the discharge of the wells. The spacing
of wells is generally keep between 75 m – 175 m to avoid interference.
• A well should irrigate the land which is not receiving irrigation from flow irrigation system.
• A well if located in the command area of flow irrigation system should irrigate lands in such a
way as to remove deficiencies of flow irrigation system.

1.10 Guide lines for success of wells

• Low-lying areas are more favorable as compared to slopy area and highlands for sinking wells,
as groundwater flows in the direction of descending slope.
• Vegetation flourishes where the groundwater is available at shallow depths. Thus, the
occurrence of thick vegetation indicates large groundwater storage at shallow depth.
• Areas comprising thick soil or alluvium cover and weathered, fractured, jointed, and faulted
rocks indicate good storage of groundwater, as these support infiltration of groundwater
recharge.
• Surface water bodies like tanks, ponds, lakes, streams, reservoirs and rivers serve as sources of
recharge to the nearby areas.
• If two wells are situated close to each other in a more or less plain land, the supply of water can
be greatly affected due to well-interference, when both the wells are pumped simultaneously.
• It is important to maintain a distance of 150–300 m in alluvial areas and 75–150 m in rocky
areas between two wells.
Further Reading and reference

2. G.L. Asawa, “Irrigation and Water Resource Engineering”, New Age International (p) Ltd.
Publishers
3. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105103026/

MODULE 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND WATER FLOW
Structure
2.1 Objective
2.2 Aquifer Parameters
2.2.1 Porosity
2.2.2 Specific Yield
2.2.3 Specific Retention
2.2.4 Coefficient of Permeability
2.2.5 Transmissivity
2.2.6 Specific Storage
2.2.7 Storage Coefficient
2.2.8 Expression for storage coefficient
2.3 Darcy‟s Law
2.3.1 The Limits of Darcy‟s Law
2.4 Measuring Permeability
2.5 Laboratory Permeability
2.5.1 Constant head permeameters:
2.5.2 Falling Head Permeameters
2.6 Probable land subsidence due to ground water withdrawals
2.7 Flow-Net and water table contours
2.8 Permeability in isotropic and anisotrophic soils
2.9 Steady Flow in Confined Aquifers
2.10 Steady Flow in Unconfined Aquifers
2.11 Steady Unconfined Flow without Recharge or Evapotranspiration
2.12 Steady Unconfined Flow with Recharge or Evapotranspiration
2.1 Objective
The module will enable students to characterize the properties of ground water and aquifers.
2.2 Aquifer Parameters
The following properties of the aquifer are required for study of groundwater hydrology:
1. Porosity
2. Specific Yield
3. Specific Retention
4. Coefficient of permeability
5. Transmissibility
6. Specific Storage
7. Storage Coefficient
2.2.1 Porosity
Porosity (n): The porosity of a rock is its property of containing pores or voids. It is defined as the
ratio of volume of voids Vv to total volume of medium (rock) V; i.e.:
The spaces where groundwater occupies are known as voids, interstices, pores or pore spaces. They are
fundamentally important to the study of groundwater because they serve as water conduits. Their
nature is dependent on their geology. Porosity is a measure by the ration of the contained voids in a
solid mass to its total volume. The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore
space available for fluid flow and is expressed as the ratio of the interstices to total volume.
Shape, size, packing and degree of cementation affect porosity. Uniformly graded sand has a higher
porosity than a less uniform, fine and coarse mixture, because in the latter, the fines occupy the voids
in the coarse material. Primary porosity is created at the time of origin of the rock in which they occur.
In sedimentary rocks, the voids coincide with the inter granular spaces while in igneous rocks, it results
from the cooling of molten lava and may range in size from minute inter crystalline spaces to large
caverns. Secondary porosity results from the actions of subsequent geological, climatic or biotic
factors upon the original rock.
Examples include joints, fractures, faults, solution openings and openings formed by plants and
animals.
In porous rock, there may be small pores known as dead end pores which have only one entrance, and
so water molecules can diffuse in and out of them, but there can be no hydraulic gradient across them
to cause bulk flow of groundwater. In extreme cases, there may be pores containing water that are
completely closed so that the water in them is trapped. This may occur during digenetic

transformations of the rock. Since we are frequently interested in the movement of groundwater, it is
useful to define a porosity that refers only to the movable water in the rock. This is called the
kinematic or effective porosity
2.2.2 Specific Yield

It is the ratio of the volume of water that drains from a saturated rock owing to the attraction of gravity
(or by pumping from wells) to the total volume of the saturated aquifer. It is defined mathematically by
the equation.
where,
Vw is the volume of water in a unit volume of earth materials (L3, cm3 or m3)
V is the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids (L3, cm3 or m3)
Specific yield can be determined in the laboratory by simple saturation and drainage, while in the field
by pumping a known volume of water out and determining the volume of sediments drained by
observing the depth of the water lowered.
2.2.3 Specific Retention (Sr)

Specific retention (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water that cannot be drained out to the total volume
of the saturated aquifer.
Since the specific yield represents the volume of water that a rock will yield by gravity drainage, hence
the specific retention is the remainder. The sum of the two equals porosity.
The specific yield and specific retention depend upon the shape and size of particle, distribution of
pores (voids), and compaction of the formation. The specific retention increases with decreasing grain
size. It should be noted that it is not necessary that soil with high porosity will have high specific yield

because that soil may have low permeability and the water may not easily drain out. For example, clay
has a high porosity but low specific yield and its permeability is low.
2.2.4 Coefficient of Permeability (Hydraulic conductivity) (K)
Hydraulic Conductivity (K): It expresses the ability of rocks to let the water through under any
hydraulic gradient. It can be defined as rate of flow of water that can passes through a unit cross
section of the aquifer under unit hydraulic gradient. It has the unit of velocity (L/t) for example m/day.
It is a function of properties of both porous media and the fluid passing through it. Permeability is the
ease with which water can flow in a soil mass or a rock. It is usually expressed as cm/s, m/s, m/day,
etc. The coefficient of permeability is also called hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic Conductivity can be
determined and expressed as follows:
K is the specific discharge (v) per unit hydraulic gradient (dh/dl) at a specified temperature and
expresses the ease with which fluid is transported through a porous matrix.
[ ]
where v=Q/A
It is therefore a coefficient which depends on both matrix and fluid properties. The relevant fluid
properties are density ρ and viscosity µ (or in the combined form of kinematic viscosity ν). The
relevant solid matrix properties are mainly grain- (or pore-) size distribution, shape of grains,
arrangement of pores and porosity.
Field measurements of hydraulic conductivity are usually made by carrying out pumping test on wells
while laboratory measurements are done using permeameters.
Experiments show:
=
where k is the intrinsic permeability (L2), a property of media only
ρ is the mass density (M/L3)
µ is the dynamic viscosity(M/LT) and measures the resistance of fluid to shearing that is
necessary for flow
2.2.5 Transmissivity (T)

Transmissivity (T) is the product of the average hydraulic conductivity K and the saturated thickness
of the aquifer (b) i.e.
T=Kb
It is defined also as the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a cross-section of unit
width over the whole saturated thickness of the aquifer:
Where Q= Discharge rate, w= width of the aquifer, i= hydraulic gradient.

Transmissivity has the dimensions of Length2/Time and is, for example, expressed in m2/d or cm2/s.
T defines the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width
of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.
2.2.6 Specific Storage (Ss)
It is defined as the amount of water per unit volume of a saturated formation that is stored or expelled
from storage owing to compressibility of mineral skeleton and the pore water unit change in head. It is
also called the elastic storage coefficient. The concept can be applied to both aquifers and confining
units. Also called as elastic storage coefficient..
Under artesian conditions, when the piezometric surface is lowered by pumping, water is released from
storage by the compression of the water bearing material (aquifer) and by expansion of water itself (as
the water comes out of the pores into the well under atmospheric pressure). Thus, the coefficient of
storage is a function of the elasticity of water and the aquifer skeleton and is given by:
[ ]
Where S = coefficient of storage,
n = porosity of aquifer,
b = saturated thickness of aquifer,
γw = unit weight of water (9810 N/m3),

β = 1/Kw, reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity of water,
Kw = 2.1 GN/m2 = 2.1x109 N/m2, and
α = 1/Es, reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity of aquifer.

Specific Storage can also be defined as the ratio of abstracted volume of water from the aquifer (Vw)
to the dewatered volume of aquifer (Va):
Value of S ranges between 10-6 – 10-2 for confined aquifers.

For unconfined aquifers it ranges between 0.3-0.01, which is considered equal to the specific yield S y.
2.2.7 Storage Coefficient (S)
Storage coefficient is the volume of water released from storage, or taken into storage, per unit of
aquifer storage area per unit change in head. The storage coefficient is also called Storativity
Storativity (S) Storativity of a confined aquifer is the product of specific storage (Ss) and aquifer
thickness (b).
S = b×Ss
In an unconfined aquifer, storativity is given by
S = Sy + (h ×Ss)
Where h = thickness of saturated zone.
2.2.8 Expression for storage coefficient
Ss= ΔVw/ V×Δϕ

Where S = storage coefficient,
ΔVw = amount of water released/added in to the aquifer,
V= total volume of aquifer,
Δϕ = change in head.
Value of S ranges between 10-6 – 10-2 for confined aquifers.
For unconfined aquifers it ranges between 0.3-0.01, which is considered equal to the specific yield S y.

Derivation of Storage Coefficient (S) of an aquifer
2.3 Darcy’s Law

In 1856, Henry Darcy, investigated the flow of water through horizontal beds of sands to be used for
water filtration. From his experiments, he concluded that the rate of flow (i.e. volume of water per unit
time), Q, is
 proportional to the cross-sectional area A perpendicular to flow,
 inversely proportional to the length and
 proportional to the loss of head over distance L.

Combining these yields the Darcy formula:

Q = KA(h1-h2)/L
where K is the coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic conductivity and (h1-h2)/L is called
the hydraulic gradient.
v = Q/A = Kdh/dl,
v is the Darcy velocity or specific discharge (Q = KA(h1-h2)/L) therefore Q/A = K(h1-h2)/L which is
Kdh/dl
Darcy velocity, v, assumes that flow occurs through the entire section of the material without regard to
solids and pores.
However, flow is limited to the pore space only and the average interstitial velocity, va
va =Q/ nA
where „n‟ is porosity
Darcy‟s law is valid if 1 ≤ NR≥ 10 (i.e. valid for laminar flow and not turbulent flow)
NR = ρqd/ μ
where NR = Reynolds number
ρ = density of groundwater
q = velocity (seepage or bulk) of groundwater flow.
d = mean diameter of the soil grain
µ = dynamic viscosity of groundwater
or
Darcy‟s Law states that, for laminar flow conditions, in saturated soil, “the rate of flow or discharge
per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient” and expressed as

Q = kiA
v = Q/A = ki
where Q = rate of flow,
i = hydraulic gradient,
k = Darcy‟s coefficient of permeability,
A = total cross sectional area of soil mass perpendicular to the direction of flow,
v = flow velocity.
Validity of Darcy‟s Law: Darcy‟s law is valid only for laminar flow. The flow remains laminar and
Darcy‟s Law valid as long as Reynolds number is lesser or=than or equal to 1.
ρvd/ μ <=1
where ρ = mass density, μ = dynamic viscosity, d = diameter or particle size, v = velocity of flow.
2.3.1 The Limits of Darcy’s Law

Although Darcy‟s law is regarded as a fundamental relationship in the Earth sciences, it does have
limitations, and there is a range of conditions over which it is valid.
Upper Limit: One of the assumptions inherent in Darcy‟s law is the assumption of laminar flow.
Darcy‟s law is not valid above the onset of turbulence in the system, because the discharge is no
longer linearly proportional to the gradient.
Lower Limit: There is a lower limit, called the threshold gradient, where fluid viscosity is too strong
for the gradient to overcome the resistance to flow.
Darcy‟s law is still widely used because 1) groundwater systems rarely become turbulent, and 2) at
gradients near the threshold gradient, flow is generally so small we can ignore it.
2.4 Measuring Permeability

Understanding permeability is one thing; actually measuring it is something else. Unfortunately, no on
has developed a simple permeability meter with a digital display that you can point at a rock or
sediment and instantly measure the permeability. Instead, we have a variety of ways of measuring
permeability, both in the field and in the laboratory. These methods generally involve forcing fluid

through a sample of the material, measuring the head loss and discharge rate, and calculating
permeability from the results.
- Permeameters or darcy tubes: basically a tube fill it up with a sample, run water through, read the
head loss and discharge, and calculate hydraulic conductivity
- Gas permeameters: use a gas (usually nitrogen) as the fluid instead of water. These can be portable
for field use, or set up in a laboratory.
- Well/piezometer tests: basic idea is to either
 Pump water out of a well at a constant rate, or
 Add or remove a known volume of water from a well
 You then monitor water levels, and use one of various methods to calculate
permeability
- Empirical equations: people have noted correlations between permeability and properties of the
rock, primarily grain size distributions, average grain size, or “effective” grain size. Some of these are
given on the other handout.
- Inverse determinations: Using field data (water levels, flow rates, dimensions of the aquifer) to
„back out‟ permeability values.
2.5 Laboratory Permeability

In a laboratory, the permeability is measured with the help of two instruments namely: constant head
permeameters (for relatively coarse grained soils) and falling head permeameters (for relatively fine
grained soils).
2.5.1 Constant head permeameters:
The constant head permeability test involves flow of water through a column of cylindrical soil sample
under the constant pressure difference. The test is carried out in the permeability cell, or permeameters,
which can vary in size depending on the grain size of the tested material. The soil sample has a
cylindrical form with its diameter being large enough in order to be representative of the tested soil. As
a rule of thumb, the ratio of the cell diameter to the largest grain size diameter should be higher than
12. The usual size of the cell often used for testing common sands is 75 mm diameter and 260 mm
height between perforated plates. The testing apparatus is equipped with an adjustable constant head
reservoir and an outlet reservoir which allows maintaining a constant head during the test. Water used

for testing is de-aired water at constant temperature. The permeability cell is also equipped with a
loading piston that can be used to apply constant axial stress to the sample during the test. Before
starting the flow measurements, however, the soil sample is saturated. During the test, the amount of
water flowing through the soil column is measured for given time intervals.
The permeability of coarse grained soils can be determined by measuring the volume of water
percolated (V) through the soil sample of cross sectional area (A) and length (L) in a given time (t)
under a constant head (h).
From Darcy‟s Law,
V = Qt = KA t

2.5.2 Falling Head Permeameters:

The falling head permeability test involves flow of water through a relatively short soil sample
connected to a standpipe which provides the water head and also allows measuring the volume of
water passing through the sample. The diameter of the standpipe depends on the permeability of the
tested soil. Before starting the flow measurements, the soil sample is saturated and the standpipes are
filled with de-aired water to a given level. The test then starts by allowing water to flow through the
sample until the water in the standpipe reaches a given lower limit. The time required for the water in
the standpipe to drop from the upper to the lower level is recorded. Often, the standpipe is refilled and
the test is repeated for couple of times. The recorded time should be the same for each tests within an
allowable variation of about 10% otherwise the test is failed.
Fig : Falling head permeameter

If ho and h1 are the initial and final readings respectively in the stand pipe of cross sectional area (a), in
a time (t), above the soil specimen of length (L)and cross sectional area (A), the permeability is given
by,
K = 2.3 log10

2.6 Probable land subsidence due to ground water withdrawals

In areas where unconsolidated or semi consolidated alluvial aquifers are confined or partially confined
by thick fine grained beds, subsidence of the land surface is likely to result as artesian pressure is
reduced by ground water pumpage.
The elastic subsidence of the land surface can be computed from the equation:
Δb = Δp (S/γw – nbβ)
Where Δb = land subsidence (m), Δp = reduction in artesian pressure (N/m2) γw = specific weight of
water.
2.7 Flow-Net and water table contours
A grid obtained by drawing a series of streamlines ψ and equipotential lines Φ is known as a flow net.
It provides a simple graphical technique for studying two-dimensional irrotational flows, when the
mathematical calculation is difficult and cumbersome. The streamlines ψ and equipotential lines Φ are
mutually perpendicular to each other. The stream lines are so spaced that rate of flow Q is same
between each successive pair of lines. The stream lines in flow net show the direction of flow and the
equipotential lines join the points the equal velocity potential Φ.
The property of the stream function is that the difference of its values at two points represents the flow
across any line joining the points. Therefore, when two points lie on the same stream lines, then since
there is no flow across the streamlines, the difference between the stream functions Ψ 1 and Ψ2 at these
two points is equal to zero, (i.e. Ψ1 – Ψ2 = 0). In other words, it means that streamline is given by Ψ =
constant. Similarly, ɸ = constant, represents a curve for which the velocity potential is same at every
point, and hence it represents an equipotential line

Water table contours

Water table contour lines (or flow lines) are similar to topographic lines on a map. They essentially
represent "elevations" in the subsurface. These elevations are the hydraulic head. Water table
contour lines can be used to tell which way groundwater will flow in a given region. Water table
contours are drawn that join areas of equal head (like "connect-the-dots"!). These water table
contours lines are also called equipotential lines. The map of contour lines is called a flow net.
Groundwater always moves from an area of higher hydraulic head to an area of lower hydraulic
head, and perpendicular to equipotential lines.
Conditions for Drawing Flow Net

 The flow net should be steady so that the stream line patterns will remain constant. For
unsteady flow, the streamline pattern will be instantaneous and it may change from instant
to instant
 The flow should be irrotational which has negligible viscosity. However, in case of rapidly
accelerating or converging flow of fluids, even if the fluids have low viscosity, the flownet
analysis may be adopted.
 Flow net should not be governed by the gravity force to maintain the fixed pattern of flow
net.

2.8 Permeability in isotropic and anisotrophic soils

(Isotropic soil- when the soil consists of perfectly spherical grains, the flow rates would be isotropic
i.e same in all directions, given that the other factors being equal)
Aquifers consist of layers having different permeabilities. To determine average permeability, samples
are taken from each layer and their permeability is determined. The average permeabilities Kx and Ky
in horizontal and vertical directions respectively are:
Kx (K1b1 + K2b2 + K3b3 +……..)
Ky =
Where b = total thickness of the aquifer (= b1 +b2+ b3+……),

b1, b2, b3… = thickness of each layer,
K1,K2,K3,….= permeability of each layer.
2.9 Steady Flow in Confined Aquifers

If there is a steady movement of groundwater in a confined aquifer, there will be a linear gradient or
slope to the piezometric surface; i.e., its two-directional projection is a straight line. For this type of
groundwater flow, Darcy‟s law can be directly applied. In Fig. given below, a portion of a
homogeneous and isotropic confined aquifer of uniform thickness is shown wherein the hydraulic head
has a linear gradient. Two observation wells/piezometers are installed L distance apart in the aquifer
where the hydraulic head can be measured.

Fig. Steady flow through a confined aquifer of uniform thickness.
Using Darcy‟s law, the quantity of groundwater flow per unit width of the aquifer (q) can be
determined as:
Where, K = mean hydraulic conductivity of the confined aquifer, b = thickness of the confined aquifer,
and = hydraulic gradient in the X-direction.
One may be interested to know the hydraulic head (h) at some intermediate distance, x between
Piezometer 1 having hydraulic head h1 and Piezometer 2 having hydraulic head h2. This can be
determined from the following equation:
Where, h(x) = hydraulic head at distance x, and x = distance from Piezometer 1.

2.10 Steady Flow in Unconfined Aquifers

In unconfined aquifers, as illustrated in Fig. given below, the fact that the water table constitutes the
upper boundary of the groundwater flow region complicates flow determination. The shape of the
water table determines the flow distribution, but at the same time the flow distribution governs the
water-table shape. Therefore, a direct analytical solution of the Laplace equation is not possible in this
case.
Fig.. Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer between two water bodies with vertical boundaries.
Moreover, the saturated thickness of unconfined aquifers decreases in the direction of flow (Fig.). If
there is no recharge or evaporation, the quantity of water flowing through the left side (upstream end)
is equal to that flowing through the right side (downstream end). From Darcy‟s law, it is obvious that
since the cross-sectional area is smaller on the right side, the hydraulic gradient must be greater on this
side. Thus, the water-table gradient in unconfined flow is not constant; rather it increases in the
direction of flow.
The above problem was solved by Dupuit in 1863 by adopting certain simplifying assumptions, which
are well-known as the Dupuit assumptions or Dupuit-Forchheimer assumptions. These assumptions

are: (i) the hydraulic gradient in an unconfined flow system is equal to the slope of the water table, and
(ii) for small water-table gradients, the streamlines are horizontal and the equipotential lines are
vertical. Solutions based on these assumptions have proved to be very useful in many practical
problems. However, the Dupuit assumptions do not allow for a seepage face above the outflow side
(Fig. Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer). Furthermore, since the slope of the parabolic water table
increases in the direction of flow, the Dupuit assumptions become increasingly poor approximations to
the actual flow; therefore, the actual water table deviates more and more from the computed water
table in the direction of flow (Fig. Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer). Thus, the actual water table
always lies above the computed water table. The reason for this can be explained by the fact that the
Dupuit flows are assumed to be horizontal, whereas the actual velocities of the same magnitude have a
downward vertical component so that a greater saturated thickness (i.e., larger height of the water table
from the aquifer base) is required for the same discharge.
2.11 Steady Unconfined Flow without Recharge or Evapotranspiration

For steady unconfined flow without recharge or evapotranspiration, given the Dupuit assumptions,
Darcy‟s law can be applied to determine groundwater discharge per unit width of the aquifer (q) at any
vertical section:
Where, h = saturated thickness of the unconfined aquifer, K = mean hydraulic conductivity of the
unconfined aquifer, and = hydraulic gradient in the X-direction.
Applying boundary conditions, i.e., at x = 0, h = h1; at x = L, h = h2 (Fig. Steady flow in an

unconfined aquifer), Eqn. can be integrated with these boundary conditions as:

Where, L = flow length, h1 = head at the origin (at x = 0), and h2 = head at a distance L (at x = L).
Equation is known as the Dupuit equation, which indicates that the water table is parabolic in form.
For flow between two fixed water bodies of constant heads h 1 and h2 as shown in Fig., the water-table
slope at the upstream boundary of the aquifer (neglecting the capillary zone) can be given as:
However, the boundary h = h1 is an equipotential line because of the constant fluid potential in the
water body. Consequently, the water table must be horizontal at this section, which is inconsistent with
above Eqn.
2.12 Steady Unconfined Flow with Recharge or Evapotranspiration
Steady one-dimensional unconfined flow subject to recharge or evapotranspiration, is as shown in

Fig.below

Fig. Steady unconfined flow subject to recharge.
We can obtain the following equation for the water-table position:
Where, h (x) = hydraulic head (water-table height from the aquifer base) at a distance x from the origin
(upstream end), x = distance from the origin, L = distance from the origin to the point where h2 is
measured, h1 = head at the origin (upstream end), h2 = head at the distance L (downstream end), K =
mean hydraulic conductivity of the unconfined aquifer, and R = recharge rate.
Equation can be used to find the height of the water table (from the aquifer base) anywhere between
two points located L distance apart if the saturated thickness of the unconfined aquifer is known at the
two end points (i.e., h1 and h2 are known). It should be noted that if significant evapotranspiration (ET)
occurs instead of recharge (R), then in Eqn., the term R will be replaced by ET with negative sign (i.e.,
- ET) .
In the absence of recharge or evapotranspiration Eqn. will reduce equation as given below and is
called as Dupuit parabola.

Further reading and reference

2. K. Todd, “Ground Water Hydrology”, Wiley and Sons, New Delhi.
3. Bower. H., “Ground Water Hydrology” McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
4. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/


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ATME College of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: GROUND WATER AND HYDRAULICS

SUBJECT CODE: 17CV742

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Vision of the Institute

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Mission of the Institute

Vision of the Department

Mission of the Department

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)

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Course Title: GROUND WATER & HYDRAULICS

aquifers (only introduction), interference of well, image well theory.

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Conjunctive use, necessity, techniques and economics.

Ground Water Recharge: Artificial recharge, groundwater runoff

• Find the characteristics of aquifers.

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1.1.1 Ground water

1.1.2 Ground water Hydrology

1.2 Occurrence of ground water

Artificial sources of replenishment (or recharge) include the following:

1.3 Vertical distribution of subsurface water

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 2

Fig: Vertical distribution of subsurface water

1.4 Aquifer, Aquiclude, Aquifuge and Aquitard

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 3

Fig: Water-bearing formations beneath the ground (Source: Quora)

Fig: distribution of Aquifer, Aquitard, Aquiclude and Aquifuge

1.5 Confined and Unconfined aquifers

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 4

Fig: Unconfined aquifer

Fig: Leaky Unconfined aquifer

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 5

Fig: Confined aquifer

Fig: Leaky confined aquifer

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 6

Fig: Aquifers and wells

Artesian aquifer scheme:

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 7

1.6 Occurrence of ground water in different types of rocks

Department of Civil Engineering, ATMECE, Mysuru Page 8

1.7 Replenishment of ground water