Module-2

Elasticity Dr. F. Jyothi Serrao,

2021-22 Associate Professor
Dept.of Engg.Physics
SCEM
Pre-Requisites

Elasticity: The property of a material body by virtue of which it regains its original shape,
volume or size after the deforming force is removed.

Deforming force: When an applied force causes any change in the configuration of the
body either in length, volume or shape then the force applied is called deforming force.

If the body regains its original size and shape completely after the deforming forces are
removed then the body is said to be perfectly elastic.
Eg: Elastomers: Rubber and polymers.

If the body retains completely its deformed size and shape after the deforming forces are
removed, then the body is said to be perfectly plastic.
Eg: Putty, wax, dough

Concepts of Stress and Strain:

Stress refers to the cause of a deformation and strain refers to the effect of deformation.

Stress: The restoring force setup inside the body per unit area is called stress.
Restoring force is always equal and opposite to the deforming force.
𝐹
∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐴
There are two types of stress.
I) Normal stress
II) Tangential stress.

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 If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called as a normal stress.
The stress is always normal in the case of a change in length of the wire or in the case of
the change in the volume of a body.

I) Normal stress is of two types:

1. longitudinal Stress (Tensile stress)
2. Compressive stress (Volume stress), Pressure

1. Longitudinal stress:
It is the stretching force acting per unit area of cross section of the
body along its length.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Longitudinal stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎
Eg: A spring gets extended when a mass is at one of its ends. A
restoring force generates tensile stress.

2. Compressive stress (Volume stress): The force per unit area acting
normally all over the body gives the volume stress or pressure. When a deforming force is
applied normally and uniformly to the entire surface of a body, it produces a volume
change but shape remains unchanged.

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Compressive stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎

Eg: Springs in the shock absorbers of vehicles experience compressive stress.

2
II) Tangential stress (or Shearing stress): The force acting tangentially per unit area
on the surface of a body is called shearing stress. Due to this force shape changes
but volume remains unchanged.

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Shearing stress = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎

Strain: The ratio of change in dimension to its original dimension, when the force is
applied is called strain.
There are three types of strain

Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in length produced to the original length, when
the force applied is along its length is called as longitudinal strain. If L is the original
length and 𝒍 is the change in length, when the force is applied, then,

𝑙
Longitudinal strain =
𝐿
Volume strain or Bulk strain: The ratio of change in volume to the original volume, when
the normal and uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body, is called as volume
strain.

𝑣
Volume strain =
𝑉

Shearing Strain: The ratio of change in shape to the original shape, when a tangential
force is applied parallel to the surface is called as Shearing strain. It is measured by the
shearing angle θ.

𝑙
Shearing strain, θ =
𝐿
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Consider a cube ABCDEFGH as shown in the figure, whose lower face CDEF is fixed and
a tangential force F is applied over the upper face ABGH. As a result, each horizontal
layer of the cube is displaced, the displacement being proportional to its distance from the
fixed face. The face ABGH is shifted to the new position AI BIGI HI. Thus, the cube is
sheared to the new form AI BI CDEF GI HI, the volume remains unchanged. The edge AD
which was initially perpendicular to the lower fixed face is turned through an angle θ
which is called the angle of shear or shearing angle.

***************************

Importance of elasticity in engineering applications:

A good elastic material is one which can sustain a large amount of force with minimal
deformation. Steel, wrought iron, cast iron, copper, brass etc. They find some potential
applications in engineering.
Eg; 1. Low carbon alloys are used in automobile body parts, beams, bridges etc.
2. Low carbon alloys containing copper, nickel and vanadium are used in the
manufacturing of truck frames.
3. Medium carbon alloys re used in railway wheels, gears etc.
4. High carbon alloys are used in cutting tools, knives, lift cables, crane cables etc.
5. Copper based alloys are highly resistant to corrosion and hence they are used in
electric wires, springs etc.

Factors affecting Elastic Modulus (or Elasticity):

1. Effect of Stress
2. Effect of annealing
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3. Effect of impurities
4. Effect of temperature

Effect of Stress: When the material is subjected to large number of cycles of stresses, it
loses its elastic property even within elastic limit. Therefore, the working stress on the
material should be kept lower than the ultimate tensile strength.
Ex: Lift belt

Effect of annealing: Annealing is a process by which the material is heated to a very high
temperature and then it is cooled slowly. It results in the formation of large crystal grains
which ultimately reduces the elastic property of the material. This facilitates shaping and
allows the metal to be cut more easily.

Effect of impurities: Addition of impurities to metal results in either increase or decrease

of elasticity. It depends on the type of impurity added. If the impurity prevents the
movement of dislocations in the lattice, it increases the elasticity and hence increases the
strength. On the other hand, if the impurity permits the movement of dislocation, it
causes cracks and thus reduces the strength.
Ex: When copper is added to gold, elastic property of gold increases.

Effect of temperature: The elastic property of the material changes with temperature.
The elasticity increases with the decrease in temperature and vice-versa.

Hook’s Law: This is the basic law of elasticity and was established by Robert Hook in
1678. The law states that “within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the
corresponding strain”.
i.e Stress α Strain
Stress = (a constant) Strain
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝑬)
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Where, E is constant of proportionality called as Modulus of elasticity.

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Elastic Limit: The maximum stress that an elastic solid can sustain without
undergoing permanent deformation.
Corresponding to the three types of strain, there are three moduli of elasticity
1) Young’s Modulus, corresponding to longitudinal strain
2) Bulk Modulus, corresponding to the volume strain
3) Rigidity Modulus, corresponding to shearing strain.

Young’s modulus (Y): Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain is called Young’s modulus for the material of the body and is denoted
by the letter ‘Y’.
Let L be the original length of a wire of cross-sectional area a and 𝑙 is its elongation by
the application of a force F.
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝑎 𝐹. 𝐿
∴𝑌= 𝑙 =
𝑎. 𝑙
𝐿
The unit of Y is Newton/ m2.

Bulk Modulus (K): “Within the elastic limit, the ratio of volume stress or pressure to the
volume strain is called Bulk modulus of the material of a body and it is denoted by a
letter ‘K’.
Let V be the original volume of a body and by the application of a pressure P ( i.e Force
𝐹
per Area ( )). Let v be the change in volume produced.
𝐴

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝑎 𝑃 𝑃. 𝑉
∴ 𝐾= 𝑣 = 𝑣 =
𝑣
𝑉 𝑉

Rigidity Modulus (η): “within the elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing
strain is called rigidity modulus of the material of a body and is denoted by the letter η.

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If θ is the shearing angle and very small,
𝑙
Then shearing strain θ ≈ tan θ =
𝐿
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹𝐿
η= 𝑎
= 𝑎
𝑙 =
𝜃 𝑎𝑙
𝐿

Lateral Deformation: In case of any deformation taking place along the length of a body
like a wire due to a deforming force, there is always some changes in the thickness of the
body. This change takes place in a direction perpendicular to the direction along which
the deforming force is acting is called lateral deformation.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
If D is the original diameter and d is the change in diameter, then,
𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐷

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Longitudinal strain coefficient (α): The longitudinal strain produced per unit stress is
called longitudinal strain coefficient.

𝑙
If the longitudinal strain = and T be the applied stress. Then,
𝐿

Longitudinal strain coefficient α = 𝐿

𝑇

𝑙
𝛼= or 𝑙 = 𝛼𝐿𝑇
𝐿𝑇

Lateral strain coefficient (𝜷): The lateral strain produced per unit stress is called lateral
strain coefficient.

𝑑
If the lateral strain = and T be the applied stress. Then,
𝐷

𝑑
𝐷
Lateral strain coefficient 𝛽 =
𝑇

𝑑
𝛽= or 𝑑 = 𝛽𝐷𝑇
𝐷𝑇

Poisson’s Ratio (𝝈):

“Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant
and is called Poisson’s ratio.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Consider a wire of length L and diameter D. If it is stretched longitudinally by a force F,
its length increases by l and diameter decreases by d.

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 𝑑
𝐷 𝑑. 𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 = 𝑙 =
𝐷. 𝑙
𝐿

𝑑. 𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 =
𝐷. 𝑙

𝛽𝐷𝑇. 𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 =
𝐷. 𝛼𝐿𝑇
If β and α are the lateral and longitudinal strain coefficients respectively, then,
𝑑
𝛽 𝑇𝐷 𝑑. 𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜎 = = 𝑙 =
𝛼 𝐷. 𝑙
𝑇𝐿

Poisson’s ratio is a pure number and has no units and dimensions.

Derive the relation between Elongation strain, Compression strain and Shearing strain:
When a body is subjected to stress (of any kind), we can show that the net deformation is
equal to sum of elongation and compression strains.
Consider a cubical slab ABCD of side length L, fixed at CD and subjected to tangential
force F. As a result, layer AB slides to AIBI such a way that diagonal AC is contracted and
DB is elongated as shown in fig. The net shear strain is θ. Draw BK perpendicular to DB1
and AIQ to AC. Since θ is very small, Δ BKB1 can be assumed to be a right angled,
isosceles triangle and LBB1K= 45o. Also, DB = DK

From the fig,

𝐷𝐵 𝐼 −𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐼 −𝐷𝐾 𝐾𝐵 𝐼
Elongation strain along DB = = = ----- (1)
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵

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 𝐴𝐶−𝐴𝐼 𝐶 𝐴𝑄
Compressive strain along AC = = ------ (2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

From eqn (1)

KB1: In isosceles right-angled triangle BKB1 , LBB1K = 45o,
𝐾𝐵𝐼
𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 =
𝐵𝐵𝐼
𝐵𝐵𝐼 𝑙
𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = 𝐵𝐵 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑜 = = --------(3)
√2 √2

DB: DB = AC = √𝐿2 + 𝐿2 = 𝐿√2 ------- (4) (Pythagoras theorem)

Substitute (3) and (4) in (1)
𝐾𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 1
Elongation strain along DB = = ×
𝐷𝐵 √2 √2𝐿
𝑙 𝜃 𝑙
Or, Elongation strain along DB = = (because, = 𝜃)
2𝐿 2 𝐿
𝜽
∴ Elongation strain along DB = ------ (5)
𝟐
𝜽
Similarly, we can show that, compression strain along diagonal AC = ------ (6)
𝟐
𝜽 𝜽
Adding (5) and (6), + =θ
𝟐 𝟐

∴ Elongation strain + Compressive strain = Shearing strain.

Note: According to this result, elongation along DB (i.e DB1) is the sum of longitudinal
strain and lateral strain coefficients.

It is given by 𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = 𝛼(𝐷𝐾 )𝑇 + 𝛽(𝐷𝐾)𝑇 Since DK=DB, DB = √2𝐿

𝐾𝐵 𝐼 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(√2𝐿)𝑇

Derive the relation between Y, η and σ :

Consider a cubical slab ABCD of side length L, fixed at CD and subjected to tangential
stress T. As a result, layer AB slides to AIBI such a way that diagonal AC is contracted
and DB is elongated as shown in fig. The net shear strain is θ. Draw BK perpendicular to
DB1 and AIQ to AC. Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the longitudinal and lateral strain coefficients.

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Total elongation produced along DBI is given by

𝐾𝐵𝐼 = 𝛼𝑇 (𝐷𝐾 ) + 𝛽𝑇(𝐷𝐾 ) = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑇√2 𝐿 -----(1)

𝑙
Also, KBI = -------(2) ( From the triangle BBIK)
√2
From (1) and (2)
𝑙
= (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝑇√2 𝐿
√2
𝑙 𝑙/𝐿 𝜃
2(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) = = =
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝑇
1 T
=
2(α + β) θ
1
=η
2(α + β)
1
η=
2(α+β)
1
𝛼
η= 𝛽
2(1+𝛼)

𝐹
1 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎 𝑇 𝐿𝑇 1
(But, 𝑌 = because, Young’s Modulus, Y = = 𝑙 = 𝑙 = = )
𝛼 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙 𝛼
𝐿 𝐿

𝒀
η=
𝟐(𝟏+𝝈)

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Derive the relation between Y, K and σ :
Consider a cube of unit dimensions. Let Tx be the stress acting along x-direction, Ty be
the stress along y- direction and Tz be the stress along Z- direction as shown in the fig.
Each stress produces an extension in its own direction and a lateral contraction in the
other two perpendicular directions.
Extension is due to 𝛼 and contraction is due to 𝛽.

If Tx is the stress acting along x- direction,

Then, the new length along x-axis = 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑦 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧
If Ty is the stress acting along y- direction,
Then, the new length along y-axis = 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑦 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧
And If Tz is the stress acting along z- direction,
Then, the new length along z-axis = 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑧 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑦
∴ The new volume of the cube is

𝑉 𝐼 = (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑦 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 )(1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑦 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑧 )(1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑧 − 𝛽𝑇𝑥 − 𝛽𝑇𝑦 )
If Tx = Ty = Tz = T
Then
𝑉 𝐼 = (1 + 𝛼𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇)(1 + 𝛼𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇)(1 + 𝛼𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇 − 𝛽𝑇)
𝑉 𝐼 = (1 + 𝛼𝑇 − 2𝛽𝑇)3 = (1 + T(α − 2β))3
Simplifying using binomial expansion and by neglecting higher power terms, we get
𝑉 𝐼 = 1 + 3T (𝛼 − 2 𝛽)

∴ Change in volume of the cube is = New volume – initial volume ( 𝑉 𝐼 − 𝑉)

= 1 + 3T (𝛼 − 2 𝛽) − 1
= 3T (𝛼 − 2 𝛽)

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 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇
Bulk Modulus, K = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 3𝑇 (𝛼 −2 𝛽)/1

1
Or, 𝐾 =
3 (𝛼 −2 𝛽)

1
Or, 𝐾 = 𝛼
-------(1)
3(1−2𝛽
𝛼)

𝒀
Therefore (1) becomes, 𝑲=
𝟑(𝟏−𝟐𝝈)

Limiting Values of σ :
𝑌 𝑌
We have 𝐾 = and η =
3(1−2𝜎) 2(1+𝜎)

Or, 3K (1−2𝜎) = 2 η (1+σ)

Since elastic moduli K and η cannot be negative, both LHS and RHS must be positive.
i) LHS is positive only when the value of 𝝈 <1/2.
ii) RHS is positive only when the value of 𝝈 > -1
Thus, the theoretical limiting values of σ are
−𝟏 < 𝝈 < 0.5

Bending of beams:
Beam: Beam is a horizontal structure whose length is large compared to other
dimensions. It is mainly meant for withstanding load. Since the length of the beam is
much greater than its other dimensions the shearing stresses are very small and can be
neglected.

Different types of beams and their engineering applications:

There are four types of beams

1. Simple beam: A beam supported at both ends. These beams are mostly used in
general construction.

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 2. Continuous beam: A beam that has more than two supports. Used in bridge
construction.
3. Cantilever beam: A beam that is fixed at one end and free on the other end. Used
in bridges and buildings.
4. Fixed beam: A beam that is fixed at both ends. Used in the trusses (string like
structure).

Neutral Plane & Neutral Axis: A beam assumed to be made up of several thin layers and
each layer consists of parallel longitudinal filaments of fibres closely arranged as shown
in the fig.

Consider a rectangular beam fixed at one end and a loaded at the free end. As a result
the beam bends as shown in figure (3).
Let us consider a filament CD at the beam. It is found that the filaments (layers) lying
above CD (AB) gets elongated, while the filaments lying below CD (EF) gets compressed.
But, the filaments CD, which remains unaltered, neither elongated nor contracted.
Neutral Plane: The surface/layer in the beam, whose filaments do not undergo either
elongation or contraction when it is subjected to bending within elastic limit, is called the
neutral plane.
Neutral Axis: A filament in the neutral plane which do not undergo either elongation or
contraction when it is subjected to bending within elastic limit is called neutral axis.

14
Bending Moment: Bending moment is a measure of the bending effect that occur when
an external force or moment is applied to a structural element. It is given by the product
of magnitude of force and perpendicular distance from the neutral axis.

Expression for Bending Moment:

Consider a beam, to which a load is attached so that the beam bends uniformly into a
circular arc as shown in the figure.
Let A1B1 and E1F1 are the two layers situated at a distance r above and below the neutral
axis CD. Let R be the radius of curvature of bending.

𝒀
Bending moment of beam = . 𝑰𝒈
𝑹

where Ig is called the geometrical moment of inertia. The value of Ig depends on the shape
of the beam.

a) For rectangular beam:

𝑏𝑑 3
∴Ig = (‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam)
12
𝒀 𝒃𝒅𝟑
∴ Bending moment of the rectangular beam = ( )
𝑹 𝟏𝟐
b) For a circular beam:

𝜋𝑟 4
∴ Ig = ( ‘r’ is the radius)
4
𝒀 𝝅𝒓𝟒
∴Bending moment of the circular beam = ( )
𝑹 𝟒

15
 Single Cantilever:
A horizontal beam fixed at one end and loaded at the free end is called cantilever.

Derive the expression for Young’s Modulus in single cantilever OR Derive the
expression for the depression at the free end of a cantilever.
Consider a thin uniform beam AB of length 𝑙 fixed at one end and loaded with a weight
W at its free end as shown in the fig. Due to this applied load, beam undergo total
depression BBI = y. Consider a small element PQ (distance between PQ is dx) on the
beam at a distance x from the fixed end and (𝑙 − 𝑥) from free end. When beam bends,
the point P moves to PI and Q to QI. Let R be the radius of curvature of the element
PIQI.

When the load is applied at the free end, a couple is created between two forces. One force
(load W) applied at the free end towards downward direction and the other acting in the
upward direction at the supporting end. From the fig,
The external bending moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from the element PQ
= (W × (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑌
Internal bending moment = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑔
Under equilibrium,
External bending moment = Internal bending moment
𝑌
W(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝐼𝑔
𝑅
1 W(l−x)
= -------(1)
R YIg

But from ∆P I OQI , P I QI = R. dθ

dx = R. dθ
16
 1 𝑑𝜃
= -------(2)
𝑅 𝑑𝑥
Eqn, (2) in (1)
𝑑𝑥.𝑊.(𝑙−𝑥)
𝑑𝜃 = ---------(3)
𝑌𝐼𝑔

Draw two tangents, one at PI and other at QI which meet the vertical line BBI at C and
D respectively. Let dθ be the angle between the two tangents and 𝑑𝑦 be the small
depression produced due to the curvature PIQI
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑙 − 𝑥 ). 𝑑𝜃 -------- (4)
Substitute Eqn. (3) in (4)
(𝑙 − 𝑥 ). 𝑑𝑥. 𝑊. (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 =
𝑌𝐼𝑔
𝑊(𝑙−𝑥)2 .𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = ---------(5)
𝑌𝐼𝑔

∴Total depression at the free end of the cantilever can be obtained by integrating the
equation (5) within the limits ‘0’ to ‘𝑙’.
Therefore,
W (l  x) 2 dx
l l
y   dy  
o o
YI g
l
W
y 
YI g 0
(l  x) 2 dx

l
W
YI g 0
y (l 2  2lx  x 2 )dx

l
W  2 2lx 2 x 3 
y l x   
YI g  2 3 0

W  3 3 l3 
y l  l  
YI g  3

W l 3 
y  
YI g 3

17
 𝑊𝑙 3
Therefore, depression at the free end of a Cantilever is 𝑦 = 3𝑌𝐼𝑔

𝑊𝑙 3
Young’s Modulus of the cantilever is, 𝑌=
3𝑦𝐼𝑔

Special Cases:
A. Rectangular Cross Section
𝑏𝑑 3
If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam then, Ig =
12
The depression produced at the free end for a rectangular cross section
𝑊𝑙 3 4𝑊𝑙 3
𝑦= 𝑏𝑑3
= 3
3𝑌 ( ) 𝑌𝑏𝑑
12

B. Circular Cross Section

𝜋𝑟 4
If ‘r’ is the radius of the circular cross section, then, Ig =
4

The depression produced at the free end for a rectangular cross section
𝑊𝑙 3 4𝑊𝑙 3
𝑦= 𝜋𝑟 4
= 4
3𝑌 ( ) 3𝑌𝜋𝑟
4

Torsion of a Cylinder:

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. Torque is a rotating force
capable of turning a body. The twisting is brought into effect by fixing one end of the body
to a rigid support and applying a suitable couple at the other end.

Derive the expression for couple per unit twist for a solid cylinder:
Let us consider a cylindrical rod subjected to torsion. Let L be the length and R be the
radius of the cylindrical rod, which is fixed at its upper end. A cylinder can be imagine to
be made up of several concentric cylindrical layers of different radii. We have considered
one such layer of thickness ‘dr’ and radius ‘r’ as shown on the figure. Let EF be its central
axis and GH be the parallel line to the central axis EF.
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When the cylinder is twisted, the line FG is twisted through an angle θ and the point G
shifts to C.
From the figure, Arc length GC= rθ ------ (1)
Also, the line HG shears through an angle ϕ and the line HG shifts to HC.
∴Arc length GC = Lϕ ----- (2)
Comparing (1) and (2)
𝐿ϕ = r θ
𝑟𝜃
𝜙=
𝐿
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Rigidity modulus, η =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

F  F 
   
 a   2rdr 
 
 
Where, a=2πrdr, is the cross-sectional area of the layer under consideration.
 F 
 
 2rdr 
Or,  
r
L
r
F  2rdr 
L
 .2
F 
L
r dr 
2

Moment of force about EF = Force x Perpendicular distance about the center of rotation.
Moment of force about EF = F x r

19
  .2
Moment of force about EF =
L
r dr . r
2

 .2
Moment of force about EF =
L
r dr 
3

The moment of force (twisting couple) acting on the entire cylinder of radius R is obtained
by integrating the above eqn, between the limits 0 to R
R
 2
Hence, the twisting couple or torque τ =  r 3 dr
0
L

 2 R
i.e., twisting couple or torque τ =
L 
0
r 3 dr

R
 2  r 4 
Twisting couple, τ = . 
L  4 0

Applying the limits, we have,

 2R 4
Twisting couple, τ =
4L

R 4
Twisting couple or torque, τ =
2L

Twisting couple per unit twist, C is given by

twisting couple or torque
𝐂=
angle of twist
R 4
C 2L

R 4
C
2L
R 4
C
2L
This is the twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit radian in a cylinder.

20
Torsion Pendulum

A system consisting of wire fixed at one end and attached with a body at the free end is
called torsional pendulum. When set in oscillations, it oscillates with certain time period.
These oscillations are called torsional oscillations.

The time period of the oscillation for a torsional pendulum is given by

I
T  2
C

Where, I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the axis of the wire and C is the
couple/unit twist for the wire (also called as torsional constant).

Applications of Torsional Pendulum

1. To determine rigidity modulus of the given wire.
2. To determine moment of inertia (MI) of irregular body.
****************************
Questions:
1. Discuss the Engineering importance of elastic materials
2. Explain in brief the factors affecting elastic property of a body.
3. Show that for an elastic body, shearing strain= Longitudinal strain+ Compression strain.
4. Derive the relation between, Y, K and σ.
5. Derive the relation between Y, η and σ.
6. Obtain an expression for the depression at the free end of a cantilever.
7. Derive the expression for couple per unit twist of a solid cylinder.
8. What is Torsional pendulum? Give the expression for period of oscillation for a Torsional
pendulum and give its applications.
21