WEEK 2 to 3

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: An Intervention for Sustainable

Development

Objectives:

At the end of this topic, that student should be able to:

1. Discuss the goal of agricultural modernization and the

framework of sustainable agriculture;
2. List the causes of poverty in the Philippines

Agricultural Modernization and Development

RA 8435 - Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act

 Part 1. Production and Marketing Support Services

 Part 2. Human Resources Development

 Part 3. Research Development and Extension

 Part 4. Rural Non-Farm Employment

 Part 5. Trade and Fiscal Incentives

MODERNIZATION

-the PROCESS of TRANSFORMING the AGRICULTURE & FISHERIES

sectors into one that is

1. DYNAMIC

2. TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED

3. COMPETITIVE

Yet CENTERED on HUMAN DEVELOPMENT and GUIDED by sound practices

of SUSTAINABILITY and the PRINCIPLES of SOCIAL JUSTICE.

Major Concerns of AFMA

1. Food security

2. Poverty alleviation and social equity

3. Income enhancement and profitability especially for farmers and

fisherfolks
 4. Global Competitiveness

5. Sustainability

Food Security

The POLICY OBJECTIVE, PLAN, and STRATEGY of MEETING FOOD

REQUIREMENTS of PRESENT and FUTURE GENERATIONS of Filipinos in
SUBSTANTIAL QUANTITY ensuring the AVAILABILITY and AFFORDABILITY
of food TO ALL either through LOCAL PRODUCTION or IMPORTATION or both
based on the country’s EXISTING and POTENTIAL RESOURCE
ENDOWNMENT and related production advantages, and CONSISTENT with the
OVERALL national development objectives and policies.

Poverty Alleviation and Social Equity

Providing the POOR with equitable access to resources income opportunities

basic and support services infrastructure especially in areas where productivity is
low as a means of improving their quality of life.

Medium and Long-Terms Goals to address Food Security, Poverty

Alleviation, Social Equity, and Income Enhancement

1. INCREASED INCOME and PROFIT of small farmers and fisherfolks;

2. AVAILABILITY of rice and other staple foods at AFFORDABLE PRICES;

3. REDUCTION of rural poverty and income inequality;

4. REDUCTION of rural UNEMPLOYMENT

5. Reduction of incidence of MALNUTRITION, and

6. IMPROVEMENT in LAND TENURE of small farmers.

Global competitiveness

The ABILITY to COMPETE in terms of PRICE, QUALITY, VOLUME OF

AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY PRODUCTS relative to those of OTHER
COUNTRIES. Would require the ability to PRODUCE A PRODUCT WITH THE
GREATEST RELATIVE EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF RESOURCES.
Medium and Long-Terms Goals to address Global Competitiveness and
Sustainability

1. INCREASE in VOLUME, QUALITY, and VALUE of agriculture and fisheries

production for DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION and EXPORTS;

2. REDUCTION in post-harvest LOSSES;

3. INCREASE in the number/types and quality of PROCESSED agricultural and

fishery PRODUCTS;

4. INCREASE in number of INTERNATIONAL TRADING PARTNERS in

agriculture and fishery products;

5. INCREASE in number of SUSTAINABLE agriculture and fishery FIRMS

engaged in DOMESTIC PRODUCTION, PROCESSING, MARKETING, and
EXPORT activities;

6. INCREASE in and wider level of ENTREPRENEURSHIP among farmers and

fisherfolks;

7. INCREASE in number of farms engaged in DIVERSIFIED FARMING; and

8. REDUCTION in USE of AGRO-CHEMICALS that are harmful to health and

the environment

Structure of the Agricultural Extension Service

Mandate

Provision of TRAINING, INFORMATION, and SUPPORT SERVICES by

GOs and NGOs to improve TECHNICAL, BUSINESS, and SOCIAL
CAPABILITIES of farmers and fisherfolks.

Strategy

Utilization of RESEARCH RESULTS through extension and training

services, development of a NATIONAL EXTENSION SYSTEM that will help
accelerate the transformation of Philippine agriculture and fisheries from a
resource-based to a technology-based industry.

Nature of Delivery of Extension Services

-multi-disciplinary
 -involves farmers and fisherfolks and their organizations, and those
engaged in food and non-food production processing, including the private
and public sectors.

Role of LGUs

 Responsible for delivering direct agriculture and fisheries extension

services
 The province is mandated to “integrate the operations of the agriculture
extension services and undertake an annual evaluation of all municipal
extension program.”

Role of Private Sector

 Encourage PARTICIPATION of farmers and fisherfolks cooperatives and

associations and others in the private sector in the TRAINING and other
COMPLEMENTARY EXTENSION ACTIVITIES especially in community
organizing, use of participatory approaches, popularization of training
materials, regenerative agricultural technologies, agribusiness and
management skills.

Role of SUCs

 ASSIST in the LGUs’ extension system by IMPROVING their

effectiveness and efficiency through capability building complementary
extension activities such as TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, TRAINING OF
LGU PERSONNEL, IMPROVEMENT OF PHYSICAL FACILITIES,
EXTENSION CUM RESEARCH AND INFORMATION SUPPORT
SERVICES.
 FRAMEWORK OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE BASIC
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE¹

Sustainable Development

Definition and Conceptual Framework

Sustainable development has been variably referred to as conceptual

framework, as a new morality, as a development strategy, as an intellectual
approach, as “another development”, and as goal to be achieved. Taken all
together, it could be more accurately described as a paradigm. The term was
coined by the philosopher and science historian Thomas Kuhn to denote a
dominant set of assumptions or indicate the basic model of reality underlying
science. Used in a more general way, a paradigm refers to the way we “see” the
world (Guzman and Guzman, 2000).

The term “sustainable development” emerged as a byword after the World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), otherwise known as the
Brundtland Commission, issued in April 1987 its report entitled “Our Common
Future”. The Commission, created by the United Nations in 1983, carefully
examined the nature and possible consequences of the environmental threats
that confront people in the world, taking into account the interrelationships of
people, resources and the environment. From this, a paradigm shift evolved from
the traditional path of economic development to a development that was geared
for sustainability.

Since then, the sustainable development paradigm has been a major

expression of environmentalists and development advocates. It has also been
adopted as a key policy and planning parameter of policymakers, government
leaders, politicians, and businessmen – a diverse group with varied, and at times
conflicting, interest and objectives. Even the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and the WORLD Bank, which are widely
perceived to have contributed and continue to contribute to unsustainable
development, have made sustainability topmost in their agenda of priorities
(Okigbo, 1991).

This reflects lack of agreement, or confusion, and perhaps intentional

twisting, on what sustainable development means.

The Brundtland Commission described sustainable development as “a

new form of development which integrates the production process with resource
conservation and environmental enhancement” and defined it as “economic
development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
According to the “original” intention, this definition focuses on economic growth
but combined it with a new temporal dimension, the demand for intergenerational
equity (Becker, 1997).

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) echoed the same idea
when it stated, “Sustainable development is the management and conservation
of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional
change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction
of human needs for present and future generations”.

Another definition of sustainable development locates the source of

development goals at the level of individuals and communities, thus: “Sustainable
development is a process focus on people and societies – how they define needs
with reference with their own goals and the goals they share as members of
communities and nations. It is in stark contrast to development approaches that
have focused on resources for exploitation as a means of short-term wealth
generation. It also casts doubt measures of economic performance that assume
that social good automatically follow economic development and that
environmental consequences can only be tackled after the fact” (ADB, in
Guzman and Guzman, 2000).

In 1992, UNCED Conference in Rio advanced the holistic approach to

sustainable development. In includes ecological, economic and socio-cultural
concerns and aims for the equilibrium of these three factors in order to achieve a
long-term productivity of the global system (Becker, 1997).

According to Khor (1992), equity is the central principle to operationalize

and attain sustainability. Sustainable development does not only mean
conserving enough resources to meet the needs of future generation, but also
changing the distribution of control or access to resources in this generation
itself, so that there is a reduction in the unsustainable consumption of a minority
in order to release the resources required to fulfill the needs of everyone in this
and future generations. Thus, sustainability requires intra and intergenerational
equity within and between nations. Environmental sustainability, social equity and
a culture that allows people to fulfill human needs (such as friendship, warm
human relations, community spirit and participation, and harmonious appreciation
of nature) are all integrally link. All are essential components of sustainability.
 Becker (1997) added an ethical dimension to equity and stated that the
following criteria must also be include in the concept of sustainability:

 The spatial dimension of intragenerational equity – meaning equity

between the interests and rights of different social groups.
 The temporal dimension of intergenerational equity – meaning equity
between the interests and rights of present and future generations.
 An ethical dimension, ranging from the regard of the value of nature as a
pool of exploitable resources as opposed to the recognition of immaterial
values (biocentric-holistic attitude versus anthropocentric attitude) –
meaning equity between the interests and rights of human beings and
other species.
The Sustainable Development Paradigm (after Guzman and Guzman, 2000)

As the concept of sustainability gathered momentum, there was a shift in

objectives from exploitative-extractive development to environment-friendly
sustainable development. In real terms, twin pillars of sustainable development
are respect and concern for people and ecosystems. Development is likely to be
sustainable if:

a) It improves the quality of human life. This is the purpose of development. It

should enable people to realize their potentials and lead lives of dignity
and fulfillment. Economic growth is part of development, but it cannot be a
goal in itself, nor can it go on indefinitely. Although people differ in their
goals for development, some are virtually universal: a long and healthy
life, education, access to resources needed for a decent standard of living,
political freedom, guaranteed human rights and freedom from violence.
Development is achieved only if it makes lives better in all these respects.
b) It conserves the earth’s vitality and diversity. Development must be
conservation-based. It must protect the structure, functions and diversity
of the world’s natural systems. To this end, we need to:
 Conserve life support systems. These are the ecological processes
that shape climate, cleanse air and water, regulate water flow,
recycle essential elements, create regenerate the soil, enable
ecosystems to renew themselves, and keep the planet fit for life.
 Conserve biological diversity, including all species of plants,
animals and other organisms, the range of genetic stocks within
species, and the variety of ecosystems.
 Ensure that all uses of renewable resources are sustainable. These
resources includes soil, wild and domesticated organisms, forests,
 grasslands, farmlands and the marine and fresh water ecosystems
that support fisheries. A use is likely to be sustainable if it is
compatible with maintaining the viability of species and ecosystems
affected by the use.
 Minimize the depletion of nonrenewable resources, such as
minerals, oil, gas and coal, which cannot be use sustainably in the
same sense as plants, fish or soil. But their “life” can and should be
extended by recycling, by using less of resource to make a
particular product or by switching to renewable substitute where
possible.
 Keep within the earth’s carrying capacity. There are finite limits to
the capacity of ecosystems and to the impacts that they and the
earth as a whole can withstand without dangerous deterioration.
Limits vary from region to region, and the impacts depend on how
many people there are and how much food, water, energy and raw
material each person uses or wastes. A few people consuming a lot
can cause as much damage as a lot consuming little. Policies,
technologies and practices that bring human numbers and lifestyles
into balance with the earth’s carrying capacity are essential.

The Roots of Non-sustainable Agriculture

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution was a strategy for increasing food production by

targeting maximum yields through a high input of resources. The increased
production was encouraging news at first, but now has led to more and more
problems. Along with economic problems, ecological problems in particular have
emerged: deterioration of agroecosystems, e.g. a more limited variety of species
of flora and fauna, resistances in pests, deficiencies in the environment and in
foodstuffs.

It has led to drought, soil erosion, and desertification and land

degradation. It has led to ground water mining in well-irrigated regions and has
serious environmental impact on canal irrigated regions, including the impact of
the construction of large dams. The Green Revolution has also led to extinction
of thousands of indigenous varieties of crops and has replaced them with
monocultures that require high chemical inputs. Agrochemicals in turn pollute
land and water systems. Pesticides leave residues in food and are a hazard to
health.
 The Green Revolution also lead to high rates of displacement of small
holders, who could not keep up with the vicious cycle of credit and debt
associated with high external input agriculture. It has even affected social
relationships.

The maximum yield strategy has proved to be non-sustainable.

Market Economics and Market Agriculture

The current non-sustainable state of the world can be blamed on the

market-economy perception of reality, which is the basis of conventional
development policies. The market is seen as the main instrument to regulate
supply and demand and hence the flow of materials. Profit making is the main
driving force. The market economy is based on a linear concept: using huge
quantities of energy and raw materials as inputs, processing and transporting
them around the globe and selling them to consumers. In the end, they are
excreted as waste at “the other end of the pipe”. The “free” market with its
invisible hand cannot guarantee that social and ecological needs are met, as the
market economy is a power play ruled by those who can pay the best prices. As
vulnerable groups and the environment have no clout in the market, they can be
exploited at low costs. Real costs are externalized living the burden of social and
environmental damage on vulnerable groups and future generations (Shiva,
1992).

Market economics, translated to agriculture has favored.

 Production for the market, leading to increased production of export crops

(the external costs being loss of local food self-sufficiency and
reinforcement of rural inequities);
 Intensified but often inefficient use of external inputs (leading to external
costs like pollution, lower food quality, indebtedness and increasing use of
non-renewable energy);
 Monocropping and simplification of the agroecosystem (leading to soil
erosion and loss of diversity and indigenous knowledge);
 Reliance on “modern” technologies and lifestyle (undermining the
traditional social and cultural strengths of communities, and increasing the
burden on women) (Shiva, 1992).
Sustainable Agriculture

Definition

During the “Earth Summit” or the UN Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED) held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, over 140 countries
signed Agenda 21, which called for a sustainable approach to agriculture and
rural development.

International bodies, governments, national agencies and institutions, the

academe, the scientific community, the NGO/CSO community, the activists and
revolutionaries, the politicians and the farmers – all have adopted and owned the
sustainable agriculture. Unfortunately, different proponents understand and use
the term differently such that in many cases, the agreement starts and stops at
the spelling of the term.

Even the CGIAR network of 17 International Agricultural Research

Centers (IARCs) that launched the non-sustainable Green Revolution agriculture
is now calling for more sustainable forms of agriculture. Without changing their
policies and package of Green Revolution technologies, they feel comfortable
joining the sustainable agriculture bandwagon. Even among the NGO/CSO
community, the term evokes quite different understanding, different visions and
different operational concepts and consequently, different technologies and
approaches (Ruizo-Gamela, in Fernandez, 2000).

Precise absolute definitions of sustainable agriculture are impossible.

Various definitions have been provided for what constitutes sustainable
agriculture, ranging from the narrow focus alone on economics, production,
resource conservation and ecology to wide-ranging (Zamora, in Go et al, 1999).

Over time since the 1980s, an increasing number of researchers, farmers,

policymakers, organizations and advocates worldwide have developed a
definition that unifies many diverse elements into a widely adopted,
comprehensive, working definition: “Sustainable agriculture is “any practice,
method, technique/technology, philosophy or system of production that
makes agriculture economically feasible, ecologically sound, socially just
and humane (equitable), culturally appropriate and grounded on holistic
science”.

This definition is positive and descriptive enough for it to be adopted by

more than 300 NGOs from more than 60 countries in the “Earth Summit” and
Global Forum in Rio in June 1992. This is also the definition adopted by the
Sustainable Agriculture Coalition (SAC) of the Philippines (Zamora, in Go et al,
1999).

Features/Dimensions of Sustainable Agriculture (Fernandez, 2000; Zamora,

1999; SAC, 1990)

In spite of the wide adoption of this definition, advocates and practitioners

insist on focusing less on definitions and more on understanding the attributes,
goals and approaches of sustainable agriculture. These give a much better idea
of what sustainable agriculture is than does a single definition, however
comprehensive.

The following are the features/dimensions of a sustainable agriculture

system:

1. Ecologically sound
Sustainable agriculture is based on ecological science or
agroecology. It works in partnership with nature, instead of dominating it. It
does not look at nature only as natural resource to be used, exploited and
dominated for the satisfaction of human wants. It focuses in the
maintenance and enhancement of the natural resource base, and avoids
systems toxicity.

An ecological farmer considers himself a part of the nature, not an

outsider from nature. The principles of ecological agriculture includes
biological diversity (in terms of variety/breed, species, ecosystem, culture
and function), soil health, nutrient cycling, natural resource conservation and
appropriate pest management. Thus, ecological farmers avoid monoculture,
“feed the soil, not the plant”, and use natural processes to prevent pest
outbreaks.

2. Economically viable
Sustainable agriculture is economically viable in that it earns a fair
return on farm investments. The earnings are not necessarily maximized;
sometimes, due to the concerns about environmental implication, some part
of the productivity may be conceded in order to ensure sustainability and
because of the need to minimize undue exploitation of resources. At the
very least, the system should provide the food and other basic needs of the
farm family.
 It has no external costs (erosion, human and soil health, loss of
biodiversity, loss of species/varieties, pollution, etc.) or external costs are
given value. “Hidden/silent benefits” are also given value. Thus, systems
yield is considered, not only commodity yield. Chemical farmers do not
account for external costs.

3. Socially just and equitable, and humane

A socially just agriculture must address existing inequities; inter and
intragenerational, societal and gender. The system must ensure that
resources and power are distributed equitably so that the basic needs of all
are met and their rights are assured. Benefits from the system must also be
equitably distributed. Equitable access to information, market and other farm
related resources, especially land should be provided to all irrespective of
sex, societal standing, religion and ethnicity. It enhances community
participation in decisions that affect them, that is, it empowers people. All
forms of life (plant, animal, human) are respected.

4. Culturally appropriate and sensitive

Agriculture must embody our highest respect for, enhancement of,
and the protection of diverse cultures. Culturally appropriate agricultural
systems therefore give due consideration to cultural values, including
religious beliefs and tradition in the development of agricultural systems,
plans and programs. Cultural roots are as important to agriculture as plant
roots.

Sustainable agriculture preserves, promotes and uses indigenous

knowledge systems, enhances self-reliance, and enhances spirituality of
farmers and the community.

5. Grounded on holistic science

Sustainable agriculture is based on holistic science (as against
reductionism in conventional western science). Nature and society are seen
as an organic, interrelated whole. It gives importance to the social,
economic, environmental, cultural and political as much as the biophysical
aspects of agriculture. It also considers the dynamic interactions among on-
farm, off-farm, non-farm and farm-related activities and recognizes that
these activities complement each other.

6. Founded on the use of appropriate technology

Technology is site-specific. It must be suited both to the ecological
characteristics of the farm and the socio-economic circumstances of the
 farmer. Because of this, appropriate technology can only be developed with
the active participation of the farmers in all stages of the technology
development process. It also makes use of indigenous knowledge systems.
This is called participatory technology development.

The conventional technology development process has made

farmers dependent on “experts”. It has robbed farmers of the ability to
innovate and face changing circumstances in the farm by themselves, alone
or with the help of other farmers in the community. When they have
problems in the farm, they run to the “experts”. It has also resulted in the
loss of indigenous knowledge systems, which have been declared by
experts as superstitions, unscientific, and therefore of no value.

7. Fully develops the human potential

Sustainable agriculture begins in the human being and rest on the
human being (Ruizo-Gamela, in Fernandez, 2000).

Goals of Sustainable Agriculture

According to Pretty (1996), sustainable agriculture is any production

system that systematically pursues the following goals (Zamora, in Go et al,
1999):

1. A thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling,

nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator relationships (rather than pesticides)
for pest management. For nutrient management, this involves the
recycling of nutrients, use of compost, green manure, and other forms of
organic fertilizers.
2. A minimization or elimination of the use of external and non-renewable
inputs such as pesticides and synthetic and highly soluble fertilizers that
damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers.
3. Practice of alternative crop and livestock breeding and selection.
Appropriate and highly adapted plant varieties and animal breeds will be
conserved, multiplied and utilized.
4. Practice of diversified and integrated farming system with special focus on
functional diversity in the farm.
5. The full participation of farmers and local and indigenous peoples in all
processes of problem analysis, technology development, adaptation and
extension.
6. A more equitable access to productive resources and opportunities.
7. A greater productive use of local knowledge, practices and resources.
 8. The incorporation of a diversity of natural resources and enterprises within
the farms.
9. An increase in self-reliance among farmers, local and indigenous
communities.
10. The recognition of the role of women in the development process.

Characteristic of Sustainable Agriculture (Zamora, in Go et al, 1999)

Sustainable agriculture is flexible. It is not prescriptive of a defined set of

practices, methods, techniques/technologies or policies that would restrict the
options of farmers. It also recognizes location specificity. No single practice
works in a every field. No one recipe works on every farm. There are many ways
to farm sustainably.

Sustainable agriculture is experiential. It is a process of learning and not

the imposition of a simple model or package. As conditions and knowledge
change, farmers and local communities must be able, and must be allowed to
change.

Sustainable agriculture is participatory. It views farmers as active

participants (rather than passive targets, beneficiaries, end-users or clients) in
the learning process, planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of
the development projects. It views that informal innovations by farmer-partners
are not haphazard unscientific processes but are results of systematic
observation, experimentation and adaptation. It incorporates recent innovations
that may originate from scientists, farmers or both. It also relies heavily on the
continuous innovation by farmers and local communities.

Sustainable agriculture is proactive. It is forward looking; concern is not

only for short-term benefits but also for long-term sustainability. It is also dynamic
and innovative.

Elements of Sustainability

A. Soil conservation

Many soil conservation methods, including contour cultivates

contour bunding, graded bunding, vegetative barriers, strip cropping cover
cropping, reduced tillage, etc. help prevent loss of soil due to wind and water
erosion.

B. Crop diversity

Growing a greater variety of crops on a farm can help reduce risks from
extremes in weather, market conditions or crop pests. Increased diversity crops
and other plants, such as trees and shrubs, also can contribute to soil
conservation, wildlife habitat and increased populations of beneficial insects .

C. Nutrient management

Proper management of nitrogen and other plant nutrients con improve the
soil and protect environment. Increased use of farm nutrient sources such as
manure and leguminous cover crops, also reduces purchased fertilizer costs.

D. Integrated pest management (IPM)

IPM is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological,

cultural, physical and chemical tools in way that minimizes economic, health and
environmental risks.

E. Cover crops

Growing plant such as mungbean in the off season after harvesting a

grain or vegetable crop can provide several benefits, including weed
suppression, erosion control, and improved soil nutrients and soil quality .

F. Rotational grazing

New management- intensive grazing systems take animals out barn into
the pasture to provide high-quality forage and reduced feed cost .

G. Water quality & water conservation

Water conservation and protection have important part of Agricultural

stewardship. Many practices have been develop , deep ploughing, mulching,
micro irrigation techniques etc.., protect quality of drinking and surface water .

H. Agro forestry

Trees and other woody perennials are often underutilized.

Horti/silvipastoral, alley cropping, tree farming , lay farm that help conserve, soil
and water.

I.Marketing
Farmers across the country are finding that improved marketing -----way to
enhance profitability, direct marketing of agricultural product from farmers to
consumers is becoming much more common, including through bazaar road side
stands.

Status of Sustainable Agriculture in the Philippines

The survival and well-being of the nation depends on sustainable

development. It is a process of social and economic betterment that satisfy
needs and values of interest groups without foreclosing options. Current research
programmes observed in our country towards sustainable agriculture are as
follows:
 1. Resistant crop varieties to soil, climatic and biotic stresses

2. Multiple cropping system

3. Integrated nutrient management

a. Combined use of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients

b. Use of green manures

c. Use of bio fertilizers

4. Integrated pest management

a. Microbial control

b. Use of botanicals

c. Use of predators

5. Soil and water conservation

a. Watershed management

b. Use of organics as mulch and manure

6. Agroforestry systems in dry lands/ sloppy areas and erosion prone areas

7. Farm implements to save energy in agriculture

8. Use of non-conventional energy in Agriculture

9. Input use efficiency

a. Water technology

b. Fertilizer technology

10. Plant genetic resource collection and conservation

Causes of Poverty in the Philippines

1. Structural causes of Poverty

a. Occupational Correlates
b. Low Agricultural Productivity
c. Unequal Distribution of Resources
d. Unequal Access to Resources

2. Government Policies are biased against the rural sector.

-government policies have treated the rural sector as the major producer
of raw materials to earn foreign exchange from export of agricultural, fishing and
forest products.

3. Colonialism
- poverty in underdeveloped societies has been the result of colonial
socio-economic structure.

4. International Trade and Debt

- the dependence of Philippine economy on foreign capital promotes
foreign investment

5. Multinational Corporations
- multinational corporations have a positive impact on developing nations
for they bring jobs and industry to regions yet long period of mono-cropping
system leads to degradation of soil health, biological diversity and pollution.

6. Overpopulation

7. Corruption
- graft and corruption in high offices are found to drain immensely the
Philippine economy more than the corruption in middle and lower civil servants.

8. Unemployment and Underemployment

- unemployment is simply defined as the state of being jobless.
- under-employment is being employed not related to your specialization

9. Natural Calamities

10. Civil War

- this is due to land conflict particularly in Mindanao.