1 s2.0 S0920410519312380 Main

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 187 (2020) 106819
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol
Organic geochemistry of condensates and natural gases in the northwest

Nile Delta offshore Egypt
W.Sh. El Diasty a, *, K.E. Peters b, c, J.M. Moldowan d, G.I. Essa a, M.M. Hammad e
a
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
b
Geological Sciences Department, Stanford University, CA 94305, USA
c
Schlumberger, Mill Valley, CA 94941, USA
d
Biomarker Technologies, Inc., 638 Martin Avenue, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA
e
Exploration Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Hai El-Zohour, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Although recent gas and condensate discoveries have been achieved in the deep ultramarine Nile Delta Basin of
Norcholestanes northern Egypt, the genetic origin and formation mechanisms of these hydrocarbons remain unclear. Twenty
Oleananes condensate and 34 natural gas samples from Miocene–Pliocene sandstone reservoirs in the northwest Nile Delta
C30 n-propylcholestane
offshore Egypt were analyzed to infer their origin, degree of thermal maturity, and extent of alteration.
Biodegradation
Based on source-related biomarkers, the condensate samples were interpreted to have originated from clay-
Gas condensates
Nile Delta rich non-marine source rocks, based on high Pr/Ph, high Ts/Tm, low or absent C30 n-propylcholestanes and
high hopane/sterane ratios. The environment of deposition of the source rock is expected to be proximal and
likely received high influx of terrigenous-dominated organic matter. Chemometrics of 12 source-related
biomarker and isotopic ratios identify six genetic families. Geochemical characterization of the families shows
that they are broadly similar but differ in terms of source-rock depositional paleoenvironment, organic matter
precursors, thermal maturation and microbial degradation. Age and maturity biomarker fingerprints show that
these hydrocarbons were generated from at least two active pods of Upper Cretaceous and Oligocene or younger
source rocks, as confirmed by high oleananes, bicadinanes, and high C26 24-norcholestane indices.
Gas chemical and isotopic compositions of propane, ethane, and methane reveal a mixed microbial and
thermogenic origin, where the relative proportion of biogenic component reaches up to ~70%. The thermogenic
gas was generated from mixed Type-II/III or Type-II kerogen with a wide range of maturity between 1.0% and
1.5% Ro from primary kerogen cracking to the late stage of gas cracking. Heavier C2þ hydrocarbon isotope
signatures and bulk compositions indicate that the shallower gas accumulations are severely biodegraded, unlike
that in the deep hydrocarbon reservoirs. The co-occurrence of unaltered gas with biodegraded condensates may
indicate different microbial communities involved in these processes, or more likely, the gas arrived in the
reservoir as a second charge after biodegradation of the original condensate.
1. Introduction northern Western Desert of Egypt and in the offshore extension of the
Nile Delta in the East-Mediterranean. The offshore East-Mediterranean
Throughout the world, delta basins contain significant gas and oil region accounts for about 60% of Egypt’s 223 billion cubic feet (bcf)
reserves, although the Nile Delta Basin still seems to hide most hydro of proven natural gas reserves and nearly six million barrels of natural
carbon potential. The increasing price of fuel resulting from increased gas liquids (El Diasty, 2010). The majority of gas discoveries have come
demand has promoted interest in the underexplored prospects or plays from Egypt’s Western Desert, northern Sinai and ultradeep marine areas
in this basin. north of the Nile Delta Basin. Secondary recovery programs have only
Offshore Egypt in the south-eastern Mediterranean area hosts the recently begun in the onshore Nile Delta (Leila and Moscariello, 2017).
prolific West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM) concession (Fig. 1) with The offshore portion of the province is largely unexplored, possible
extensive commercial production. Non-associated gas is produced in the source rock intervals have been sparsely sampled (Sharaf, 2003;
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (W.Sh. El Diasty).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106819
Received 31 May 2019; Received in revised form 11 November 2019; Accepted 16 December 2019
Available online 20 December 2019
0920-4105/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
W.Sh. El Diasty et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 187 (2020) 106819
Shaaban et al., 2006; El Diasty and Moldowan, 2013; Ghassal et al., Pliocene facies (unstable North Delta Basin) and the southern Creta
2016), and no biomarker analyses have yet been published. Only limited ceous–Middle Eocene carbonate platform (stable South Delta Block).
organic geochemical studies have evaluated the source rock potential or Asymmetric folds are reported to the south of this hinge zone (known as
condensate and natural gas accumulations (El Nady, 2007; Vandr�e et al., Syrian Arc Belt) and extend from the northern Sinai/Gulf of Suez across
2007; El Diasty, 2010; El Diasty and Moldowan, 2013; Prinzhofer and the Nile Delta and are hidden beneath the northern Western Desert of
Deville, 2013). Several issues concerning the offshore Nile Delta need to Egypt. Large normal faults north of the hinge zone affect the delta area.
be examined to reveal the full potential of this already prolific basin. These gravity-induced growth faults result in thick Tertiary strata that
Consequently, the purposes of this study are to identify the origin of gas generally developed in an open marine bathyal facies (Kamel et al.,
and condensates by inferring the lithology, organic facies, depositional 1998).
paleoenvironment, age and level of thermal maturity of the corre The North Delta Basin structural pattern is controlled by complex
sponding source rocks using biomarker and isotopic data and multi interaction between two major faults: the NE–SW Rosetta or Qattar
variate statistical methods. a–Eratosthenes and the NW–SE Temsah or Misfaq–Bardawil fault trend
(Sestini, 1995; Loncke et al., 2006). Both sets of structures, which were
2. Geologic framework reactivated since the Late Oligocene, controlled facies and thickness
variations of the Miocene and recent deposits (Kamel et al., 1998; Abdel
The Nile Delta Basin on the northeastern margin of the African Aal et al., 2001). This led to the formation of three main Miocene
Platform is an integrated tectonic province in the Eastern Mediterranean sub-basins in the North Delta Basin, namely; the Eastern, Central and
characterized by complex active subduction/collision tectonics (Guir Western sub-basins (Fig. 2).
aud and Bosworth, 1999; Abdel Aal et al., 2001; Loncke et al., 2006) that The stratigraphic succession recorded from subsurface drilling of the
resulted from interplay among African, Eurasian, Arabian and Anatolian Nile Delta province is dominated by clastic sequences of clay, shale and
tectonic plates (Fig. 2). sandstone (Fig. 3) with few calcareous interbeds overlying a pre-
The fundamental geodynamic features of the basin are the: (a) East Miocene sequence that includes the Mesozoic succession (Rizzini
Anatolian and Dead Sea–Levant fault zones in the northeast and east; (b) et al., 1978; EGPC, 1994). The Nile Delta stratigraphic column reflects
Gulf of Suez aborted rift in the southeast; (c) Cyprus arc to the north; and deltaic to littoral and shallow marine environments. This sequence can
(d) Egyptian passive margin, which was possibly rejuvenated by the Red be classified into three major tectonostratigraphic cycles: (1) a Miocene
Sea–Gulf of Suez Rift System (Mascle et al., 2000; Loncke et al., 2006). cycle with shallow marine to non-marine sediments of the Sidi Sale
One of the well-known tectonic features of the onshore Nile Delta is m/Qawasim/Rosetta formations, (2) a Plio–Pleistocene cycle consisting
the hinge belt (Fig. 2), a pronounced faulted flexure zone, where pre- of fluvial deltaic/marine to an open marine series of the Abu Madi/Kafr
Miocene seismic reflectors dip steeply northward along the mid delta. El Sheikh/El Wastani/Mit Ghamr formations, and (3) an overlying Ho
This structural feature played a critical role in sediment distribution and locene or Recent cycle, which gave rise to lagoons and coastal deposits
stratigraphic and thickness variations in the Nile Delta (Harms and interrupted by brackish swamps and peat interbeds of the Bilqas For
Wray, 1990). It formed during rifting of the Arabian–African plates from mation (Schlumberger, 1984).
the Euro-Asiatic margin. It represents a structural and a facies boundary
(EGPC, 1994) between the northern subsided thick bathyal Oligocene to
Fig. 1. Location map of the Nile Delta basin with the study area in the northwest offshore area.
2
Fig. 2. Structural domain map of the Nile Delta cone and ultra-deepwater in the Eastern Mediterranean (after Abdel Aal et al., 2001).
Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphic model of the Neogene–Quaternary in the Nile Delta (Schlumberger, 1984; EGPC, 1994).
3. Petroleum habitat and plays et al., 2007). The identities of the source rocks for these hydrocarbons
are still in debate. Organic-rich shales from the Sidi Salem and the Kafr
The complex tectonostratigraphic history of the North African Plate El Sheikh formations are believed to be major source rocks (Schlum
created various seals, pay zones, and source horizons in the unexplored berger, 1984). However, the degree of maturation of the organic content
Nile Delta province. The breakthrough discoveries in the eastern and in these formations is not well known. In the eastern Nile Delta, north of
western offshore sub-basins of the Nile Delta region contain mixed light the hinge zone, the Oligo-Miocene shales and marls are believed to be
oil and gas charge from different source rocks (Sharaf, 2003; Vandr�e the prime source units of condensates and natural gases (EGPC, 1994;
3
Sharaf, 2003). was determined by reduction of water from combustion with zinc metal
The Abu Madi Formation sands are the main gas/light oil producing followed by dual-inlet isotope ratio mass spectrometry (DELTA V isotope
horizons throughout most of the Nile Delta Basin. These reservoir sands ratio mass spectrometer). Carbon isotopic compositions are referenced
are associated with braided, fluvial-distributary channels in a river- to PDB (PeeDee Belemnite) and hydrogen isotopic compositions are
dominated delta environment, which were sealed by the Pliocene Kafr referenced to Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) calibrated by Na
El Sheikh clays (Schlumberger, 1984; Samuel et al., 2003). Additional tional Bureau of Standards (NBS) stable isotope standards.
reservoirs are represented by sandstones in the Qantara Formation Weighed samples of condensate were diluted 100x with hexane and
(Raven, Temsah, and Tineh) and Qawasim Formation (Abu Qir, Port then analyzed using a Hewlett Packard 5890A GC. The condensates were
Fouad, Wakar, S. Batra, Khilala, W. Dikirnis, El Tamad); and Sidi Salem subsequently separated with glass columns (0.9 cm ID, and 29 cm long)
Formation (Kersh, Wakar, Temsah, Akhen, Al Rawdah). filled with silica gel that was flushed with hexane to remove the saturate
The majority of Pliocene discoveries are associated with listric hydrocarbon fraction, followed by methylene chloride elution to remove
growth fault traps sealed by Upper Miocene evaporites (Loncke et al., the aromatic hydrocarbon fraction. Saturated cuts were subsequently
2006). Although these Messinian evaporites are widely distributed and treated with a molecular sieve [(high aluminosilicate zeolites (Si/Al
seal the Miocene reservoirs, they are limited to the northeastern fields. ZSM-5)] which removes n-alkanes (paraffins) from saturates to increase
In the Nile Delta area, typical examples of effective seals are represented the signals of diagnostic biomarkers. The saturated and aromatic
by evaporites, shales and limestones (EGPC, 1994; Sarhan and Hemdan, compositional fractions were analyzed using a HP 5890 Series II GC-
1994). MSD system. The GC–mass spectrometer (GC–MS) was operated in
Most discoveries made in the WDDM concession (Abdel Aal et al., selected ion mode and equipped with a fused silica capillary column (60
2001; Garziglia et al., 2008) occur in four deep plays, including but not m long � 0.25 mm ID, methyl silicone 0.25 μm film thickness). Helium
limited to 1) Platform-Pliocene Channel Play, 2) Platform-Upper was used as carrier gas (flow set at 26.6 cm/s velocity). Other parame
Miocene Canyon Play, 3) Rotated Fault Block Play, and 4) Diapiric ters included: injector temperature 320 � C, transfer line 325 � C, mass
Salt Basin Play (Samuel et al., 2003; Loncke et al., 2006). spectrometer source 185 � C, column oven programmed 140 � C, hold 1
min, 2 C/min to 320 � C, hold 15 min.
�
4. Methodology and sampling A subset of samples was run for steranes by MRM–GCMS metastable
reaction monitoring gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The
Our database consists of 20 condensate and 34 natural gas samples GC–MS, capable of operating in MRM mode, was equipped with a
(drillstem tests: DST) collected from 22 wells in the center and west capillary column (60 m long � 0.25 mm ID, methylsilicone 0.25 μm film
offshore Nile Delta Basin (Fig. 1). The depth intervals range from 1,273 thickness). Injector temperature 320 � C, transfer line 325 � C, mass
m to 4,464 m (Tables 1–4) and reservoir age spans from Early Miocene spectrometer source 250 � C, column oven programmed 140 � C, hold 1
to Pliocene (El Wastani, Kafr El Sheikh, Abu Madi, and Qantara pay- min, 2 C/min to 320 � C, hold 15 min. Hydrogen was used as carrier gas
�
zones). In this study, all molecular and isotopic analyses were con in constant pressure mode at 20 psi injector pressure. The monitored
ducted at the Organic Geochemistry (MOGIA) Lab., Stanford University, transitions were 330-217, 358-217, 372-217, 386-217, 400-217, 414-
Palo Alto, CA, and Stratochem Laboratories, Cairo, using methods 217, 414-231, 414-259, 412-191, and 412-369.
described by Peters and Moldowan (1993), El Diasty and Moldowan
(2013), and El Diasty and Peters (2014). 5. Results and discussion
The molecular composition of gases (methane, ethane, ethylene,
propane, propylene, butanes, pentanes, C6þ, carbon monoxide, carbon 5.1. Condensate geochemistry
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen) was analyzed by gas chro
matography (GC) using a HP 6890N. Stable isotope compositions of 5.1.1. Source-related biomarkers
natural gas samples were performed using a combustion interface and Gas chromatograms of saturated hydrocarbons from Miocene–Plio
IRMS or isotope ratio mass spectrometer (DELTA V isotope ratio mass cene condensates in the study area recovered from 13 productive wells
spectrometer). The hydrogen isotope composition (2H/1H) of methane are presented in Table 1. Whole-oil gas chromatograms for the Qantara,
Table 1
Bulk and elemental, carbon isotope and gas chromatography results for condensates from wells in the NW offshore Nile Delta.
N� Well name Depth interval (m) Reservoir Reservoir age API Sulfur (wt%) Sat ‰ Aro ‰ CV Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 Ph/n-C18 CPI
1 WDDM-7 1768–1785 Kafr El Sheikh E–M Pliocene 43 0.01 26.70 25.70 1.15 nd nd nd nd
2 WDDM-8 1825 El Wastani M–L Pliocene nd nd 26.80 27.60 5.12 nd nd nd nd
3 WDDM-10 2041–2064 El Wastani M–L Pliocene nd nd 26.70 25.50 0.71 nd nd nd nd
6 WDDM-7 2156–2193 Kafr El Sheikh E–M Pliocene 58 nd 27.20 25.30 1.00 6.46 0.57 0.15 nd
8 WDDM-14 2739 Abu Madi Early Pliocene 57 0.01 27.80 25.10 2.96 4.63 0.47 0.15 1.23
10 WDDM-17 2755 Kafr El Sheikh E–M Pliocene 54 0.02 27.60 25.20 2.23 9.45 0.89 0.19 nd
13 WDDM-14 2804–2807 Abu Madi Early Pliocene nd nd 28.30 25.20 4.00 4.47 0.47 0.14 1.10
16 WDDM-15 2870–2902 Abu Madi Early Pliocene 59 0.01 27.70 25.10 2.71 9.26 0.62 0.14 1.07
19 WDDM-21 4104–4250 Abu Madi Early Pliocene nd 0.03 nd nd nd 3.16 0.42 0.14 1.11
20 WDDM-22 4380–4464 Qantara Early Miocene nd 0.01 nd nd nd 4.86 0.71 0.15 1.11
CV (Canonical variable) ¼ 2.53 δ13CSaturateþ2.22 δ13CAromatic–11.65; Pr/Ph ¼ Pristane/Phytane; CPI ¼ Carbon preference index, CPI ¼ 0.5 [(C25–C33/C24–C32)þ
(C25–C33/C26–C34)]; nd ¼ No data.
4
Abu Madi, Kafr El Sheikh and El Wastani condensates show wide vari
αααR ¼ 100*C28R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); L: %C29 αααR ¼ 100*C29R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); M: %C30 αααR ¼ 100*C30R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R þ C30R); N: S/(S þ R) (C29 ααα) ¼ C29S/(C29S þ C29R); O: ββ/(ααþββ) (C29)
¼(C29ββS þ C29ββR)/(C29S þ C29ββR þ C29ββS þ C29R); P: Diasteranes/steranes (C27) ¼ (DIA27S þ DIA27R)/(C27S þ C27ββS þ C27ββR þ C27R); Q: Bicadinane-T ratio ¼ Bicadinane-T/(Bicadinane-T þ hopane); R: NCR
A ¼ Oleanane index ¼ C30 Oleanane/C30 hopane; B ¼ Gammacerane index ¼ Gammacerane/C30 hopane; C ¼ Homohopane index ¼ C35/C34 Extended hopane; D ¼ Hopanes/steranes; E ¼ Ts (Trisnorneohopane)/Tm
(Trisnorhopane); F ¼ Moretane/hopane; G ¼ Norhopane/hopane; H ¼ (C19þC20)/C23 terpanes; I ¼ Hopane isomerization ratio C32 Hopane ¼ 22S/22S þ 22R; J: %C27 αααR ¼ 100*C27R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); K: %C28
0.07
0.16
0.07
0.82
0.31
0.13
0.12
0.42
0.19
0.27
0.22
0.21
0.25
0.31
0.37
0.15
0.04
ations in n-alkane distribution, which may be due to the influence of
nd
nd
nd
U
source rock facies, differences in thermal maturation and microbial

degradation (Fig. 4).
0.12
0.08
0.09
0.06
0.09
0.23
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.50
0.17
0.21
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.44
0.29
GC chromatograms show that the saturated hydrocarbon fractions
nd
nd
nd
T
are characterized by n-alkanes in the range of C10–C30 and acyclic iso

prenoids [e.g., pristane (Pr) and phytane (Ph)] eluting after n-C15 on the
0.35
0.26
0.48
0.26
0.28
0.29
0.26
0.44
0.30
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
gas chromatogram. The GC chromatograms of the condensates from
S
wells WDDM-7 (1768–1785 m), WDDM-8 (1825 m), WDDM-11

(2124–2136 m) and WDDM-10 (2141–2153 m) are unusual (Fig. 4)
0.44
0.68
0.41
0.42
0.44
0.65
0.44
0.39
0.43
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
because they show very low n-alkane content (<C15) and a conspicuous
R
hump of unresolved complex compounds (UCM) at a retention time
0.08
0.18
0.50
0.47
0.56
0.07
0.20
0.35
0.22
nd 15–30 min. Compound identification is difficult; n-C15 is the most

nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Q
prominent normal alkane; whereas Pr and Ph were not identified. These

samples were apparently affected by relatively intense microbial
1.58
0.75
0.14
0.38
2.50
1.40
1.44
0.09
0.17
0.37
0.06
0.49
0.22
0.23
0.39
0.80
0.69
degradation [rank 6 on the scale of resistance of compounds to microbial

nd
nd
nd
P
attack of Peters and Moldowan (1993)], which removed most n-alkanes

and isoprenoids. In this study, the in-reservoir biodegradation was
0.45
0.51
0.52
0.46
0.55
0.35
0.45
0.37
0.38
0.51
0.27
0.29
0.49
0.47
0.41
0.35
0.45
0.47
0.32
restricted to the shallow Pliocene El Wastani condensate samples with

nd
O
preferential removal of higher n-alkanes (Fig. 4; Table 1). The deeper

Miocene and Pliocene petroleum accumulations are not affected by
0.32
0.45
0.32
0.53
0.57
0.61
0.32
0.51
0.04
0.16
0.36
0.39
0.45
0.45
0.43
0.37
0.35
0.28
nd
nd
norcholestanes ¼ C24/(C24 þ C27); S: NDR nordiacholestanes ¼ C24/(C24 þ C27); T ¼ MA-I/(MA-I þ MA-II); U ¼ TA-I/(TA-I þ TA-II); nd ¼ No data.
degradation. Biodegradation of subsurface petroleum accumulations by
N
microorganisms occurs along aerobic or anaerobic metabolic paths to

consume aromatic and saturated hydrocarbons (Wenger et al., 2002).
1.94
0.27
0.10
0.18
0.23
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
M
The pay zone temperature of the recovered condensates (e.g., WDDM-8)

is about 55 � C, which is believed to be an optimum for microbial
42.63
59.47
41.10
39.30
33.00
39.00
41.00
30.26
35.95
43.97
30.44
34.15
48.65
50.62
23.39
22.84
36.30
41.70
degradation.
nd
nd
Although gas chromatograms of the non-biodegraded condensates

L
are dominated by a unimodal distribution of light ends, the Abu Madi

27.27
34.31
26.03
23.72
20.84
35.02
24.25
20.05
21.55
26.81
28.75
32.40
28.70
26.80
29.10
33.00
33.00
32.00
and Qantara condensates have more high-molecular-weight > n-C15

nd
nd
compounds (Fig. 4). The distribution shows a slight predominance of

K
odd/even n-alkanes in the Abu Madi condensates (samples 8, 9 and 12;

28.00
26.00
42.47
29.74
30.00
33.65
19.69
34.55
41.60
31.30
27.83
49.80
48.41
31.40
29.50
32.10
31.70
34.00
Table 1) and no predominance in the other samples. The absence of long-

nd
nd
chain odd n-alkanes (>n-C21) may be due to high thermal maturity (Bray
J
and Evans, 1961; Peters et al., 2005). The waxy appearance of a

terrigenous crude oil can be altered by thermal cracking of the high
0.56
0.59
0.65
0.64
0.64
0.58
0.55
0.59
0.59
0.60
0.57
0.59
0.65
0.60
0.57
0.59
0.56
nd
nd
nd
molecular-weight n-alkanes or by preferential migration of short-chain

I
n-alkanes (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The subsequent increase of

11.99
23.10
short-chain n-alkane concentration causes the n-alkane distribution to

3.93
5.88
5.58
2.36
8.85
7.75
9.68
6.04
4.38
3.00
6.67
4.89
5.50
3.20
2.25
5.56
2.72
nd
H
assume a shape typical of marine oil (Sofer, 1984; El Diasty et al., 2016).
The enrichment of low molecular-weight n-alkanes in the analyzed
Summary of biomarker ratios for condensate samples from NW offshore Nile Delta.
0.54
0.84
0.53
0.56
0.56
0.44
0.39
0.37
0.00
0.74
0.93
0.92
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.55
0.54
samples is accompanied by relative depletion in isoprenoid alkanes. The

nd
nd
G
striking predominance of pristane relative to phytane (mostly >3.0;

Table 1), together with moderately low Ph/n-C18 and Pr/n-C17 ratios
0.09
0.18
0.18
0.09
0.15
0.15
0.13
0.11
0.16
0.10
0.00
0.14
0.13
0.10
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.14
(0.11–0.31 and 0.29–1.04, respectively), suggest both high thermal

nd
nd
F
maturity and Type-III humic-kerogen-rich source rocks deposited under

oxic fluvio-deltaic settings (Hughes et al., 1995, Fig. 5). Thermal
1.41
1.45
1.21
1.19
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.68
0.85
1.62
0.53
2.00
0.05
1.16
1.14
1.07
1.13
1.29
nd
nd
maturation results in hydrocarbon fluids with higher API gravity

E
(Table 1) and a decrease in Pr and Ph compared to the n-C17 and n-C18

n-alkanes, respectively (Connan and Cassou, 1980). The very low sulfur
4.45
5.55
3.94
3.57
10.0
1.65
1.20
1.62
1.63
1.06
0.93
2.78
3.03
3.03
2.63
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
D
(<0.04 wt%) content is similar to that commonly observed in oils

derived from fluvio-deltaic organic matter (Curiale, 1991).
0.32
0.34
1.16
0.62
0.46
0.45
0.40
1.15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.13
Table 1 shows a little variation in the carbon isotope ratios of the 20

nd
nd
nd
nd
C
condensate samples, suggesting that they are genetically related. Stable

carbon isotope (δ13C) values for the aromatic fraction ranged from
0.02
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.07
0.03
0.00
0.02
0.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.03
0.04
25.65 to 25.0‰, and for the saturated fraction from 28.4 to

nd
nd
B
27.2‰. Canonical variable (CV) values > 0.47 (1.0–4.0) suggest

terrigenous source rock organic matter (Fig. 6; Sofer, 1984; El Diasty
0.06
0.12
0.10
0.00
0.14
0.29
0.38
0.32
0.11
0.65
0.00
0.53
0.28
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.14
0.24
et al., 2016).
nd
nd
A
However, the hydrocarbon accumulations within shallow Pliocene

reservoirs (WDDM-8, WDDM-10, WDDM-11 wells) and one sample from
WDDM-20
WDDM-21
WDDM-22
WDDM-10
WDDM-11
WDDM-10
WDDM-14
WDDM-16
WDDM-17
WDDM-18
WDDM-14
WDDM-14
WDDM-14
WDDM-15
WDDM-19
WDDM-3
WDDM-7
WDDM-8
WDDM-7
WDDM-7
the Kafr El Sheikh reservoir (WDDM-7 well) underwent severe microbial

Well
degradation as evidenced by relatively low API gravity (Table 1), heavy

isotopic signatures ( 26.8 to 25.8‰ for saturates, and 27.6 to
Table 2
25.1‰ for aromatics), very low CV values ( 5.12 to 0.71), and

N�
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
pronounced removal of higher-molecular-weight normal alkanes.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
5
Table 3
Gas composition from wells in the NW offshore Nile Delta.
N� Well name Depth (m) Hydrocarbon gas composition wt% Non-hydrocarbon gas composition wt%
C1 C2 C3 iC4 C4 i/n-C4 iC5 C5 C6þ CO2 N2 O2þAr

% % % % % % % % % % % %
1 WDDM-1 1272.9 99.20 0.54 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 WDDM-2 1410.1 97.66 0.31 0.10 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.09 1.44 0.38
3 WDDM-2 1515.7 98.94 0.34 0.10 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.39 0.17 0.03
4 WDDM-3 1541 97.53 0.43 0.04 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 1.81 0.09 0.00
5 WDDM-3 1551 97.54 0.43 0.04 0.01 0.01 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 1.79 0.10 0.00
6 WDDM-5 1670 99.42 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.16 0.00
7 WDDM-6 1683.2 94.21 3.23 1.38 0.40 0.39 1.02 0.00 0.22 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 WDDM-4 1744 95.80 3.18 0.50 0.17 0.09 1.89 0.08 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00
9 WDDM-7 1768 92.11 2.49 1.15 0.43 0.41 1.05 0.25 0.24 0.25 2.31 0.36 0.00
10 WDDM-8 1774.5 98.13 1.07 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.24 0.37 0.14
11 WDDM-8 1792 98.05 1.07 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.27 0.41 0.15
12 WDDM-8 1823 97.14 1.05 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.28 1.12 0.36
13 WDDM-8 1825 98.04 1.07 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.24 0.43 0.16
14 WDDM-9 1850 95.52 4.20 0.08 0.08 0.08 1.00 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.41 0.32 0.00
15 WDDM-1 1901.7 95.31 2.28 1.07 0.38 0.37 1.03 0.28 0.21 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00
16 WDDM-5 1903.6 97.50 1.18 0.05 0.04 0.04 1.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.40 1.01 0.00
17 WDDM-5 1912 97.26 1.18 0.05 0.04 0.04 1.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.43 1.28 0.00
18 WDDM-10 2060.5 96.19 2.82 0.04 0.03 0.01 3.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.40 0.40 0.10
19 WDDM-9 2098 92.07 6.14 0.15 0.95 0.29 3.27 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.20 0.00
20 WDDM-11 2124 95.13 3.78 0.17 0.03 0.01 3.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.71 0.16 0.00
21 WDDM-11 2124 94.86 3.75 0.44 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.70 0.22 0.00
22 WDDM-10 2145.7 95.68 3.13 0.05 0.11 0.01 11.00 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.65 0.30 0.09
23 WDDM-7 2156 86.79 4.77 2.93 1.02 1.04 0.98 0.55 0.53 0.72 0.91 0.74 0.00
24 WDDM-7 2156 87.06 4.87 3.00 1.05 1.07 0.98 0.57 0.55 0.69 0.67 0.45 0.00
25 WDDM-9 2168 85.37 7.39 3.57 1.39 1.21 1.15 0.69 0.39 0.00 0.93 0.42 0.00
26 WDDM-12 2432 96.67 2.44 0.11 0.03 0.01 3.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.15 0.41 0.08
27 WDDM-13 2705 97.05 1.82 0.62 0.18 0.18 1.00 0.00 0.07 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00
28 WDDM-14 2739 89.87 4.78 2.20 0.63 0.58 1.09 0.23 0.17 0.36 0.83 0.34 0.00
29 WDDM-15 2742 93.81 2.85 1.03 0.33 0.31 1.06 0.14 0.10 0.33 0.91 0.18 0.00
30 WDDM-16 2747 93.26 3.05 1.20 0.40 0.38 1.05 0.17 0.14 0.36 0.85 0.18 0.00
31 WDDM-17 2755 94.23 2.96 1.13 0.35 0.32 1.09 0.17 0.11 0.40 0.27 0.06 0.00
32 WDDM-18 2780 93.99 2.93 1.13 0.34 0.32 1.06 0.15 0.10 0.39 0.57 0.07 0.00
33 WDDM-13 2791 96.77 1.98 0.66 0.17 0.15 1.13 0.12 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00
34 WDDM-19 2860 89.30 5.04 2.35 0.68 0.62 1.10 0.24 0.17 0.34 0.93 0.32 0.00
Carbon isotopic ratios of the aromatic and saturated hydrocarbon frac Moldowan et al., 1994). Most, if not all, oils analyzed have oleanane
tions (Fig. 6) can be used to differentiate oils from terrigenous [Western (Fig. 7) with an oleanane index up to 0.65 [column A: Table 2]. The
Desert province; Zein El Din et al. (1990)] or marine organic matter oleanane index suggests a substantial terrigenous organic matter (Riva
[Gulf of Suez province; Rohrback (1983)] and the non-marine waxy oils et al., 1988; Moldowan et al., 1994). This character, coupled with high
of the Nile Delta. The observed isotopic differences among the hydro Pr/Ph, low C31/hopane, poor preservation of homohopane distributions
carbon fluids in the three petroliferous provinces may be related to (1) and high Ts/Tm ratios (mostly >1.0), suggest an oxic source rock
original isotopic compositions of the precursors of the aromatic and depositional environment (Volkman et al., 1983; Waples, 1985). Ole
saturated fractions in living organisms, (2) source depositional envi anane is more resistant to biodegradation than 17α-hopane. The shallow
ronment, or (3) chemical and isotopic changes that these compounds Pliocene samples showing severe biodegradation (with Pr and Ph
undergo during maturation stages (Sofer, 1984; Peters and Moldowan, removed; i.e., WDDM-8, WDDM-11 and WDDM-10 GC traces in Fig. 4)
1993; Wever, 2000; Vandr� e et al., 2007; El Diasty and Peters, 2014; El exhibit higher oleanane/hopane ratios than the unaltered condensate
Diasty et al., 2016). samples.
Conventional biomarker ratios calculated from steranes (m/z 217), One of the most prominent features that also characterizes the
terpanes (m/z 191) and MRM–GCMS mass fragmentograms are shown in shallow degraded condensate samples is enrichment in 25-norhopanes
Table 2. In all samples, the relative peak heights of pentacyclic terpanes (especially in the WDDM-11 condensate, 2124–2136 m), which may
are substantially higher compared to the tricyclic terpanes. Most sam result from demethylation of extended hopanes. In these samples,
ples have very high (C19þC20)/C23 tricyclic terpanes, low C27 17α(H)- enrichment of 25-norhopanes is associated with substantial depletion of
trisnorhopane (Tm) relative to C27 18α(H)-trisnorneohopane (Ts), 17α-hopanes and steranes (Table 2). Microbes can biodegrade hopanes
abundant oleananes, very low gammacerane, remarkably low preser under aerobic conditions without degradation of steranes or the
vation of the higher homohopanes, subequal to high C29 sterane distri enrichment of 25-norhopanes (Bost et al., 2001; El Diasty and Moldo
bution, and absence or paucity of C30 steranes (Fig. 7; Table 2). All these wan, 2012, 2013). Two biodegradation paths occur in nature for
characteristics, in addition to GC and stable carbon isotopic results, hopanes (1) steranes degrade faster than hopanes and hopanes are not
suggest generation from higher-plant Type-III kerogen deposited in a altered to 25-norhopanes; or (2) hopanes degrade to 25-norhopanes
deltaic setting with expected lateral variations in both organofacies prior to steranes (Peters et al., 1996, 2005; Bost et al., 2001).
characteristics of the source rock depositional environment and The abundance of C19 plus C20 relative to C23 terpanes [column H:
maturity. Table 2] is consistent with terrigenous materials (De Grande et al.,
In addition to m/z 191 (Fig. 7), MRM chromatograms (Table 2) 1993). Moreover, the high ratio of hopanes to steranes [column D:
enabled identification of high relative amounts of C30 oleanane, and also Table 2; average 3.14] suggests that bacterial organic matter exceeds
showed other higher-plant triterpanes such as C30 bicadinanes, consis algal organic matter in the source rock. This is in accordance with the
tent with angiosperm-derived higher-plant input (Cox et al., 1986; Ts/Tm norhopanes ratio. The Ts/Tm [column E: Table 2] can be used
6
Table 4
Stable carbon and hydrogen isotope data for gas samples from wells in NW offshore Nile Delta.
N� Well name Depth (m) δC1 δC2 δC3 δDC1 Wetness Dryness
1 WDDM-1 1272.9 44.40 25.20 nd 178 0.80 99.2

2 WDDM-2 1410.1 53.40 22.10 nd 176 0.45 99.5
3 WDDM-2 1515.7 52.30 21.90 nd 175 0.47 99.5
4 WDDM-3 1541 50.00 21.00 nd 178 0.58 99.4
5 WDDM-3 1551 50.00 21.00 nd 174 0.57 99.4
6 WDDM-5 1670 65.42 nd 26.76 144 0.18 99.8
7 WDDM-6 1683.2 50.40 30.30 28.30 182 5.79 94.2
8 WDDM-4 1744 44.70 28.40 25.70 166 4.22 95.8
9 WDDM-7 1768 51.90 26.40 35.30 158 5.36 94.6
10 WDDM-8 1774.5 57.50 28.00 nd 189 1.12 98.9
11 WDDM-8 1792 57.40 28.20 nd 189 1.13 98.9
12 WDDM-8 1823 57.50 28.20 nd 195 1.12 98.9
13 WDDM-8 1825 57.50 28.30 nd 191 1.14 98.9
14 WDDM-9 1850 48.82 25.52 0.92 144 4.48 95.5
15 WDDM-1 1901.7 57.20 28.30 26.80 186 4.69 95.3
16 WDDM-5 1903.6 60.24 23.07 nd 158 1.34 98.7
17 WDDM-5 1912 61.37 24.58 16.56 140 1.34 98.7
18 WDDM-10 2060.5 47.40 28.20 nd 143 2.96 97.0
19 WDDM-9 2098 48.33 26.62 6.51 153 7.93 92.1
20 WDDM-11 2124 54.42 21.93 nd 151 4.40 95.9
21 WDDM-11 2124 nd nd nd nd 4.26 95.7
22 WDDM-10 2145.7 46.90 28.50 nd 142 3.41 96.6
23 WDDM-7 2156 46.90 26.90 25.30 167 11.75 88.2
24 WDDM-7 2156 46.40 26.80 25.40 168 11.92 88.1
25 WDDM-9 2168 46.77 27.06 23.50 152 14.64 85.4
26 WDDM-12 2432 65.00 28.00 nd 185 2.70 97.3
27 WDDM-13 2705 57.80 27.20 24.90 191 2.95 97.1
28 WDDM-14 2739 47.48 28.50 26.50 nd 9.06 90.9
29 WDDM-15 2742 41.49 27.68 26.44 nd 5.15 94.9
30 WDDM-16 2747 42.64 27.86 26.52 nd 5.76 94.2
31 WDDM-17 2755 43.85 28.62 27.19 nd 5.46 94.5
32 WDDM-18 2780 42.60 28.83 27.43 nd 5.40 94.6
33 WDDM-13 2791 57.00 28.30 24.90 188 3.23 96.8
34 WDDM-19 2860 47.06 28.53 26.52 nd 9.56 90.4
Gas wetness ¼ 100 � C2þ/(ΣC1 – C5); Gas dryness ¼ 100 � C1/(ΣC1 – C5); nd ¼ No data.
either as a source (Mello et al., 1988; Peters and Moldowan, 1993) or a commonly used to evaluate organic matter precursors. C29 and C27
maturity indicator. Ts/Tm values above 1.0 indicate that nearly all steranes are commonly used to indicate higher plant and marine algal
samples were derived from marine deltaic/lacustrine freshwater source input, respectively (Moldowan et al., 1985; Czochanska et al., 1988).
rock with significant influx of terrigenous organic matter (Mello et al., The samples yield varying V-shaped distributions of C27–C29 steranes,
1988). Gammacerane is absent or present at very low concentrations with C27, C28, and C29 abundances of 19.7–49.8%, 20.05–35.02%, and
[column B: Table 2], suggesting that the condensates were generated 22.84–59.47%, respectively (Table 2; Fig. 7). This indicates a range of
from source rocks deposited in low salinity or freshwater conditions organic matter input from predominantly terrigenous to predominantly
(Brassell et al., 1988; Peters and Moldowan, 1993) and without notably algal. The C27–C28–C29 steranes ternary diagram shows that many
a stratified water column. Simultaneously, the analyzed condensates are condensate samples contain dominant C29 steranes or approximately
also characterized by low C29 norhopane/C30 hopane [column G: equal C27 and C29 steranes (Fig. 8). Mixing of terrigenous and marine
Table 2], suggesting clastic input to the source rock. Higher homo organic materials is common in offshore deltaic environments where
hopanes occur in higher relative abundance when dissolved sulfates are source rock deposition is associated with rapid influx of mixed organic
present in an anoxic depositional environment. The very low C35 macerals and high sedimentation rates. The association of C29 steroids
homohopane indices in all samples [column C: Table 2] indicate either a with higher plants can skew the sterane distribution toward C29 pre
freshwater depositional environment or pervasive oxic–dysoxic condi dominance when the terrigenous input is strong (Moldowan et al., 1985;
tions (El Diasty and Moldowan, 2013). Peters et al., 2005).
The relative abundance of diasteranes in the samples [column P:
Table 2] indicates a clay-rich or land-plant source rock (Hughes, 1984; 5.1.2. Age- and maturity-related biomarkers
van Kaam-Peters et al., 1998). Interestingly, the northwestern offshore Taxon-specific biomarkers are a group of source-dependent molec
Nile Delta condensates have a relatively wide range of diasterane ratios ular fossils that can be linked to the related organisms. These organic
[column P: Table 2]. The diasterane ratio ranges from 0.09 (shallow Kafr compounds are common in rocks deposited during or after the evolution
El Sheikh biodegraded condensate sample from 1768 to 1785 m) to 2.50 of the related organisms (Peters et al., 2005). Nevertheless, few bio
(deeper Abu Madi reservoir at 3203–3265 m). This wide difference in markers qualify as valid age markers since they must: (1) originate from
diasterane content is related to the availability of clay minerals or dif biosynthetic pathways by organisms during a particular span of geologic
ferences in the redox potential of the depositional environment (Hughes, time, and (2) contribute adequate biomass to the corresponding source
1984; Peters and Moldowan, 1993; van Kaam-Peters et al., 1998) and rock to be noticeable in related oil.
the thermal maturity of the source rock at the time of generation (Peters In this study, we use C28/C29 steranes, oleananes, C26 24-nordiacho
et al., 2005). Table 2 shows that most of the condensates contain lestane (NDR) and 24-norcholestane (NCR) ratios as age-related bio
increasing quantities of diasteranes relative to the regular steranes with markers (Moldowan et al., 1994; Grantham and Wakefield, 1988; Holba
increasing depth, an attribute that likely results from the higher matu et al., 1998; Rampen et al., 2007; El Diasty and Moldowan, 2012, 2013).
rities of the fluids with increasing depth. The C28/C29 ratio is < 0.5 for Early Palaeozoic or older, 0.4–0.7 for Late
The relative abundances of ααα20R C27-, C28-, and C29-steranes are Palaeozoic to Early Jurassic oils, and >0.7 for Late Jurassic–Miocene oils
7
Fig. 4. Selected gas chromatograms (GC) for condensate samples from the Qantara, Kafr El Sheikh, Abu Madi and El Wastani reservoirs. The shallower El Wastani
reservoir GC traces shows that degradation of high-molecular-weight n-alkanes resulting in enhanced low-molecular-weight n-alkanes (n-C15).
(Grantham and Wakefield, 1988). An oleanane index >0.2 is 2005). Nearly one-third of the samples achieved the endpoint for %22S
age-diagnostic for a Tertiary source (Moldowan et al., 1994). The NCR [(~60%); column I: Table 2], which indicates at least the early oil
ratios >0.35 and NDR ratios >0.25 are Mid-Jurassic source or younger, window with maturity equivalent Ro ~ 0.6%.
while NCR >0.60 and NDR >0.52 are diagnostic for Tertiary [Oligocene Slower stereoisomer reaction ratios include C29 sterane %ββ/(ββ þ
or younger (Holba et al., 1998; Rampen et al., 2007)]. C28/C29 sterane αα) and C29 sterane %20S/(20S þ 20R). The endpoint for the latter ratio
ratios in this study reach up to 1.26 with an average 0.78 (Table 2). The was reached for four samples from WDDM-10, WDDM-20, WDDM-21
oleanane index [column A: Table 2] is moderate to high (0.13–0.38), and WDDM-22 (column N: Table 2; Fig. 10). None of the samples ach
except for the WDDM-15 oil where it is zero. The NCR ratios range from ieve endpoint for the slower %ββC29 sterane ratio [(~70%); column O:
0.39 to 0.68 [column R: Table 2], while the NDR values range from 0.26 Table 2]. Therefore, the thermal maturity is bracketed by the %20S and
to 0.48 (column S: Table 2). The relatively high C28/C29 and 24-norch %ββ C29 sterane endpoints, which approximately corresponds to
olestane ratios and high oleanane indices suggest at least two petro Ro~0.9% or the peak oil window (Fig. 10). Low thermal maturity is
leum source rock plays in the offshore delta. These are believed to occur typical of many Tertiary deltaic oils and may be ascribed to rapid sub
in Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary (possibly Oligocene or younger) sidence and sedimentation. Because the endpoint for %ββ/(ββ þ αα) has
source rocks (Fig. 9). not been achieved, ratios for even slower reactions are not needed to
Stereoisomerization reactions at asymmetric carbon atoms in satu bracket maturity, such as triaromatic TA-I/(TA-I þ TA-II) or mono
rated biomarkers or aromatization reactions in aromatic biomarkers are aromatic MA-I/(MA-I þ MA-II) steroid aromatization side-chain cleav
commonly used to define the extent of thermal maturation of rock ex age parameters (Table 2).
tracts and crude oil (Peters and Moldowan, 1993; El Diasty and Mol Ts/Tm ratios mark approximate peak of the oil window at Ts/Tm �
dowan, 2013; Peters et al., 2014). 0.9 to 1.1 [i.e., early to before the peak oil window (Ts/Tm < 0.9), and
The most dependable technique to evaluate maturity of crude oil for post-mature samples in the late catagenesis or wet gas window (Ts/
samples is based on fast reactions of some biomarker stereoisomer ratios Tm > 1.1)] (Volkman et al., 1983; Waples, 1985). For most of the
[i.e., C32 %22S extended hopane and C30 moretane/hopane]. The mor analyzed condensates, Ts/Tm exceeds 1.0 [column E: Table 2], indi
etane/hopane ratio decreases with increasing thermal maturity [column cating that the samples are mature. Based on maturity-related bio
F: Table 2] and values ranges from 0.09 to 0.18 for the samples, indi markers and biomarker characteristics, these samples were reported
cating a low mature stage (Peters and Moldowan, 1993; Peters et al., with wide-ranging maturity and alteration histories (Peters et al., 2005;
8
Fig. 5. Pristane/n-C17 versus phytane/n-C18 plot shows organic matter type, source rock depositional environment and thermal maturity of condensate samples
(genetic fields after Shanmugam, 1985).
Fig. 6. Relationship between isotopic compositions of saturate and aromatic fractions of waxy and non-waxy oils (genetic fields defined according to Sofer, 1984) for
analyzed condensate samples and comparison with marine and terrigenous oils from the Gulf of Suez and the north Western Desert, respectively. Samples from
WDDM-21 and WDDM-22 are not shown because δ13C data were unavailable.
El Diasty and Moldowan, 2012, 2013). of large complex datasets (Peters et al., 2016; El Diasty et al., 2018,
2019) and assists in interpretation. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA;
5.1.3. Oil chemometrics autoscale pre-processing, Euclidean metric distance and incremental
Chemometrics (multivariate statistical analysis) improves evaluation linkage) and principal component analysis (PCA; autoscale
9
Fig. 7. Example of terpane (m/z 191) and sterane (m/z 217) distributions for condensate samples from the northwest offshore Nile Delta basin. Internal standard (IS).
pre-processing) were completed using Pirouette v. 3.11® (a commercial genetic families (Family-A to Family-F). With few exceptions, each oil
chemometrics program, Infometrix Inc.). Twelve carbon isotopic and family contains samples from the same field. The PCA scores plot
source-related biomarker ratios used for the chemometric analysis (Fig. 11b) shows good separation of the analyzed condensate samples. It
include oleanane/hopane, C29 norhopane/C30 hopane, hopanes/ster is evident that the genetic families share common characteristics with
anes, C27 Ts/Tm trisnorhopanes, (C19þC20)/C23 terpanes, C27 diaster varying proportions of terrigenous and marine components and that
anes/steranes, %C27, %C28, %C29 regular steranes, isotopic δ13Csaturate they originated from Upper Cretaceous/Oligocene or younger source
and δ13Caromatic hydrocarbons (‰), and the canonical variable. Some rocks (Fig. 9).
constraints include incomplete and anomalous data for some samples; e. Family-A is represented by the WDDM-22 sample from the Lower
g., WDDM-7 (1768–1785 m), WDDM-11 (2124–2136 m), and WDDM-3 Miocene Qantara reservoir. Distinct geochemical characteristics include
(2758–2773 m) were rejected from chemometrics where secondary the highest hopane/sterane ratio (10.0), C29 regular steranes (~60%),
processes obscure genetic relationships by altering biomarker signa and sterane isomerization %20S (0.61) and %ββ (0.52), high oleananes
tures. Also, Pr/Ph ratio, as a source parameter, was avoided because of (0.32) and bicadinanes (0.56), and high NCR (0.44) and NDR (0.26).
the variable effect of biodegradation. This sample shows anomalously low %C27 steranes, no evidence of
HCA (Fig. 11a) and PCA (Fig. 11b) chemometrics resulted in six biodegradation, but %20S is anomalously high (0.61), suggesting early
10
Fig. 8. Ternary plot of regular steranes for condensate samples from the northwest offshore Nile Delta. Percentages of C27–C28–C29 ααα-20R steranes measured by
metastable reaction monitoring –gas chromatograph mass spectrometry (MRM–GCMS) of m/z 217 peak area in the saturated hydrocarbon fraction. Sterane chemical
structure is at the upper left.
Fig. 9. Plots of age-diagnostic parameters for condensate samples from the northwest offshore Nile Delta.
biodegradation of steranes (20R epimer). Thus, the Family-A oil is likely heavy isotopic composition ( 25.5‰ for the aromatic hydrocarbon
to originate from Upper Cretaceous or younger source rock (Fig. 9) with fraction and 26.7‰ for the saturated hydrocarbon fraction: Table 2;
very high terrigenous input deposited in an oxic depositional setting. Fig. 6), the highest oleanane ratios (0.53–0.65), relatively high
The source rock is very mature and surpassed the peak oil window (C19þC20)/C23 terpanes (7.75–8.85), relatively high C27
(Fig. 10). (27.83–31.30%) and C29 (48.65–50.62%) regular steranes. Therefore,
Two WDDM-10 condensate samples produced from different in these oils were likely generated from terrigenous-dominated Lower
tervals in the El Wastani reservoir (2041–2064 m and 2141–2153 m) Cenozoic or possibly Oligocene source rocks (Fig. 9).
belong to Family-B. The most prominent characteristic of this group is Family-C contains four oil samples (WDDM-16, WDDM-18, WDDM-
severe biodegradation that markedly affects the shallower Pliocene El 20 and WDDM-21) from the Lower Pliocene Abu Madi reservoir and one
Wastani reservoir accumulations (Fig. 4). This group shows relatively sample from the Lower–Middle Pliocene Kafr El Sheikh reservoir
11
Fig. 10. Thermal maturity of the analyzed condensate samples based on %20S and %ββ-C29 sterane isomerization [maturity fields after Peters and Moldowan (1993);
Peters et al. (2005)]. Stages of oil generation relative to the vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) is at the top left (modified from Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
Fig. 11. (a) Hierarchical cluster analysis HCA dendrogram shows genetic relations among samples based on 12 selected source-related biomarker and stable isotope
ratios (Table 2), and (b) principal component analysis PCA scores (PC1 þ PC2 þ PC3 ¼ 82.4% of variance).
(WDDM-17). These samples are characterized by more negative isotope ratios (Table 2). Geochemical features of Family-C (Fig. 11) imply an
ratios for saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, high CV values (2.0), origin from terrigenous higher-plant input in clay-rich and highly
high oleanane indices (>0.20) high hopane/sterane ratios (>3.0), high mature [reached peak mature window (Fig. 10) or surpassed sterane
Ts/Tm ratios (>1.2), moretanes/hopanes (0.13–0.16), relatively high endpoints] Lower Tertiary source rocks.
(C19þC20)/C23 terpanes (>3.0), relatively high diasterane ratios Family-D contains five oil samples in the Lower Pliocene Abu Madi
(0.69–1.44), very low C35/C34 22S þ 22R-homohopane ratios, high C29 reservoir from the WDDM-14 and WDDM-19 wells. Biomarkers from this
regular steranes, and moderate NCR (0.39–0.44) and NDR (0.26–0.35) family show some important differences compared to the other samples.
12
This family has relatively low sterane isomerization and low abundance Both the i-C4/n-C4 ratio (Table 3; Connan and Cassou, 1980) and
of oleananes (<0.20; Table 2; Figs. 7 and 9). The predominant wetness index (Table 4) can be used as maturation indices for natural
geochemical signatures of this family that distinguish it from Family-A, gases. These two parameters do not display a clear trend with depth
-B and -C reflect mixed marine and terrigenous contributions to the because the gas samples are not indigenous but migrated to the current
source rock and less oxic conditions. This, plus the age-diagnostic pa reservoir intervals (H�eroux et al., 1979; Connan and Cassou, 1980).
rameters (NCR > 0.60 and NDR > 0.45), suggest assignment of the five Isotope data for the analyzed gas samples are given in Table 4. The
oil samples to mid-Cretaceous/Lower Tertiary source rocks. Maturity- δ13C1, δ13C2 and δ13C3 values range from 65.42‰ to 41.49‰
related parameters [(C29%20S (0.28–0.45) and %ββ (0.27–0.45))] (average 51.68), 30.3‰ to 21.00‰, and 35.3‰ to 0.92‰
indicate that these fluids were charged at the early–peak stages of oil (average 23.22‰), respectively (Table 4). The methane hydrogen
window (Fig. 10). isotope (δD) values range between 195‰ and 140‰ (Table 4). The
Three oils are compositionally heterogeneous [two samples from the NW offshore Nile Delta Basin gas samples show a normal isotopic dis
WDDM-7 (Kafr El Sheikh reservoir) and a sample from the WDDM-15 tribution of alkanes (δ13Cpropane > δ13Cethane > δ13Cmethane), indicating
(Abu Madi reservoir)] but are distinct from the other oils and are an organic origin for these gases. Conversely, one gas sample from
termed Family-E (Fig. 11). These three oils show geochemical charac WDDM-7 well (1768 m) displays a partial carbon isotope reversal be
teristics indicating source rocks dominated by marine input with sig tween ethane ( 26.4‰) and propane ( 25.3‰, i.e., δ13C2>δ13C3)
nificant terrigenous higher-plant organic matter. They show medium to possibly due to mixing of gases.
high oleanane indices (0.14–0.28), high norhopane/hopane
(0.84–0.93), high hopanes/steranes (0.93–4.45), high (C19þC20)/C23 5.2.2. Genetic origin of gases
terpanes (5.56–9.68), abundant C27 steranes (42.47%–49.8%), and Methane and associated gas carbon and hydrogen isotopic compo
nordiacholestane ratios (NCR ¼ 0.44 and NDR ¼ 0.26), typical of oils sitions, in addition to chemical composition, are commonly used to
generated from clastic-rich Upper Cretaceous/Lower Tertiary source evaluate the genetic origin of gases, the role of microbial, thermal
rocks (Fig. 9) that contain abundant higher-plant contribution deposited pathways and secondary transformations; such as, microbial degrada
under dysoxic–oxic conditions. tion and thermochemical/bacterial sulfate reduction (Schoell, 1980;
A single condensate sample recovered from the WDDM-8 well Berner and Faber, 1988; Chung et al., 1988; Prinzhofer and Huc, 1995;
(Middle–Upper Pliocene El Wastani reservoir) is classified as Family-F Head et al., 2003; Vandr� e et al., 2007; Pallasser, 2000; Milkov, 2011;
(Fig. 11). This oil has a distinctive biomarker signature that differs Prinzhofer and Deville, 2013; Milkov and Etiope, 2018).
from other oils, especially Family-B oils. One of the characteristic fea Molecular and isotopic characteristics of gaseous hydrocarbons are
tures is the heavy stage of biodegradation (Peters and Moldowan, 1993; largely affected by organic matter precursors, methane generation for
Wenger et al., 2002) where almost all n-alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids biogenic gases, and thermal evolution extent for thermogenic gases
have been removed, resulting in a large UCM hump (Fig. 4) and the (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Whiticar et al., 1986; Milkov and Etiope, 2018).
presence of 25-norhopanes (Fig. 7). Also, this oil has markedly the Dry methane, gas with a very low C2þ content, can be generated during
lightest aromatic δ13C signature ( 27.6‰) and a more negative CV diagenesis and metagenesis. Ideally, the isotopic signature can be used
( 5.12) value. Other geochemical characteristics include relatively low to differentiate between these two stages of organic matter evolution
oleanane index (0.11), high homohopanes (1.15), relatively high C27 (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Microbial (biogenic) methane and thermo
steranes (>40%) and very low diasteranes relative to steranes (Table 2). genic methane have different carbon isotope compositions (δ13C).
These data imply non-marine clay-rich Upper Cretaceous source rock Typical microbial gases have δ13C1 values < 50‰, whereas the pri
with predominantly Type-III kerogen (El Diasty and Moldowan, 2013). mary thermogenic gases have δ13C1 range from 50‰ to 20‰
(Schoell, 1980; Whiticar, 1994). Wet gas δ13C1 values fall between
5.2. Gas geochemistry 40‰ and 35‰ and postmature δ13C1 is > 35‰.
Various diagrams have been proposed to classify gaseous hydrocar
5.2.1. Molecular and isotopic compositions bons (Bernard et al., 1976; Schoell, 1983; Whiticar, 1999; Milkov and
Geochemical analyses for 34 natural gas samples collected from the Etiope, 2018 and references herein) and determine their origin. One of
NW offshore Tertiary Nile Delta are presented in Table 3. Gas compo the most widely used diagrams to differentiate dry microbial from wet
sition is dominated by methane with varied content from 85.37% to thermogenic gases compares the δD–CH4 with δ13C–CH4 (Fig. 12). The
99.42% (Table 3). The higher gaseous hydrocarbons (C2þ: C2H6 to methane carbon and hydrogen isotope ratios indicate that the analyzed
C5H12) range from 0.18% to 14.64% and their abundances decrease with gases have intermediate compositions typical of mixtures of microbial
greater carbon number. C2H6 and C3H8 contents range from 0.09 to 7.39 and thermogenic end-members. The hydrogen isotope (δD) values of
(average 2.67) and 0.02 to 3.57 (average 0.81), respectively (Table 3). thermogenic methane from coal-type gas converge at 120‰, whereas
Traces of non-hydrocarbon gases (principally carbon dioxide and ni δD values of methane accumulations associated with oil-type gas range
trogen) occur approximately in all samples. N2 content ranges from from 150‰ to 140‰ (Clayton et al., 1997; Clayton, 2003). The
0.06% to 1.44% (average 0.44%), whereas CO2 values vary between δD–CH4 ratios (Table 4) may indicate that the biogenic components
0.09% and 2.31% (average 0.71%). Generally, gas mixtures associated result from microbial reduction of CO2 (Milkov, 2011; Milkov and
with mature condensates or high wax crude oils differ from low mature Etiope, 2018). Prinzhofer and Battani (2003) concluded that it is
samples by a much higher concentration of CO2 and N2. possible to obtain a signature for mixed or purely microbial methane
Gas wetness [100*ΣC2–C5/ΣC1–C5] or dryness [100*C1/ΣC1–C5] are when the gas is thermogenic gas as a result of diffusive processes during
common gaseous hydrocarbon indices (James, 1983; Faber and Stahl, migration through tight gas seals.
1984; Jenden et al., 1993; Hunt, 1996; Whiticar, 1999). In this study, gas From a plot of the δ13C1 and the wetness ratio C1/(C2þC3), the gas in
wetness ranges from 0.18% to 14.64%, and gas dryness ranges from the offshore NW Nile Delta is clearly defined as mixed to thermogenic in
85.4% to 99.8% (Table 4). Nearly 65% (22 samples) of the examined origin (Fig. 13a; Bernard et al., 1977). Thermogenic processes can cause
samples are dry gas since they exhibit wetness indices less than 5% enrichment in δ13C1 compared to microbial methane (Schoell, 1984).
(Schoell, 1980). Dry gas can have a thermogenic or microbial origin Mixing of thermogenic with microbial gas or liquid hydrocarbons
(Schoell, 1980; Tissot and Welte, 1984). Wet gas is known to be asso and/or cracking of bitumen may produce intermediate δ13Cmethane
ciated with the oil or condensate window and is thermogenic in origin. compositions between 50 and 60‰ (Golding et al., 2013). Strąpo�c
Mixing of wet gas with dry gas cannot alter the isotopic compositions of et al. (2011) modeled the combined effect of mixing thermogenic and
wet gas, but may modify the isotopic composition of methane (Golding microbial gas, thermal maturity, as well as, methanogenic pathways on
et al., 2013). gas bulk and isotopic compositions (Fig. 13b). Based on this approach,
13
Fig. 12. Genetic diagrams of methane δD versus δ13C for gas samples from the northwest Nile Delta. Compositional fields after Bernard et al. (1976), Schoell (1983),
Jenden et al. (1993), and Whiticar (1999).
the relative percentage of microbial components in the analyzed gases content (Table 3), which may be explained as an effect of minor
ranges from 0% to ~70%. biodegradation. Microbial degradation preferentially reduces the
amount of propane and ethane and thus produces gas with elevated
5.2.3. Maturity of gases and possible secondary processes dryness (Schoell, 1980).
In contrast to methane, which can be biogenic or thermogenic, the Three gas samples were recovered from WDDM-7 well in the Kafr El
heavier gaseous hydrocarbons are related solely to oil/condensate Sheikh reservoir. The two deeper gas samples were recovered from 2156
generation. The ethane and propane isotopic compositions in the sam to 2193 m, whereas the third (shallower) gas sample is from 1768 m.
ples indicate their derivation from Type-II (sapropelic kerogen) with a The two deeper gas samples have closely similar stable carbon isotope
mixed thermogenic and microbial origin or mixed Type-II/III (sapro and bulk compositions (Tables 3 and 4). The elevated concentration of
pelic and humic kerogen) with thermal maturities fall between ~1.0% methane (~87%), with ethane (~4%) and propane (~3%), δ13C1
and 1.5% Ro. The presence of anomalously heavier δ13Cpropane (Fig. 14) ( 46‰), δ13C2 ( 26‰), and δ13C3 ( 25‰), are further support that
for some of the offshore delta natural gas samples is believed due to the these gases are thermogenic. The shallower gas sample contains higher
effect of biodegradation that greatly eliminates isotopically light pro methane (92%), but is characterized by lower C2þ than the other two
pane (Prinzhofer and Huc, 1995; Clayton et al., 1997; Milkov and samples, i.e., ethane (~2.50%) and propane (~1.0%), and low non-
Etiope, 2018). hydrocarbon gas contents. Such isotopic and bulk compositions indi
Publications on areas near the study area in the Eastern Mediterra cate that the shallower gas sample, although different from the deeper
nean (Feinstein et al., 2002), the eastern offshore Nile Delta (Sharaf, two gases, is also predominately thermogenic.
2003), and the northern Western Desert of Egypt (El Diasty et al., 2016) Chung et al. (1988) used the so called “natural gas plot” to plot the
show mixed gaseous hydrocarbons. Gases from the SE Mediterranean inverse number of carbon atoms versus the δ13C values of individual
(Eastern Levant Basin) are thermogenic in Jurassic reservoirs, a mixture alkanes (i.e., δ13C–CH4 vs. 1/1, δ13C–C2H6 vs. 1/2, and δ13C–C3H8 vs.
of thermogenic and microbial in Lower Cretaceous reservoirs, and mi 1/3). For intact gas fractions derived by thermal cracking of organic
crobial in Pliocene reservoirs (Feinstein et al., 2002). Chemical and matter from a single source with no mixing from other sources the plot
isotopic compositions for gases from the eastern offshore Nile Delta should result in a straight line. The slope of such lines reflects the
indicate mixed thermogenic and biogenic origin (Sharaf, 2003). Gas relative gas maturity; i.e., steeper slope lines are characteristic of less
data from the northern Western Desert indicate that Shushan gases are mature gases (Fig. 15). Fig. 15 shows that coincidence of the lines at the
wet-thermogenic and originated from Type-III kerogen at source rock value of δ13C2 suggests that these samples probably originated from
maturity equivalent 0.6–2.0%Ro (El Diasty et al., 2016). source rocks having very similar organofacies. It is worthy to note that
Although WDDM-10 gases are isotopically quite similar to those of the shift in lines on the natural gas plot for different samples (Fig. 15)
the WDDM-4 and WDDM-6 gases, they have relatively low wet gas indicates sources with different maturities. The shallower gas sample
14
Fig. 13. (a) Genetic characterization diagram of gas dryness [C1/(C2þC3)] versus δ13C of methane, and (b) C1/(C2þC3) versus δ13C of methane showing gas origin
where dashed lines represent fractions of biogenic gas in mixture [genetic fields and percentage of biogenic gas contribution after Strąpo�c et al. (2011)].
from the WDDM-7 well might have suffered minor alteration, which is et al., 2003; Prinzhofer and Deville, 2013). The extent of biodegradation
not the case for the deep hydrocarbon reservoirs (Vandr� e et al., 2007; in the analyzed samples can be confirmed by comparing the δ13Cpropane
Prinzhofer and Deville, 2013; Milkov and Etiope, 2018). Three samples vs. C2/C3 ratios (Fig. 16b). Secondary cracking of wet gases with high
from the WDDM-9 (1850 m and 2098 m) and WDDM-5 (1912 m) wells C2/C3 ratios have heavier propane carbon isotopic ratios due to the
are severely biodegraded gas samples. preferential biodegradation of propane (Waseda and Iwano, 2008).
Within closely-spaced reservoir intervals the microbial degradation It is interesting to note that although the WDDM-10 condensate
of gas does not necessarily affect all gases. This can be seen in the (Table 1; El Wastani reservoir: 2141–2153 m) is strongly biodegraded,
WDDM-9 well where one of three samples (2168 m) displays no evi the associated gas sample displays no sign of microbial degradation. This
dence for microbial alteration. The other two samples between 1850 m may indicate different microbial communities (Head et al., 2003) or,
and 2098 m (Fig. 16) are heavily biodegraded. Similar findings have more likely, the gas arrived in the reservoir as a second charge after
been documented by Vandr�e et al. (2007). biodegradation of the original condensate.
Plots of δ13Cpropane vs. δ13Cmethane resulted in two trends (Fig. 16a). Lorant et al. (1998) proposed a quantitative model for generation of
Most of the mixed gas samples follow the simple microbial methano hydrocarbon gas to understand gas processes. This model suggests that
genesis trend with no alteration of propane isotopic ratios. The second molecular and isotopic fractionation variations depend on the rate of
trend, which displays negative correlation between δ13Cpropane and generation and expulsion of these gases from the source rock. With the
δ13Cmethane, indicates that the microbial generation of methane is asso help of the δ13C2–δ13C3 vs. C2/C3 ratios diagram (Lorant et al., 1998) can
ciated with partial alteration of propane (James and Burns, 1984; Head be used to estimate the thermal maturity of gas. Fig. 17 displays a wide
15
Fig. 14. Genetic characterization of gases using ethane and propane carbon isotope ratios (according to isotope/maturity model of Berner and Faber, 1996) for
natural gases from the NW offshore Nile Delta. The position of plotted data indicates two mixed sources of organic matter.
Fig. 15. Natural gas plot (Chung et al., 1988) of the carbon isotope ratio versus the inverse carbon atom number of gaseous molecules from the NW offshore Nile
Delta. Generalized inset at the lower left establishes simplified interpretations of pure thermogenic, mixed, and oxidized gases.
range of thermal maturity for the analyzed gas samples from the primary extent of microbial alteration. The chief outcomes of the work are as
cracking/oil cracking limit (unaltered gases) to late gas cracking (bio follows:
degraded gases).
� Source-related biomarkers, including low or absent C30 n-pro
6. Conclusions pylcholestanes, high Pr/Ph, high Ts/Tm and high hopane/sterane
ratios, reveal that the analyzed condensates originated from clay-rich
A detailed study of isotopic and molecular compositions was carried non-marine source rock. These source units were deposited in an
out on 34 gas and 20 condensate samples from the offshore Egypt NW offshore deltaic setting where local variations and interfingering of
Nile Delta, providing information on their origin and formation mech marine and terrigenous units occurred through time.
anisms. The data were used to infer source facies, paleoenvironmental � Age- and maturity-diagnostic molecular data reveal that these hy
conditions of source rock deposition, degree of thermal maturation, and drocarbons originated from at least two pods of active Upper
16
Fig. 16. (a) δ13Cmethane versus δ13Cpropane for the Nile Delta gas samples (Prinzhofer and Deville, 2013), and (b) comparison of the carbon isotopic ratio of propane
(δ13Cpropane) versus C2/C3 ratio (James and Burns, 1984; Waseda and Iwano, 2008; Prinzhofer and Deville, 2013).
Fig. 17. Plot of C2/C3 versus δ13Cethane–δ13Cpropane ratios (Lorant et al., 1998) shows a wide range of maturity for the analyzed samples ranging from the primary
cracking to secondary cracking of oil and gas.
Cretaceous and Oligocene or younger source rocks, as confirmed by � Molecular and stable isotopic data for the analyzed gases suggest
high oleananes, the presence of bicadinanes, and high C26 24-norch mixed thermogenic and microbial origins in which the biogenic
olestane indices. component reached up to ~70%.
� PCA and HCA statistical analysis of 12 source-related parameters and � These gases were derived from Type-II or Type-II/III kerogens with a
stable isotope compositions identify six genetic families. Geochem wide range of maturity between 1.0% and 1.5% Ro that extends from
ical characterization of the families shows that they are broadly late primary cracking to the early oil cracking stage. The altered gas
similar, but differ in terms of organic matter precursors, depositional samples formed by secondary cracking in the wet gas stage.
paleoenvironment, thermal maturation and extent of microbial � Heavy hydrocarbon gas (C2þ) carbon isotope signatures and molec
degradation. ular compositions indicate that the shallower gas accumulations are
17
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methods used in the research. Subsurface Miocene – Pliocene Succession in the Northwestern Part of the Nile Delta.
6. Following up the final review of the research and ensure its Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura
integrity from errors and good order in its final form. University, 303 pp.
El Diasty, W.Sh., El Beialy, S.Y., Littke, R., Farag, F.A., 2016. Source rock evaluation and
7. Presenting and explaining how and where each point of the re nature of hydrocarbons in the Khalda concession, Shushan basin, Egypt’s Western
viewers’ comments has been incorporated. Desert. Int. J. Coal Geol. 162, 45–60.
El Diasty, W.Sh., El Beialy, S.Y., Mostafa, A.R., Abo Ghonaim, A.A., Peters, K.E., 2019.
Chemometric differentiation of oil families and their potential source rocks in the
Gulf of Suez. Nat. Resour. Res. 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-019-09569-3.
Declaration of competing interest El Diasty, W.Sh., El Beialy, S.Y., Peters, K.E., Batten, D.J., Al-Beyati, F.M., Mahdi, A.Q.,
Haseeb, M.T., 2018. Organic geochemistry of the Middle-upper Jurassic Naokelekan
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the Formationin the Ajil and Balad oil fields, northern Iraq. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 166,
350–362.
publication of this article. El Diasty, W.Sh., Moldowan, J.M., 2012. Application of biological markers in the
recognition of the geochemical characteristics of some crude oils from Abu Gharadig
Acknowledgements Basin, north Western Desert – Egypt. Mar. Pet. Geol. 35 (1), 28–40.
El Diasty, W.S., Moldowan, J.M., 2013. The Western Desert versus Nile Delta: A
comparative molecular biomarker study. Mar. Pet. Geol. 46, 319–334.
The authors gratefully appreciate the authority of EGPC and Erdem El Diasty, W.Sh., Peters, K.E., 2014. Genetic classification of oil families in the central
Idiz (University of Oxford) for supplying samples. Gratitude is also and southern sectors of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. J. Pet. Geol. 37 (2), 105–126.
El Nady, M.M., 2007. Organic geochemistry of source rocks, condensates, and thermal
extended to Fred Fago and the MOGIA at Stanford University and for geochemical modeling of Miocene sequence of some wells, onshore Nile Delta,
helping with the analytical work. We thank Executive Editor Tahar Aifa Egypt. Pet. Sci. Technol. 25, 791–818.
and anonymous reviewers for constructive reviews and comments that Faber, E., Stahl, W., 1984. Geochemical surface exploration for hydrocarbons in the
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helped to improve the final manuscript. Feinstein, S., Aizenshtat, Z., Miloslavski, I., Gerling, P., Slager, J., McQuilken, J., 2002.
Genetic characterization of gas shows in the east Mediterranean offshore of
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 187 (2020) 106819

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

Organic geochemistry of condensates and natural gases in the northwest

source rock facies, differences in thermal maturation and microbial

are characterized by n-alkanes in the range of C10–C30 and acyclic iso­

wells WDDM-7 (1768–1785 m), WDDM-8 (1825 m), WDDM-11

hump of unresolved complex compounds (UCM) at a retention time

nd 15–30 min. Compound identification is difficult; n-C15 is the most

prominent normal alkane; whereas Pr and Ph were not identified. These

degradation [rank 6 on the scale of resistance of compounds to microbial

attack of Peters and Moldowan (1993)], which removed most n-alkanes

restricted to the shallow Pliocene El Wastani condensate samples with

preferential removal of higher n-alkanes (Fig. 4; Table 1). The deeper

microorganisms occurs along aerobic or anaerobic metabolic paths to

The pay zone temperature of the recovered condensates (e.g., WDDM-8)

Although gas chromatograms of the non-biodegraded condensates

are dominated by a unimodal distribution of light ends, the Abu Madi

and Qantara condensates have more high-molecular-weight > n-C15

compounds (Fig. 4). The distribution shows a slight predominance of

odd/even n-alkanes in the Abu Madi condensates (samples 8, 9 and 12;

Table 1) and no predominance in the other samples. The absence of long-

and Evans, 1961; Peters et al., 2005). The waxy appearance of a

molecular-weight n-alkanes or by preferential migration of short-chain

n-alkanes (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The subsequent increase of

short-chain n-alkane concentration causes the n-alkane distribution to

samples is accompanied by relative depletion in isoprenoid alkanes. The

striking predominance of pristane relative to phytane (mostly >3.0;

(0.11–0.31 and 0.29–1.04, respectively), suggest both high thermal

maturity and Type-III humic-kerogen-rich source rocks deposited under

maturation results in hydrocarbon fluids with higher API gravity

(Table 1) and a decrease in Pr and Ph compared to the n-C17 and n-C18

(<0.04 wt%) content is similar to that commonly observed in oils

Table 1 shows a little variation in the carbon isotope ratios of the 20

condensate samples, suggesting that they are genetically related. Stable

25.65 to 25.0‰, and for the saturated fraction from 28.4 to

27.2‰. Canonical variable (CV) values > 0.47 (1.0–4.0) suggest

However, the hydrocarbon accumulations within shallow Pliocene

the Kafr El Sheikh reservoir (WDDM-7 well) underwent severe microbial

degradation as evidenced by relatively low API gravity (Table 1), heavy

25.1‰ for aromatics), very low CV values ( 5.12 to 0.71), and

pronounced removal of higher-molecular-weight normal alkanes.

C1 C2 C3 iC4 C4 i/n-C4 iC5 C5 C6þ CO2 N2 O2þAr

1 WDDM-1 1272.9 44.40 25.20 nd 178 0.80 99.2

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are characterized by n-alkanes in the range of C10–C30 and acyclic iso