Coulomb's Law

Theory
Coulomb, using apparatus similar to what you have, measured the dependence of the electric
force on the magnitude of two charges Q1 and Q2 and on the distance between the centers of
charge, r. He found that the force varied directly with the product of the charge magnitudes, Q1
x Q2 and inversely with the square of the distance r between them. If one defines the unit of
charge, the Coulomb, as the amount of charge delivered by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1
second, then if the force between the charges is measured and expressed in Newtons, the
proportionality constant k = 9 x 109 can be found if Q1 and Q2 are measured. You will NOT be
asked to find the value of k in this experiment (takes too long), but will be happy to measure
something like an 1/r2 dependence and a force proportional to Q1 x Q2.

Principle of the Measurement

Figure 1 shows the side view of the torsion balance. The spheres are charged and the force
between them is measured as a function of their separation. The measurement of the force is
obtained by twisting the wire which supports its charged sphere until sufficient torque is applied
to hold that sphere still at the position r cm away from the other charged sphere. The angle θ
through which the wire is rotated is read off a dial. The force and the torque are proportional to
each other. Torque T = F x R where R is the length of the lever arm. For a twisted wire with
twist constant K, T = Kθ, so the force between the spheres is F = K θ / R. Since we are not
going to do an absolute measurement but only observe the dependence of F on r and Q, it is
enough to see that F is directly proportional to θ.

Charged Spheres

Torsion Wire Slide

Assemby

Figure 1: The Coulomb Balance

1 Coulomb's Law
1
Set-Up
It is very easy to break the fine wire from which one of the charged spheres is suspended
(torsion balance). We have set the balance up as best we can and you are not to try to alter the
set-up. In fact, except for turning the knob on the torsion balance, moving the charged sphere to
change r, and touching the spheres with the high voltage probe to charge them, or with a
grounded probe to discharge them, you will please not touch the apparatus at all. Check to be
sure that the counterweight vane for the sphere on the torsion system is properly loaded with
pennies so that it is level and does not scrape the damping magnet.

Operating Tips
This experiment works best in the winter when the air is dry and charge will not leak rapidly
from the spheres. It may help to put the apparatus on an insulating sheet of plastic. Keep the
balance away from the walls or people which might be charged. Stand behind and away from the
balance, and touch ground (water pipe) to lose any charge on yourself. After charging the
spheres, turn off the switch on the supply. Keep your hands as far as possible from the sphere
being charged. If the charge seems to be leaking away rapidly, clean the insulators with alcohol.

Note that the high voltage supply is turned all the way up to around 5000 volts. Do not touch the
end of the high voltage probe or else you will receive a moderate shock. The shock is moderate
because the high voltage supply has a very large resistor in series with the probe, limiting the
current flow to a safe level.

Part A. Testing the Inverse Square Law

Procedure

1. DISCHARGE the spheres with the grounded probe. Move the sliding sphere as far away as
possible. Set the torsion dial to zero. The index marks should nearly line up. If they do not,
please do not try to adjust the bottom torsion wire retainer, but adjust the torsion dial until they
do line up and add or subtract that offset from your measurements of the torsion balance angle θ
required to line up the index marks when the charged spheres are close together.

2. With the spheres still at maximum separation, charge both spheres to a potential of 5000 volts,
using the charging probe. Turn off the HV.

3. Slide the moveable charged sphere to the position r = 20 cm. Adjust the torsion knob to line
up the index marks. You will find that there is very little deflection since the force (and hence
the torque) is so weak. Write down the angle θ you read from the dial, recording r as well in
your table.

Now check for leakage. Note how long it takes you to do a single measurement, maybe a
minute. Now put the charged spheres fairly close together (6 cm), and see how many degrees
you need to change the torsion balance to keep the index marks lined up over a longer period of
time, say over four minutes. If the air is very dry the leakage rate will be low. Suppose that you

2 Coulomb's Law
2
find a very low leakage rate. In that case you need not bother to recharge between each
measurement, thus avoiding possible problems with jarring the torsion balance with the probe,
and speeding up the data acquisition rate. Do what seems best.

4. Repeat 3 twice. You may find that it is hard to get reproducible angles at 1 degree accuracy.
This exercise will give you a pretty good idea of the error in the zero setting of step 3 above. Put
another way, it can help you find a better zero value when you analyze your data.

5. Make measurements for separations of 14, 10, 9, 7, 6, 5 cm. Repeat the sequence of
measurements three times so that you have three data sets. In order to minimize the effect of
charge leakage, you may need to recharge the spheres between each measurement. If the data
look fairly reproducible you can average the results. If they do not look reproducible, then you
need to plot them as three separate runs. What could have changed? For example maybe one set
of data was taken with more or less charge than the other two.

Analysis
Correction for the finite size of the charges. The force law is for point charges. You are using
conducting spheres of finite radius. As you bring the spheres closer together, the charge is
repelled to the far side of each sphere, increasing the effective distance between the centers of
the charge distributions. The theoretical correction factor for this effect is:

B = 1 - 4 a3 / r3

where a is the radius of the sphere. To correct your θ reading, divide it by B, and record the
corrected values in your table.

1. Plot log θ vs log r. If θ = b x rn where b and n are unknown constants, then log θ = n log r +
log b . The slope of the graph of log θ vs log r is a straight line, with slope equal to n and y
intercept equal to log b. Use log-log paper, plot your data and find n.

2. If the angle of the torsion balance is proportional to the force, and the force is inversely
proportional to r2, the product of the angle θ times r2 should be a constant. Put these in the table.
Plot that product versus r.

Part B Force vs Charge

Procedure

With the sphere separation held at a constant r of about 8 cm, charge the sphere on the wire to 5
kV. Then charge the moveable sphere to 2, 3, 4 and 5 kilovolts and measure θ. As before, charge
the moveable sphere at its maximum distance from the other sphere and move it in for the
measurement. If charge leakage is a problem, you will have to renew the fixed charge each time
you change charges.

Plot θ vs kilovolts. You can assume that the charge on the spheres is proportional to the voltage.

3 Coulomb's Law
3
Discussion of Results
In your report, present your results (the tables and graphs). Be sure to have an Instructor's
signature on the data. Comment on the success of your attempt to find an inverse square law in
Part A. How can you be sure that you have seen a 1/r2 law instead of a 1/r law?

In part B, comment on the success of your attempt to show that the force increases linearly with
Q2. Plot the curve of what the data would look like if the force varied as the product of the
square root of Q2 (Hint: plot θ vs the square root of Q2 and see if it is fit by a straight line).

Remember: You take data together with your lab partner, but you analyze and write up the lab
by yourself.

4 Coulomb's Law
4
Chapter 1

Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 Introduction
During the second semester of your introductory year of physics you will study two special
types of forces which occur in nature as a result of the fact that the constituents of matter
have electric charge; these forces are the electric force and the magnetic force. In fact,
the study of electromagnetism adds something completely new to the ideas of the mechanics
from first semester physics, namely the concept of the electric and magnetic fields. These
entities are just as real as the masses and forces from first semester and they take center
stage when we discuss the phenomenon of electromagnetic radiation, a topic which includes
the behavior of visible light.
The entire picture of matter and fields which we will have at the end of this study is
known as classical physics, but this picture, while complete enough for many fields of
engineering, is not a complete statement of the laws of nature (as we now know them).
New phenomena which were discovered in the early 20th century demanded revisions in
our thinking about the relation of space and time (relativity) and about phenomena on
the atomic scale (quantum physics). Relativity and quantum theory are often known
collectively as modern physics.

1.1.2 Electric Charge

The phenomenon we recognize as “static electricity” has been known since ancient times.
It was later found that there is a physical quantity known as electric charge that can be
transferred from one object to another. Charged objects can exert forces on other charged
objects and also on uncharged objects. Finally, electric charge comes in two types, which we
choose to call positive charge and negative charge.
Substances can be classified in terms of the ease with which charge can move about on
their surfaces. Conductors are materials in which charges can move about freely; insula-
tors are materials in which electric charge is not easily transported.

1
5
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Electric charge can be measured using the law for the forces between charges (Coulomb’s
Law). Charge is a scalar and is measured in coulombs 1 . The coulomb is actually defined
in terms of electric current (the flow of electrons), which is measured in amperes2; when
the current in a wire is 1 ampere, the amount of charge that flows past a given point in the
wire in 1 second is 1 coulomb. Thus,

1 ampere = 1 A = 1 Cs .

As we now know, when charges are transferred by simple interactions (i.e. rubbing), it
is a negative charge which is transferred, and this charge is in the form of the fundamental
particles called electrons. The charge of an electron is 1.6022 × 10−19 C, or, using the
definition
e = 1.602177 × 10−19 C (1.1)
the electron’s charge is −e. The proton has charge +e. The particles found in nature all
have charges which are integral multiples of the elementary charge e: q = ne where
n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .. Because of this, we say that charge is quantized.
The mass of the electron is

me = 9.1094 × 10−31 kg (1.2)

1.1.3 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s Law gives the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges. If
two point charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r then the magnitude of the force of
repulsion or attraction between them is

|q1| |q2 | N·m2

F =k where k = 8.9876 × 109 C2
(1.3)
r2
This is the magnitude of the force which each charge exerts on the other charge (recall
Newton’s 3rd law). The symbol k as used here has to do with electrical forces; it has nothing
to do with any spring constants or Boltzmann’s constant!
If the charges q1 and q2 are of the same sign (both positive or both negative) then the
force is mutually repulsive and the force on each charge points away from the other charge.
If the charges are of opposite signs (one positive, one negative) then the force is mutually
attractive and the force on each charge points toward the other one. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.1.
The constant k in Eq. 1.3 is often written as
1 C2
k= where 0 = 8.85419 × 10−12 N·m2
(1.4)
4π0
1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . Dutch physicist Jim Coulomb (1766–1812) who did some electrical ex-
periments in. . . um. . . Paris. That’s it, Paris.
2
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . German physicist Jim Ampere (1802–1807) who did some electrical
experiments in. . . um. . . Düsseldorf. That’s it, Düsseldorf.

6
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 3

F q1 q2 F q1 F F q2

r r

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1: (a) Charges q1 and q2 have the same sign; electric force is repulsive. (b) Charges q1 and q2
have opposite signs; electric force is attractive.

for historical reasons but also because in later applications the constant 0 is more convenient.
0 is called the permittivity constant 3
When several points charges are present, the total force on a particular charge q0 is the
vector sum of the individual forces gotten from Coulomb’s law. (Thus, electric forces have a
superposition property.) For a continuous distribution of charge we need to divide up the
charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces and add up the individual forces with integrals
to get the net force.

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Electric Charge

1. What is the total charge of 75.0 kg of electrons? [HRW6 22-19]

The mass of one electron is 9.11 × 10−31 kg, so that a mass M = 75.0 kg contains
M (75.0 kg)
N= = = 8.23 × 1031 electrons
me (9.11 × 10−31 kg)

The charge of one electron is −e = −1.60 × 10−19 C, so that the total charge of N
electrons is:

Q = N(−e) = (8.23 × 1031 )(−1.60 × 10−19 C) = −1.32 × 1013 C

2. (a) How many electrons would have to be removed from a penny to leave it
with a charge of +1.0 × 10−7 C? (b) To what fraction of the electrons in the penny
does this correspond? [A penny has a mass of 3.11 g; assume it is made entirely
of copper.] [HRW6 22-23]
3
In these notes, k will be used mainly in the first chapter; thereafter, we will make increasing use of 0 !

7
4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

(a) From Eq. 1.1 we know that as each electron is removed the penny picks up a charge of
+1.60 × 10−19 C. So to be left with the given charge we need to remove N electrons, where
N is:
qTotal (1.0 × 10−7 C)
N= = = 6.2 × 1011 .
qe (1.60 × 10−19 C)

(b) To answer this part, we will need the total number of electrons in a neutral penny; to
find this, we need to find the number of copper atoms in the penny and use the fact that
each (neutral) atom contains 29 electrons. To get the moles of copper atoms in the penny,
divide its mass by the atomic weight of copper:

(3.11 g)
nCu = g = 4.89 × 10−2 mol
(63.54 mol )

The number of copper atoms is

NCu = nCu NA = (4.89 × 10−2 mol)(6.022 × 1023 mol−1 ) = 2.95 × 1022

and the number of electrons in the penny was (originally) 29 times this number,

Ne = 29NCu = 29(2.95 × 1022 ) = 8.55 × 1023

so the fraction of electrons removed in giving the penny the given electric charge is

(6.2 × 1011 )
f= = 7.3 × 10−13
(8.55 × 1023 )

A very small fraction!!

1.2.2 Coulomb’s Law

3. A point charge of +3.00 × 10−6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second point charge
of −1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge. [HRW6 22-2]

Being of opposite signs, the two charges attract one another, and the magnitude of this
force is given by Coulomb’s law (Eq. 1.3),

|q1 q2|
F = k
r2
N·m2 (3.00 × 10−6 C)(1.50 × 10−6 C)
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 2.81 N
(12.0 × 10−2 m)2

Each charge experiences a force of attraction of magnitude 2.81 N.

8
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5

R R

+46e +46e

R = 5.9 x 10-15 m

Figure 1.2: Simple picture of a nucleus just after fission. Uniformly charged spheres are “touching”.

4. What must be the distance between point charge q1 = 26.0 µC and point charge
q2 = −47.0 µC for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of
5.70 N? [HRW6 22-1]

We are given the charges and the magnitude of the (attractive) force between them. We
can use Coulomb’s law to solve for r, the distance between the charges:

|q1q2 | |q1 q2|

F =k =⇒ r2 = k
r2 F
Plug in the given values:

N·m2 (26.0 × 10−6 C)(47.0 × 10−6 C)

r2 = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 1.93 m2
(5.70 N)

This gives: √
r= 1.93 m2 = 1.39 m

5. In fission, a nucleus of uranium–238, which contains 92 protons, divides into

two smaller spheres, each having 46 protons and a radius of 5.9 × 10−15 m. What
is the magnitude of the repulsive electric force pushing the two spheres apart?
[Ser4 23-6]

The basic picture of the nucleus after fission described in this problem is as shown in
Fig. 1.2. (Assume that the edges of the spheres are in contact just after the fission.) Now, it
is true that Coulomb’s law only applies to two point masses, but it seems reasonable to take
the separation distance r in Coulomb’s law to be the distance between the centers of the
spheres. (This procedure is exactly correct for the gravitational forces between two spherical
objects, and because Coulomb’s law is another inverse–square force law it turns out to be
exactly correct in the latter case as well.)
The charge of each sphere (that is, each nucleus) here is

q = +Ze = 46(1.602 × 10−19 C) = 7.369 × 10−18 C .

9
6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

The separation of the centers of the spheres is 2R, so the distance we use in Coulomb’s law
is
r = 2R = 2(5.9 × 10−15 m) = 1.18 × 10−14 m
so from Eq. 1.3 the magnitude of the force between the two charged spheres is
|q1| |q2|
F = k
r2
2 (7.369 × 10−18 C)(7.369 × 10−18 C)
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) 2
= 3.5 × 103 N .
(1.18 × 10 m)
−14

The force between the two fission fragments has magnitude 3.5 × 103 N, and it is a repulsive
force since the fragments are both positively charged.

6. Two small positively charged spheres have a combined charge of 5.0 × 10−5 C.
If each sphere is repelled from the other by an electrostatic force of 1.0 N when
the spheres are 2.0 m apart, what is the charge on each sphere? [HRW5 22-12]

We are are not given the values of the individual charges; let them be q1 and q2 . The
condition on the combined charge of the spheres gives us:

q1 + q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C . (1.5)

The next condition concerns the electrostatic force, and so it involves Coulomb’s Law.
Now, Eq. 1.3 involves the absolute values of the charges so we need to be careful with the
algebra. . . but in this case we know that both charges are positive because their sum is
positive and they repel each other. Thus |q1| = q1 and |q2| = q2, and the next condition gives
us:
q1 q2
F = k 2 = 1.0 N
r
As we know k and r, this give us the value of the product of the charges:

(1.0 N)r2 (1.0 N)(2.0 m)2

q1 q2 = =  = 4.449 × 10−10 C2 (1.6)
k 9 N·m2
8.99 × 10 C2

With Eqs. 1.5 and 1.6 we have two equations for the two unknowns q1 and q2. We can
solve for them; the rest is math! Here’s my approach to solving the problem:
From Eq. 1.5 we have:
q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 (1.7)
Substitute for q2 in Eq. 1.6 and get:

q1(5.0 × 10−5 C − q1) = 4.449 × 10−10 C2

which gives us a quadratic equation for q1:

q12 − (5.0 × 10−5 C)q1 + 4.449 × 10−10 C2 = 0

10
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7

q1 q2 Q Q

50.0 cm

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3: (a) Two unknown charges on identical conducting spheres, separated by 50.0 cm, in Example 7.
(b) When joined by a wire, the charge evenly divides between the spheres with charge Q on each, such that
q1 + q2 = 2Q.

which we all know how to solve. The two possibilities for q1 are:
q
(5.0 × 10−5 ) ± (5.0 × 10−5 )2 − 4(4.449 × 10−10 ) 
3.84 × 10−5 C
q1 = C=
2 1.16 × 10−5 C
(Hmm. . . how do we deal with two answers? We’ll see. . . )
Using the two possibilities for q1 give:
q1 = 3.84 × 10−5 C =⇒ q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 = 1.16 × 10−5 C
q1 = 1.16 × 10−5 C =⇒ q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 = 3.84 × 10−5 C
Actually, these are both the same answer, because our numbering of the charges was arbi-
trary. The answer is that one of the charges is 1.16 × 10−5 C and the other is 3.84 × 10−5 C.

7. Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in place, attract each other with
an electrostatic force of 0.108 N when separated by 50.0 cm, center-to-center. The
spheres are then connected by a thin conducting wire. When the wire is removed,
the spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force of 0.360 N. What were
the initial charges on the spheres? [HRW6 22-7]

The initial configuration of the spheres is shown in Fig. 1.3(a). Let the charges on the
spheres be q1 and q2. If the force of attraction between them has magnitude 0.108 N, then
Coulomb’s law gives us
|q1q2 | N·m2 |q1q2 |
F =k 2
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.108 N
r (0.500 m)2
from which we get
(0.108 N)(0.500 m)2
|q1q2 | = 2 = 3.00 × 10−12 C2
(8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
)
But since we are told that the charges attract one another, we know that q1 and q2 have
opposite signs and so their product must be neagtive. So we can drop the absolute value
sign if we write
q1 q2 = −3.00 × 10−12 C2 (1.8)

11
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Then the two spheres are joined by a wire. The charge is now free to re–distribute itself
between the two spheres and since they are identical the total excess charge (that is, 11 + q2)
will be evenly divided between the two spheres. If the new charge on each sphere is Q, then

Q + Q = 2Q = q1 + q2 (1.9)

The force of repulsion between the spheres is now 0.0360 N, so that

Q2 N·m2 Q2
F =k = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.0360 N
r2 (0.500 m)2

which gives
(0.0360 N)(0.500 m)2
Q2 = N·m2
= 1.00 × 10−12 C 2
9
(8.99 × 10 C2 )
We don’t know what the sign of Q is, so we can only say:

Q = ±1.00 × 10−6 C (1.10)

Putting 1.10 into 1.9, we get

q1 + q2 = 2Q = ±2.00 × 10−6 C (1.11)

and now 1.8 and 1.11 give us two equations for the two unknowns q1 and q2 , and we’re in
business!
First, choosing the + sign in 1.11 we have

q2 = 2.00 × 10−6 C − q1 (1.12)

and substituting this into 1.8 we have:

q1 (2.00 × 10−6 C − q1) = −3.00 × 10−12 C2

which we can rewrite as

q12 − (2.00 × 10−6 C)q1 − 3.00 × 10−12 C2 = 0

which is a quadratic equation for q1. When we find the solutions; we get:

q1 = 3.00 × 10−6 C or q1 = −1.00 × 10−6 C

Putting these possibilities into 1.12 we find

q2 = −1.00 × 10−6 C or q2 = 3.00 × 10−6 C

but these really give the same answer: One charge is −1.00 × 10−6 C and the other is
+3.00 × 10−6 C.

12
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9

Now make the other choice in 1.11. Then we have

q2 = −2.00 × 10−6 C − q1 (1.13)

Putting this into 1.8 we have:

q1(−2.00 × 10−6 C − q1) = −3.00 × 10−12 C2

which we can rewrite as

q12 + (2.00 × 10−6 C)q1 − 3.00 × 10−12 C2 = 0

which is a different quadratic equation for q1 , and which has the solutions

q1 = −3.00 × 10−6 C or q1 = 1.00 × 10−6 C

Putting these into 1.13 we get

q2 = 1.00 × 10−6 C or q2 = −3.00 × 10−6 C

but these really give the same answer: One charge is +1.00 × 10−6 C and the other is
−3.00 × 10−6 C.
So in the end we have two distinct possibilities for the initial charges q1 and q2 on the
spheres. They are
−1.00 µC and + 3.00 µC
and
+1.00 µC and − 3.00 µC

8. A certain charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q − q, which are then
separated by a certain distance. What must q be in terms of Q to maximize the
electrostatic repulsion between the two charges? [HRW6 22-13]

If the distance between the two (new) charges is r, then the magnitude of the force
between them is
(Q − q)q k
F =k 2
= 2
(qQ − q 2) .
r r
(We know that Q and Q − q both have the same sign so that Q(Q − q) is necessarily a
positive number. Force between the charges is repulsive.) To find the value of q which give
maximum F , take the derivative of F with respect to q and find where it is zero:
dF k
= 2 (Q − 2q) = 0
dq r
which has the solution
Q
(Q − 2q) = 0 =⇒ q= .
2

13
10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

q = -e/3 q = -e/3

r = 2.6 x 10-15 m
Figure 1.4: Two down quarks, each with charge −e/3, separated by 2.6 × 10−15 m, in Example 9.

So the maximum repulsive force is gotten by dividing the original charge Q in half.

9. A neutron consists of one “up” quark of charge + 2e

3
and two “down” quarks
e
each having charge − 3 . If the down quarks are 2.6 × 10−15 m apart inside the
neutron, what is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between them? [HRW5
22-24]

We picture the two down quarks as in Fig. 1.4. We use Coulomb’s law to find the force
between them. (It is repulsive since the quarks have the same charge.) The two charges are:

e (1.60 × 10−19 C)
q1 = q2 = − = − = −5.33 × 10−20 C
3 3
and the separation is r = 2.6 × 10−15 m. The magnitude of the force is

|q1| |q2|  N·m2

 (5.33 × 10−20 C)(5.33 × 10−20 C)
F =k = 8.99 × 109 C2
= 3.8 N
r2 (2.6 × 10−15 m)2

The magnitude of the (repulsive) force is 3.8 N.

10. The charges and coordinates of two charged particles held fixed in the xy
plane are: q1 = +3.0 µC, x1 = 3.5 cm, y1 = 0.50 cm, and q2 = −4.0 µC, x2 = −2.0 cm,
y2 = 1.5 cm. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force on
q2. (b) Where could you locate a third charge q3 = +4.0 µC such that the net
electrostatic force on q2 is zero? [HRW6 22-12]

(a) First, make a sketch giving the locations of the charges. This is done in Fig. 1.5. (Clearly,
q2 will be attracted to q1; the force on it will be to the right and downward.)
Find the distance between q2 and q1. It is
q
r = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1 )2
q
= (−2.0 − 3.5)2 + (1.5 − 0.50)2 cm = 5.59 cm

14
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 11

y
- 4.0 mC
q2
+ 3.0 mC
q1

Figure 1.5: Locations of charges in Example 10.

q3
q2
+ 4.0 mC

- 4.0 mC q1
+ 3.0 mC

Figure 1.6: Placement of q3 such as to give zero net force on q2.

Then by Coulomb’s law the force on q2 has magnitude

|q1||q2| N·m2 (3.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 × 10−6 C)
F =k 2
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 35 N
r (5.59 × 10−2 m)2
Since q2 is attracted to q1, the direction of this force is the same as the vector which
points from q2 to q1. That vector is
r12 = (x1 − x2)i + (y1 − y2 )j = (5.5 cm)i + (−1.0 cm)j
The direction (angle) of this vector is
−1.0
 
θ = tan−1 = −10.3◦
5.5
(b) The force which the +4.0 µC charge exerts on q2 must cancel the force we calculated in
part (a) (i.e. the attractive force from q1). Since this charge will exert an attractive force
on q2 , we must place it on the line which joins q1 and q2 but on the other side of q2. This is
shown in Fig. 1.6.
First, find the distance r0 between q3 and q2. The force of q3 on q2 must also have
magnitude 35 N; this allows us to solve for r0 :
|q2 ||q3| 2 |q2 ||q3|
F =k ⇒ r0 = k
r0 2 F

15
12 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

q q
L L

+q +q +q

m m m

Figure 1.7: Charged masses hang from strings, as described in Example 11.

Plug in the numbers:

2 N·m2 (4.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 × 10−6 C)

r0 = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 4.1 × 10−3 m
(35 N)

r0 = 6.4 × 10−2 m = 6.4 cm

This is the distance q3 from q2; we also know that being opposite q1 , its direction is

θ0 = 180◦ − 10.3◦ = 169.7◦

from q2 . So the displacement of q3 from q2 is given by:

∆x = r0 cos θ0 = (6.45 cm) cos 169.7◦ = −6.35 cm

∆y = r0 sin θ0 = (6.45 cm) sin 169.7◦ = +1.15 cm

Adding these differences to the coordinates of q2 we find:

x3 = x2 + ∆x = −2.0 cm − 6.35 cm = −8.35 cm

y3 = y2 + ∆y = +1.5 cm + 1.15 cm == 2.65 cm

The charge q3 should be placed at the point (−8.35 cm, 2.65 cm).

11. Three identical point charges, each of mass m = 0.100 kg and charge q hang
from three strings, as in Fig. 1.7. If the lengths of the left and right strings are
L = 30.0 cm and angle θ = 45.0◦ , determine the value of q. [Ser4 23-10]

Make a free–body diagram in order to understand things! Choose the leftmost mass in
Fig. 1.7. The forces on this mass are shown in Fig. 1.8. Gravity pulls down with a force mg;
the string tension pulls as shown with a force of magnitude T . Both of the other charged
masses exert forces of electrostatic repulsion on this mass. The charge in the middle exerts

16
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 13

Fmid

Ffar

mg

Figure 1.8: Forces acting on the leftmost charged mass in Example 11.

a force of magnitude Fmid; the rightmost (far) charge exerts a force of magnitude Ffar. Both
forces are directed to the left.
We can get expressions for Fmid and Ffar using Coulomb’s law. The distance between the
left charge and the middle charge is

r1 = (30.0 cm) sin 45.0◦ = 21.2 cm = 0.212 m

and since both charges are +q we have

q2
Fmid = k .
(0.212 m)2
Likewise, the distance between the left charge and the rightmost charge is

r2 = 2(30.0 cm) sin 45.0◦ = 2(0.212 m) = 0.424 m

so that we have
q2
Ffar = k .
(0.424 m)2
The vertical forces on the mass must sum to zero. This gives us:
mg
T sin 45.0◦ − mg = 0 =⇒ T = = 1.39 N
sin 45.0◦
where we have used the given value of m to evaluate T .
The horizontal forces must also sum to zero, and this gives us:

−Fmid − Ffar + T cos 45.0◦ = 0

Substitute for Fmid and Ffar and get:

q2 q2
−k − k + T cos 45.0◦ = 0 (1.14)
(0.212 m)2 (0.424 m)2

17
14 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

qq

L L

q q
x

Figure 1.9: Charged masses hang from strings, as described in Example 12.

Since we have already found T , the only unknown in this equation is q. The physics part of
the problem is done!
A little rearranging of Eq. 1.14 gives us:
!
2 1 1
kq 2
+ = T cos 45.0◦
(0.212 m) (0.424 m)2

The sum in the big parenthesis is equal to 27.8 m−2 and with this we can solve for q:
T cos 45.0◦
q2 =
k(27.8 m−2 )
(1.39 N) cos 45.0◦
=  2
 = 3.93 × 10−12 C2
8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
(27.8 m−2 )

And then:
q = 1.98 × 10−6 C = 1.98 µC

12. In Fig. 1.9, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass and identical charge q
hang from nonconducting threads of length L. Assume that θ is so small that tan θ
can be replaced by its approximate equal, sin θ. (a) Show that for equilibrium,
!1/3
q 2L
x= ,
2π0 mg

where x is the separation between the balls. (b) If L = 120 cm, m = 10 g and
x = 5.0 cm, what is q? [HRW6 22-15]

(a) We draw a free-body diagram for one of the charge (say, the left one). This is done in
Fig. 1.10. The forces acting on the charged ball are the string tension T , the downward force
of gravity mg and the force of electrostatic repulsion from the other charged ball, Felec. The
direction of this for is to the left because the other ball, having the same charge exerts a

18
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 15

Felec

mg

Figure 1.10: The forces acting on one of the charged masses in Example 12.

repulsive force which must point horizontally to the left because of the symmetric position
of the other ball.
We do know the magnitude of the force of electrostatic repulsion; from Coulomb’s law it
is
q2
Felec = k 2
x
The ball is in static equilibrium, so the forces on the ball sum to zero. The vertical
components add to zero, which gives us:

T cos θ = mg

and from the horizontal components we get

q2
T sin θ = Felec = k
x2
Divide the second of these equations by the first one and get:

T sin θ kq 2
= tan θ = (1.15)
T cos θ mgx2

Now the problem says that the angle θ is so small that we can safely replace tan θ by sin θ
(they are nearly the same for “small” angles). But from the geometry of the problem we can
express sin θ as:
x/2 x
sin θ = =
L 2L
Using all of this in Eq. 1.15 we get:

x kq 2
≈
2L mgx2

19
16 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Now we can solve for x because a little algebra gives:

kq 2(2L) 2q 2 L q 2L
x3 = = = (1.16)
mg 4π0 mg 2π0mg
which then gives the answer for x,
!1/3
q 2L
x=
2π0mg

(b) Rearranging Eq. 1.16 we find:

2π0mgx3
q2 =
L
and plugging in the given values (in SI units, of course), we get:
C2
2 2π(8.85 × 10−12 × 10−3 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
)(10
q = N·m2
= 5.68 × 10−16 C2
(1.20 m)

and then we find q (note the ambiguity in sign!):

q = ±2.4 × 10−8 C .

20
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Coulomb’s Law
Disclaimer: These lecture notes are not meant to replace the course textbook. The
content may be incomplete. Some topics may be unclear. These notes are only meant to
be a study aid and a supplement to your own notes. Please report any inaccuracies to the
professor.

Electric Charge

• It is an intrinsic property of particles (i.e. electrons and protons)

• Comes in both positive and negative amounts (assignment of + and – chosen by
Ben Franklin)
• Usually denote charge by letter “q”, unit of measure is the Coulomb, C, in SI units
o Electron: qe = −e = −1.6022 × 10−19 C
o Proton: q p = e = 1.6022 ×10−19 C
o In fact, all charge is quantized in integer multiples of “e” (see further
below)
• Most matter is electrically neutral (balanced: equal amounts + and −)
o For example, hydrogen, as with all atoms, is neutral. That is lucky for us,
otherwise we would have strong attractions to other pieces of matter. But
this observation is not explained by any verifiable theory yet!
• Can get a net imbalance of electric charge:
o Silk on glass ⇒ excess + charge on glass
o Fur on plastic ⇒ excess − charge on plastic
• Net charge is always conserved
• Like-sign charges repel
• Opposite-sign charges attract
• Need a force law to describe this!

Force Laws
Unit of force is Newtons, N, (kg m s-2), in SI units 2

Newton’s Law of Gravity: r12

m1m2
Fgrav = G rˆ12
r122 1
m is mass, measured in kg (SI units). Think of it as the “charge” for gravity.
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg-2 is Newton’s gravitational constant
r12 is the distance between two masses, i.e. | r12 |
r̂12 is a unit vector pointing along the direction between mass 1 and mass 2

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21
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Note that mass is always defined positive (only one type of gravitational “charge”). Also,
the force is always attractive, not repulsive. So the direction of the force is always toward
another mass.

Coulomb’s Law (Law of Electrostatics, 1785):

q1q2
Fcoul = K rˆ12
r122
q is electric charge, measured in C (SI units)
1
K= = 9 × 109 N m2 C-2 is the electrostatic constant [Note: some books use “k”]
4πε 0
ε 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N-1 m-2 is the electric permittivity constant

Note that electric charge q can be positive or negative. The force is either attractive
(opposite charges) or repulsive (like-sign charges). So the direction of the force is either
toward another charge (attractive) or oppositely directed from another charge (repulsive).
That is, the force is always aligned along r̂12 . Use this guidance in determining the
direction of a force along a particular axis, not the sign of q1 × q2 directly.

Interpretation of force:
A force causes an object to accelerate if it is free to move.

Newton’s Second Law: F = ma

So for the Coulomb force acting on two charged particles otherwise free to move, the
acceleration of one of the particles will be:

F1 K q1q2
a1 = = rˆ12
m1 m1 r122

Comparison of Gravitational and Electric Forces:

Compare strengths of forces for two objects separated by 1m. Each object has a mass of 1
kg and a charge of 1 C:
1 ⋅1
| Fgrav |= G 2 = 6.67 × 10−11 N
1
1 ⋅1
| Fcoul |= K 2 = 9 × 109 N > 1020 × | Fgrav | !
1

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22
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Compare attractive force between electron and proton in hydrogen:

| Fgrav |= G
me m p
= 6.67 × 10 −11( 9.11×10 kg )(1.67 ×10
-31 −27
kg )
= 4 × 10−47 N
( 0.5 ×10 m )
2
a0 2 −10

(1.6 ×10 C ) = 9 ×10 N

−19 2

= ( 9 × 10 N )
qe q p −8
| Fcoul |= K 9
> 1040 × | Fgrav | !
( 0.5 ×10 m )
2
a0 2 −10

Electric Charge Quantization

Experiment done by American physicist Robert Millikan demonstrated that electric
charge is quantized.
++++++
Millikan’s oil drop experiment ⇒
balanced gravitational force, Fgrav , with electric force, Fcoul Fcoul
q
Fgrav
⇒ q = n⋅e n = 0, ±1, ±2,... e = 1.6022 × 10−19 C
-------
There exists an elementary unit of charge!
No smaller charge observed, although “quarks” (constituents of protons and neutrons) are
expected to have fractional electric charges. But nevertheless, quantization is still a
unique feature. Electrons: q = −e , protons: q = +e . We don’t know why balanced!

1C
1 Coulomb of electrons is −19
= 6 × 1018 electrons !
1.6 × 10 C

Electric Charge Conservation

The net sum of electric charge is always conserved. So when a charged conducting object
is brought into contact with another conducting object, the charges in the two objects may
redistribute, but the net charge of the combined two-object system will remain the same.
Likewise, charge is always conserved in reactions:

p + + e − → 11H
e + + e − → γγ
U→
238
92
234
90 Th + 24 H

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23
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Coulomb’s Law Example (1-dimension)

Consider 2 point charges, q1 and q2, separated by a distance x. y
Let:
q1 = −3q q > 0 (q is some positive number) F12 F21
x
q2 = − q (both charges are negative) q1 q2 x
x =1 m

Convention:
K
F12 denotes the force acting on particle 1 from the presence of particle 2

Since the force is repulsive (same-sign electric charges),

K
F12 = − F12 xˆ (points in negative x direction).

By Newton’s 3rd Law, that for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite
reaction, the force on particle 2 from particle 1 is:
K K
F21 = −F12 = F12 xˆ (points in positive x direction).

Again, use this line of reasoning to determine the direction of the force and not the sign in
Coulomb’s Law.

The magnitude of the force is given by Coulomb’s Law:

| q || q |
F12 =| F12 |= K 1 2 2 = 3Kq 2
x
Since the force is non-zero and repulsive, the charges will accelerate in the directions
specified by the forces.

Can we add a third charge to counteract this force and leave all charge stationary?
Yes! Place a third positive charge between charges 1 and 2.

Note that the superposition principle holds: adding a third charge does not affect the force
between charges 1 and 2.

Let particle 1 reside at x = 0, particle 2 at x = 1 m, and particle 3 at x = r, where 0 < r < 1.

F12 F13 F23 F21

r
q1 q3 q2 x

Find r such that all charges remain at rest, and determine q3 ⇒ 2 unknowns.

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24
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Equilibrium ⇒ ∑Fi ji = 0 Sum of all forces acting on particle j equals 0.

For particle 1 this means: F12 + F13 = 0 or F12 = −F13
So:
qq qq
K 12 2 = −K 1 2 3 r = separation between 1 and 3
1 r
⇒ q3 = − r 2 q2

Equilibrium of particle 2 implies: F21 + F23 = 0 or F21 = −F23

qq qq
K 22 1 = − K 2 3 2 1 − r = separation between 2 and 3
1 (1 − r )
⇒ q3 = − (1 − r ) q1
2

Setting the two equations we obtained for q3 equal yields:

r 2 q2 = (1 − r ) q1
2

Plug in:
q1 = −3q
q2 = − q
⇒ qr 2 = (1 − 2r + r 2 ) 3q
⇒ 2r 2 − 6r + 3 = 0
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
quadratic equation ⇒ r =
2a
6 ± 36 − 4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 3 1
r= = ± 3
2⋅2 2 2

Only the solution 0 < r < 1 works, so r =

1
2
( )
3 − 3  0.63 (a little more than half-way)
We can solve for q3:
q3 = −r 2 q2 q2 = −q
⇒ q3  +0.4q indeed positive

This is an unstable equilibrium. If any charge is moved, the forces will no longer balance
and will tend to move the charges even farther away from the equilibrium point (i.e. there
is no restoring force to make the equilibrium stable).

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25
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Coulomb’s Law Example (2-dimensions)

F23 F21
Consider 3 charges placed in the shape of an equilateral triangle. y q2
Each vertex carries an equal charge: q1 = q2 = q3 = −q (negative)
F13 F31
and the side length is d.
q1 q3 x
F12 F32

Forces on each charge are repulsive (triangle wants to expand).

Magnitude of forces are all equal:
q2
F13 = F31 = F12 = F21 = F23 = F32 = K 2
d
But note that directions of the forces are not always the same.

Where can we add a fourth charge q4 so that all charges are at rest?
By symmetry, we expect the location of a positive fourth charge to be at the center of the
triangle. But we need to determine the amount of charge needed to keep the triangle from
expanding (forces must balance, so that charges are static).
F23 F21
For particle 1: F12 + F13 + F14 = 0
y q2
(condition for forces to balance at equilibrium)
q4
Note that this is a vector equation, and the forces must F13 A F31
separately balance in the x and y directions. q1 q3 x
In component notation, these forces are: F12 F32

F12 = − F12 cos 60D xˆ − F12 sin 60D yˆ

F13 = − F13xˆ
F14 = F14 cos 30D xˆ + F14 sin 30D yˆ

So balancing each component of the forces gives:

xˆ : − F12 cos 60D − F13 + F14 cos 30D = 0

yˆ : − F12 sin 60D + F14 sin 30D = 0

q2
Now F12 = F13 = K
d2
qq4 d
While F14 = K where A =
A2 3

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26
PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Coulomb

Let’s take the equation balancing forces in ŷ :

q2 3 qq 1
−K ⋅ +K 2 4 ⋅ =0
d 2
2 ( d / 3) 2
− q 3 + 3q4 = 0
q
⇒ q4 = >0 whereas q1 = −q
3

This solves for the fourth charge, but it is useful to cross-check with the x̂ force equation
to check for any mistakes:

q2 1 q2 qq 3
−K ⋅ − K +K 2 4 ⋅ =0
2
d 2 d 2
( d / 3) 2
3 3
− q + 3q4 =0
2 2
q
⇒ q4 =
3

which checks out. We could also balance the forces acting on any of the other particles as
well to determine the fourth charge.

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27
 Q&E -1

Charges, Coulomb’s Law, and Electric Fields

Some experimental facts:

Experimental fact 1: Electric charge comes in two types, which we call (+) and (−).

An atom consists of a heavy (+) charged nucleus surrounded by light (−) electrons.
nucleus = (+) charged protons and (0) charged neutrons

mproton ≈ mneutron >> melectron (mproton ≈ 1800 melectron)

qproton = qelectron ("q" is symbol for charge)

Calling protons (+) and electrons (−) is a convention. We could

just have easily called electrons (+) and protons (−), but Ben
Franklin chose the other, and we’re stuck with it.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called "Z". Z

determines the element: Z =1 is hydrogen, Z = 3 is lithium.

Fact 2: Unlike charges attract, and like charges repel according to Coulomb’s Law, which says that the
magnitude F of the force between two charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given by

q1 q 2
F = k
r2

where k = constant = 9.0 × 109 N m2/C2 .

q1 q2 q1 q2
+ + F F
F F − +
r r
Like-sign charges repel. Unlike-sign charges attract.

In SI units, the unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

magnitude of charge of electron = e = +1.602 × 10−19 C

charge of electron = −e , charge of proton = +e (by convention, the symbol e > 0, always)

A coulomb is a huge amount of charge: Number N of e’s in 1 C = ?

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

28
 Q&E -2

1C 1C
N ⋅ e = 1C ⇒ N = = −19
= 6.3×1018
e 1.6×10 C

Fact 3: Electric charge is conserved. The net charge of an isolated system cannot change. It is
impossible to create or destroy net charge. Except in nuclear or “high-energy” reactions, you can never
create or destroy electrons, protons, and other charged particles – all we can do is move them around. In
high energy reactions, we can create charged particles from energy (energy = mc2), but the particles are
always created or destroyed in pairs (+1 and −1) so that the net charge is conserved.

Aside: As far as we know, only 4 things in the universe are conserved:

(1) Energy (2) Linear momentum (p = mv) (3) Angular momentum (spin = L = Iω)
(4) Charge

[Not quite true: in high energy physics, there may be other quantities, like “baryon number” that are
conserved.]

Fact 4: The charge e is the fundamental unit of charge. You never find a free particle in nature with
charge = fraction of e. You only find charge = e or integer multiple of e.

Statements (1) thru (4) are experimental facts. Why are they true? Why are there 2 kinds of charge, not
3? Why e = 1.6 × 10−19 C, not 4.2 × 10−19 C? Why is charge conserved? We don’t know! And to some
extent, physicists don’t care. It is the primary goal of physics to describe how nature behaves; a
secondary goal is to explain why it behaves that way. (Many theorists are looking to explain why, but
no luck yet…)

Notice that Coulomb’s law is similar to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

G m1m 2 k q1 q 2
Fgrav = 2
, Fcoul =
r r2

Similar, except that there are two kinds of charge ( + and − ), but only one kind (sign) of mass. Gravity
is always attractive, but electrical force can be attractive or repulsive.

Recall that force is a vector – a mathematical object that has a size (magnitude) and a direction. Forces
add like vectors, not numbers.

Example: Net force on an electron due to two nearby protons, each a distance r away, 90o apart as
shown.

r
-e F1 Net force = Fnet = F1 + F2
90o q1 = +e
k e2
r F2 In this particular case, F1 = F2 = F = .
r2

29
q2 = +e
Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder
 Q&E -3

k e2
Fnet = 2F (not 2F) ⇒ Fnet = 2
r2
Recall:

F
1 √2
F

Fnet = √2 F 1

Here we have used the Superposition Principle: the net force on a charge due to other nearby charges is
the vector sum of the individual forces:

Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + ... , where F1 = net force due to charge 1, etc.

The Electric field (a new concept)

Surrounding every charge (or group of charges) is a thing, called an electric field E (it is a vector thing)

Definition: The electric field E at a point in empty space is a vector quantity which can be measured by
the following procedure: place a small test charge q at that point, measure the force F on q due to all
other charges. The electric field at that point is given by

Fon q
E≡ E-field at a point is the force per charge on a test charge placed at that point.
q

Note! The E-field exists even if there is no test charge present to measure it. Similarly, a gravitational
field surrounds the earth, even if there is no “test mass” nearby to measure the pull of earth’s gravity:

Fon m mg F 1 GMm GM
gravitational field ≡ = = g , magnitude g = = = 2
m m m m r2 r

(M = earth mass, m = test mass, r = distance from m to Earth’s center)

The electric field is not just an mathematical invention; it is real. We cannot (usually) see it or smell it,
but we can feel it. In some situations, you can see an electric field: visible light is a rapidly oscillating
electric field (more on that later in the semester.)

What is the E-field around a point charge Q? (Q = “source charge” = “source” of E-field, q = “test
charge” or “probe charge”)

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

30
 Q&E -4

source charge Q test charge +q

r Fon q

Fon q 1 kQq kQ
E= = 2
ˆr = ˆr
q q r r2

( r̂ pronounced"r-hat" is the unit vector pointing away from the origin, where Q is. r-hat has no
dimensions).

K Q
Magnitude of the E−field due to a point charge Q: E = k 2 rˆ
r

If the source charge Q is positive, then the E-field points away from Q, in the direction of r-hat. If the
source charge Q is negative then the E−field points toward Q in the direction opposite r-hat. This
G G
follows directly from the definition E = F / q . For instance, if both Q and q are positive then the force F
points away from Q and so does E. If Q is negative and q is positive, then both F and E point toward Q.

What if the test charge q is changed from positive to negative? Then the direction of the force F and the
sign of q both flip, which leaves the direction of E unchanged. The size and direction of the E-field is
independent of the test charge. The test charge is just an imaginary artifice which we use to measure
something which is already there.

The E-field around a positive charge points always from the charge, and decreases in magnitude with
1
distance r as E ∝ 2 . We can represent the E-field at various points in space by drawing a little dot at
r
those points and drawing an arrow coming out of that dot. The arrow represents the E-field at the dot
point. Think of the E-field arrow as "packed into the point". The E-field arrow is not something
"reaching from beginning to end of arrow". The E-field at a point in space exists at that point.

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

31
 Q&E -5

Notice that E → ∞ as r → 0. The electric field diverges near a point charge.

Fon q
Again, what if the test charge q in E = is negative? E-field still points away from positive source
q
charge Q, since both F changes direction and q switches sign, which leaves the vector E unchanged.

The E-field points away from positive charges. It points toward negative charges.

We can think of the interaction between charges in two different ways: “Action at a distance” vs.
“Fields”

“Action at a distance” : Coulomb’s Law suggests that two charges exert a force on each other through
empty space, instantaneously. But Coulomb’s law is only valid for stationary charges. If charge 1
moves, it takes some time for charge 2 to sense the change.

The more modern “field-view” is: Charge 1 creates an E-field around it. Charge 2 feels that field. If
Charge 1 moves, it takes some time for the surrounding E-field to change, so it takes some time for
charge 2 to react.

The total E-field due to a collection of charges is the vector sum of the E-fields due to the individual
charges:
Q
E total = E1 + E 2 + E 3 + … = ∑ E i , where E1 = E1 = k 21 , E2 = .. , etc
i r

Why? Superposition Principle says that if we place a small test charge q near other charges Q1, Q2,
Q3,… , then the net force on q is
Ftotal F1 F2
Ftotal = F1 + F2 + … ⇒ = + + … ⇒ E total = E1 + E 2 + …
q q q

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

32
 Q&E -6

Example: Electric fields (qualitative) Four point charges, labeled 1 through 4, all with the same
magnitude q, are placed around the origin as shown. Charge 2 is negative, the rest are positive. What is
the direction of the E-field at the origin?
y

1 r r 2
The total E-field at origin is the vector sum
r r Etot = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
E=?
x (I'll use bold type to indicate vector.)
3 4

Notice that E3 and E4 cancel since they have equal magnitude,

1 2 but opposite directions. The total E-field points right.

E2
E2 Etot
E3
3 E4 4 E1
E1

What would be the direction of the force on an electron (charge q = –e) placed at the origin?
G G G G
Since E = F / q , we have Fon q = q E . If q is negative, the direction of the force on q is opposite the
direction of the E-field. So the force is to the left.
F –e G G
Fon q = q E
E

In this equation, the E-field is due to all the other charges, not the field due to the charge q itself.

Example Electric fields (quantitative) Two charge Q1 = +2e and Q2 = −3e are placed as shown.
What the x-component of the electric field at the origin?
G G G
y E tot = E1 + E 2 ⇒ E tot,x = E1x + E 2x
r Q2= –3e

Q1 2e Q2 3e
r E1 = k = k 2 , E2 = k = k
( 2r)
2 2
r r 2 r2
r Ex = ?
x
Q1= +2e (Have used the fact that the distance from the origin to
Q2 is √2 r )

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

33
 Q&E -7

E1x = E1 , since E1 is along the x-axis.

y
Q2= –3e
E 2x = E 2 cos θ = E 2 cos 45o ≅ 0.707 E 2

E2 2e 3e
E tot,x = E1x + E 2x = k 2
+ 0.707 k 2
θ r 2r
x
E1 e e
Q1= +2e = [2 + 0.707(3 / 2)] k 2 = 3.06 k 2
r r

E-field due to Continuous distribution of charge

Image a continuous distribution of charge with the charge

spread out smoothly over the volume of some object. What is dq
the electric field at some point p due to this volume of charge?
A very small (infinitesimal) volume of the the object has an
infinitesimal charge dq. "dq" means a "little bit of charge"
This little bit of charge dq creates an infinitesimal electric field dE
dE. The total electric field E at p due to all the bits of charge is p
K K
E = ∫ dE .

Example: A semi-infinite line of charge with charge per length = λ , units [λ] = C/m. What is the E-
field at a distance d from the end of the line, as shown?

dx
E=?
x ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

0 d x
charge dq = λ dx
dx = "little bit of x" , dq = "little bit of charge"

Coulomb's Law gives us the magnitude of the field dE due to the charge dq, a distance x away:

k dq k dq k λ dx
dE = = = = " little bit of E due to little bit of charge dq"
r2 x2 x2

Since all directions here are along the x-axis, we are only interested in dEx and can just drop the
K K
subscript x. So instead of working with the 3D integral E = ∫ dE , we work with the 1D integral

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

34
 Q&E -8

∞ ∞
k λ dx kλ ⎛ k λ ⎞⎟ kλ
E = ∫ dE = ∫ = − = 0 − ⎜⎜− ⎟ =
x 2
x d
⎜⎝ d ⎠⎟ d
.
d

charge ⎡kq⎤
Check units: [λ] = charge/length, so [k λ / d] has units of [k]× = ⎢ 2 ⎥ . Units check!
length 2
⎢⎣ r ⎥⎦

In 2D problems where the E-field has components along x and y, break the problem up into x- and y-
components.
K K K
E = ∫ dE ⇔ E = E x xˆ + E y yˆ = ∫ dE x xˆ + ∫ dE y ŷ

Conductors vs. Insulators

Most materials can be classified as conductor or insulator . A conductor is also called a metal; an
insulator also called avdielectric.

Metals (Cu, Al, Au, Ag, Fe…) conduct electricity. In metals, some of the electrons (conduction
electrons) can move freely thru the metal. If there is an E-field, the conduction electrons move in
response to the force F = q E, and so a flow of charge, or current, occurs.

The inner core electrons are bound strongly to their nuclei, but the outer core, conduction electrons are
unbound, free to move among the nuclei. Metals usually have 1 or 2 conduction electrons per atom. (In
chemist talk: “valence = 2” means “2 conduction electrons per atom”.)

Insulators (plastic, wood, ceramic, sulfur) do not conduct electricity. In insulators, all the electrons are
strongly attached to their nuclei, and do not move (much), even if there is an E-field exerting a force on
them.

Metals are shiny, insulators are dull. The appearance is a consequence of the mobility of the electrons.

Insulators can have an induced charge due to induced dipole moments. All atoms, some molecules,
have no permanent dipole moment, but acquire an induced moment when an external E-field is applied.

neutral atom
polarized atom in
E=0
external field E

−q +q

35
d

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

 Q&E -9

Recall from chemistry, that a dipole moment is associated with a pair of equal and opposite charges (+q
K K
and – q) separated by a distance d. The dipole moment p is a vector quantity defined as p = q d , where
the vector d points from – to +.
Some molecules, like H2O, have a permanent dipole moment. In an external E-field, the moments
align.

H2O molecule = dipole moment moments align in

E-field

Induced Charge

A charged object (+Q, say) brought near a neutral object induces a charge separation in the neutral
object The equal and opposite charges on the two side of the object are called induced charge. Another
way to describe this situation is to say that the E-field from the charge Q induces polarization charge.

Notice that an induced charge always results in a net attraction to the source of the E-field. The
positively-charge +Q is attracting the negatively-charged near side of the object and repelling the
positively-charged far side. But the attraction to the nearby side is greater than the repulsion from the
more distant side, so the net force is attractive.

neutral object (coke can or block of wood)

+Q brought near neutral object

– Q brought near neutral object

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

36
 Q&E -10

Electric Field Line Diagrams

The electric field can be represented by a field line diagram. Instead of trying to show the E-field at a
whole bunch of individual points (left diagram), we indicate the field everywhere with a field line
diagram (right diagram)

Field line diagram for (+) point charge.

Rules for field line diagrams:

1) Field lines begin on positive charges, end on negative charges, or go off to infinity.

Charge q Charge 2q

2) The number of field lines coming from or going to a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the
charge: More field lines = bigger charge

3) The direction of the E-field at a point is the direction tangent to the field line at that point.

4) The magnitude of the E-field at a point is proportional to the density of field lines at that point. To be
precise, the magnitude of the E-field is proportional to the number of field per area perpendicular to the
field direction. More densely packed field lines = higher magnitude E-field.

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

37
 Q&E -11

Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

"Electrostatic equilibrium" means that all charges are stationary; so the net force on every charge must
be zero (otherwise the charge would be accelerating).
3 interesting facts about metals (conductors) in electrostatic equilibrium:

• The electric field in the interior of a metal must be zero.

• Any net charge on the conductor resides only on the surface of the conductor.

• The electric field must be perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.

net charge on
surface only

E-field ⊥
surface
E = 0 inside

A metal in electrostatic equilibrium

The E-field must be zero in the interior, otherwise the conduction electrons in the metal would feel a
force F = q E = –e E and would move in response. Electrons in motion would mean we are not in
electrostatic equilibrium.

Any net charge resides only on the surface because any net charge in the interior would create an E-field
in the interior which would cause the electrons to move. The electrons would keep moving until all
charges have arranged themselves so that both the total E-field and net charge is zero everywhere inside
the metal. In the next chapter, we will see a rigorous proof of this using Gauss's Law.

The E-field must be perpendicular to the surface (in electrostatic equilibrium), otherwise the component
of the E-field along the surface would push electrons along the surface causing movement of charges
(and we would not be in equilibrium).

On the surface of metal, if Ex was not zero, there would be a force

E Fx = q Ex = –e Ex on electrons in the metal pushing them along the
surface.
Ex

metal

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

38
 Q&E -12

Another curious fact about electric fields: the E-field due to an a very large plane (sheet) of charge is
constant in both direction and magnitude (as long as we are "close" to the plane). We will prove this
later, using Gauss' Law.

E = constant

E = constant

uniform plane of charge

(seen edge-on)

One last important fact about charges and E-fields: The E-field anywhere is always due to all the
charges everywhere. To get the total E-field, must always add up all the E-fields due to all charges
everywhere: Etot = E1 + E2 + E3 +… You cannot destroy or "block" the E-field due to a charge, but
you can create a second E-field which cancels the first E-field.

Phys1120 Lecture Notes, Dubson ©University of Colorado at Boulder

39
Chapter 1

Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 Electric Charge
In the latter part of the 18th century it was realized that any sample of matter has a property
which is as fundamental as its mass. This property is the electric charge of the sample.
Electric charge can be detected because it gives rise to electric forces. The reason that we
don’t see electric phenomena more often than we do is that electric charges come in two
types —positive and negative— and usually the two types occur in equal numbers so that
they add to give zero net charge. But when we can separate positive and negative charges
we observe electric forces on a large scale.
In the SI system, electric charge is measured in Coulombs. Throughout our study of
electromagnetism we will derive other electrical units based on the Coulomb and the units
already encountered in mechanics.
After decades of study of the electrical properties of matter, it was found that the fun-
damental charges in nature occur in integer multiples of the elementary charge e,
e = 1.602 × 10−19 C (1.1)
In discussing this property of charge we often say that electric charge is quantized.
In the atom, the nucleus has a charge which is a multiple of +e while the orbiting electrons
each have a charge of −e. The charge of the nucleus comes from the constituent protons,
each of which has a charge of +e; the neutrons in the nucleus have no charge.

1.1.2 Some Facts About Electric Charge

Electric charges can be separated by rubbing, as when you rub a plastic rod with some
roadkill; see Fig. 1.1. Then one of the objects will obtain a positive charge and the other

40
1
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

!!
"
" "
!
!!

Figure 1.1: Roadkill: Good for separating charges and mighty good eatin’.

!! !" !! !"
! ! ! !

" "

#$% #&%

Figure 1.2: (a) Charges q1 and q2 have the same sign; the mutual force is repulsive. (b) Charges q1 and q2
have opposite signs; the mutual force is attractive.

a negative charge. This occurs because the negatively–charged electrons are removed from
one object and deposited on the other.
It has been found that in an isolated system the total amount of charge stays the same,
i.e. total electric charge is conserved .
It is also found that electric charges of the same sign (i.e. both positive or both negative)
will repel and electric charges of opposite sign (i.e. one positive and one negative) will attract.
In understanding the behavior of charged objects it is important to understand how
charges can move through them. To this end we distinguish objects as being either con-
ductors or insulators. Excess charge can move freely through a conductor and since like
charges repel one another, the charges on a charged conductor will generally move around
to space themselves out as much as possible.
In contrast, for insulators excess charge cannot move freely and generally will stay where
it is placed.

1.1.3 Coulomb’s Law

The force between two small (point) charges is directed along the line which joins the two
charges and is repulsive for two charges of the same sign, attractive for two charges of
the opposite sign. (See Fig. 1.2. It is proportional to the size of either one of the two

41
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 3

charges; finally, it gets weaker as the distance between the charges increases. But the force
is not inversely proportional to the distance, it is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance.
The law for the magnitude of the electric force between two small charges q1 and q2
separated by a distance r is

|q1 q2| N·m2

F =k where k = 8.99 × 109 C2
(1.2)
r2
This is usually called Coulomb’s law.
The constant k will come up often in our examples but later on it will be easier to work
with the constant !0, which is related to k by

1
k=
4π!0

so that !0 has the value

1 C2
!0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
(1.3)
4πk

The electric force given by Coulomb’s law is similar to Newton’s law for the gravitational
force (from first semeseter) in that both are inverse–square laws; the force is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the particles.
If we plug some easy numbers into Eq. 1.2 we find that if two 1.0 C charges are separated
by a meter, then each one experiences a repulsive force of about 9.0 × 109 N, which is an
enormous force. In this sense, 1 C is a huge amount of charge; typically the charges which
one would encounter in real life are of the order of µC (10−6 C) or nC (10−9 C).
When a charge Q is in the vicinity of several other charges (q1, q2 , etc.) the net force on
Q is found by adding up the individual forces from the other charges. Of course, this is a
vector sum of the forces.

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Electric Charge

1. How many electrons must you have to get a total charge of −1.0 C? How many
moles of electrons is this?

42
4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

Since each electron has a charge of −1.6 × 10−19 C, the number of electrons required is
(−1.0 C)
N= = 6.2 × 1018
(−1.6 × 10−19 C)

A mole of any kind of particle is NAvo = 6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro’s number) of those
particles. Here we have 6.2 × 1018 electrons and that is
N (6.2 × 1018 )
n= = = 1.04 × 10−5 moles
NAvo (6.02 × 1023 )

2. A metal sphere has a charge of +8.0 µC. What is the net charge after 6.0 × 1013
electrons have been placed on it? [CJ6 15-2]

The total charge of 6.0 × 1013 electrons is

Qelec = (6.0 × 1013 )(−e) = (6.0 × 1013 )(−1.60 × 10−19 C) = −9.6 × 10−6 C = −9.6 µC

After this charge has been added to the metal sphere its total charge is

Qsph = +8.0 µC − 9.6 µC = −1.6 µC

1.2.2 Coulomb’s Law

3. A charge of 4.5 × 10−9 C is located 3.2 m from a charge of −2.8 × 10−9 C. Find
the electrostatic force exerted by one charge on another. [SF7 15-1]

This will be a force of attraction between the two charges since they are of opposite signs.
The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb’s law, Eq. 1.2,
|q1q2|
F = k
r2
2 (4.5 × 10−9 C)(2.8 × 10−9 C)
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) 2
= 1.1 × 10−8 N
(3.2 m)

The charges will attract one another with a force of magnitude 1.1 × 10−8 N.

4. An alpha particle (charge=+2.0e) is sent at high speed toward a gold nucleus

(charge=+79e). What is the electrical force acting on the alpha particle when it
is 2.0 × 10−14 m from the gold nucleus? [SF7 15-3]

43
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5

Here both particles are positively charged so there is a force of repulsion between them.
The magnitude of this force of repulsion is given by Coulomb’s law,
|q1q2 | (2.0)e(79.0)e
F = k 2
=k
r r2
2 (2.0)(79.0)(1.6 × 10
−19
C)2
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) = 91.1 N
(2.0 × 10−14 m)2

So the alpha particle experiences a (repulsive) force of 91 N from the gold nucleus.

5. Two identical conducting spheres are placed with their centers 0.30 m apart.
One is given a charge of 12 × 10−9 C, the other a charge of −18 × 10−9 C. (a) Find
the electrostatic force exerted on one sphere by the other. (b) The spheres are
connected by a conducting wire. Find the electrostatic force between the two
after equilibrium is reached. [SF7 15-9]

(a) Use Coulomb’s law to find the magnitude of the force, which in this case is attractive
since the spheres are oppositely charged:
|q1q2| N·m2 (12 × 10−9 C)(18 × 10−9 C)
F =k = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 2.16 × 10−5 N
r2 (0.30 m)2

(b) When the (conducting) spheres are connect by a (thin!) conducting wire, the electric
charges are free to move between the spheres. The total charge on both spheres is

QTot = 12 × 10−9 C − 18 × 10−9 C = −6.0 × 10−9 C

and when this charge is free to move between the spheres it will attain an equilibrium when
both spheres have the same charge. So after the spheres are connected the charge of each is

Q = QTot /2 = −3.0 × 10−9 C

This is shown in Fig. 1.3.

With the new charges on the spheres, use Coulomb’s law to get the magnitude of the
force on each:
|q1q2 | N·m2 (3.0 × 10−9 C)(3.0 × 10−9 C)
F =k = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 8.99 × 10−7 N
r2 (0.30 m)2
and now the force is repulsive since both spheres are both negatively charged.

6. Three charges are arranged as shown in Fig. 1.4. Find the magnitude and

44
6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

!"#$#!%&'#( &!)#$#!%&'#( &*+%#$#!%&'#( &*+%#$#!%&'#(

#$% #&%

Figure 1.3: (a) Conducting spheres are given different charges. (b) Charges on the spheres after being
joined by a conducting wire.

,+%%#-( .+%%#-(
%+*%%#/
$
%+!%%#/

&*+%%#-(

Figure 1.4: Charges in Example 6

direction of the electrostatic force on the charge at the origin. [SF7 15-11]

Let’s call the 6.00 nC charge q1 and the −3.00 nC charge q2. (The charge at the origin is
Q = +5.00 nC.)
The force from q1 is repulsive and points to the right. The force from q2 is attractive and
points downward, as shown in Fig. 1.5. We need to find the magnitudes of F1 and F2 and
then add those two force vectors.
From Coulomb’s law we get the magnitude of F1 ; since charge q1 is at a distance r1 =

!! ,+%%#-(
#

!"
!-12
Figure 1.5: Forces on Q in Example 6

45
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7

0.300 m from Q,

|Qq1|
F1 = k
r12
N·m2 (5.00 × 10−9 C)(6.00 × 10−9 C)
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) 2
= 3.00 × 10−6 N
(0.300 m)

Likewise, the magnitude of F2 is

|Qq2|
F2 = k
r22
N·m2 (5.00 × 10−9 C)(3.00 × 10−9 C)
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 1.35 × 10−5 N
(0.100 m)2

Then the total force on Q has the components

Fx = −3.00 × 10−6 N Fy = −1.35 × 10−5 N

What is the magnitude and direction of this vector? Its magnitude is

!
F = (−3.00 × 10−6 N)2 + (−1.35 × 10−5 N)2 = 1.38 × 10−5 N

and the direction we can find from

(−1.35 × 10−5 )
θ = tan−1 = 77.5◦ − 180◦ = −103◦
(−3.00 × 10−6 )

(Note, we subtract 180◦ from the simple answer because the direction of the force is in the
third quadrant.)
The net force on Q has magnitude 1.38 × 10−5 N and points at an angle of −103◦ from
the +x axis.

7. Two small metallic spheres, each of mass 0.20 g are suspended as pendulums
by light strings from a common point as shown in Fig. 1.6. The spheres are given
the same electric charge and it is found that they come to equilibrium when each
string is at an angle of 5.0◦ with the vertical. If each string is 30.0 cm long, what
is the magnitude of the charge on each sphere? [SF7 15-15]

From simple trig we can calculate the distance between the two spheres. If this distance
is x, then
x = 2(30.0 m) sin 5.0◦ = 5.23 cm = 5.23 × 10−2 m

46
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

!!
*%+%#3/ *%+%#3/

%+"%#4 %+"%#4

Figure 1.6: Suspended charged spheres in Example 7

"#$%
"#$%
'
&1513

(
$%

Figure 1.7: Forces acting on a charged sphere in Example 7

47
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9

Now consider the forces acting on one of the spheres, say the one on the right. These are
shown in Fig. 1.7, where we also note (for reference) the location of other sphere. The right
sphere experiences a force of electric repulsion from the left sphere. The forces are the force
of gravity (mg, downward), the tension of the string (magnitude T ; it pulls at an angle 5.0◦
from the vertical) and the electric repulsive force. From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of
the latter is
q2
Felec = k 2
x
where q is the magnitude of the charge on each sphere.
The sphere is in equilibrium, so the forces must sum to zero. The vertical forces cancel
out, giving us:

mg (2.00 × 10−4 kg)(9.80 sm2 )

T cos 5.0 = mg
◦
=⇒ T = = = 1.97 × 10−3 N
cos 5.0◦ cos 5.0◦

The horizontal forces cancel out and this gives:

q2
T sin 5.0◦ = Felec = k
x2
which lets us solve for q:

T x2 sin 5.0◦ (1.97 × 10−3 N)(5.23 × 10−2 )2 sin 5.0◦

q2 = = 2 = 5.22 × 10−17 C2
k (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
)

so then
q = 7.2 × 10−9 C = 7.2 nC

48
Chapter 2
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge........................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Coulomb's Law ....................................................................................................... 2
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator .................................................................. 3
2.3 Principle of Superposition....................................................................................... 4
Example 2.1: Three Charges....................................................................................... 4
2.4 Electric Field........................................................................................................... 6
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges ........................................................ 7
2.5 Electric Field Lines ................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field .................................................... 9
2.7 Electric Dipole ...................................................................................................... 10
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole......................................................................... 11
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole................................................................................ 12
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field......................................................................................... 12
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ........................................................... 13
2.9 Charge Density...................................................................................................... 15
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density.................................................................................. 15
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density .................................................................................. 16
2.9.3 Line Charge Density ....................................................................................... 16
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions....................................... 17
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod .................................................... 17
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector ...................................... 18
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring ................................................... 20
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk ............................... 22
2.11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 24
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies .................................................................................. 26
2.13 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 28
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom ........................................................................................... 28
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment .................................................................... 29
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field .................................. 30
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole............................................................................. 32
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc................................................................................ 35
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod.................................................. 36

0
49
2.14 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................... 38
2.15 Additional Problems ............................................................................................. 39
2.15.1 Three Point Charges..................................................................................... 39
2.15.2 Three Point Charges..................................................................................... 39
2.15.3 Four Point Charges ...................................................................................... 40
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire ........................................................................................ 40
2.15.5 Electric Dipole ............................................................................................. 41
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder ...................................................... 41
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls ................................................................................. 42
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole....................................................................... 42

1
50
 Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge

There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).

The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of

e = 1.602 ×10−19 C (2.1.1)

Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron carries

one unit of negative charge, −e , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, +e . In
a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be
created nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.

2.2 Coulomb's Law

Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r in vacuum.

The force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:

q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ (2.2.1)
r2

where ke is the Coulomb constant, and rˆ = r / r is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 ,

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges

Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by

2
51
 1
ke = = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 (2.2.2)
4πε 0

where
1
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N ⋅ m 2 (2.2.3)
4π (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C )
9 2 2

is known as the “permittivity of free space.” Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 = −F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.

As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r = 5.3 × 10 −11 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately Fe = ke e 2 / r 2 = 8.2 × 10 −8 N . On the other hand, one may show
that the gravitational force is only Fg ≈ 3.6 ×10−47 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
neglected when dealing with electrostatic forces!

Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator

Consider Figure 2.2.2(a) below. The figure illustrates the repulsive force transmitted
between two objects by their electric fields. The system consists of a charged metal
sphere of a van de Graaff generator. This sphere is fixed in space and is not free to move.
The other object is a small charged sphere that is free to move (we neglect the force of
gravity on this sphere). According to Coulomb’s law, these two like charges repel each
another. That is, the small sphere experiences a repulsive force away from the van de
Graaff sphere.

Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
“stresses” transmitted by electric fields. We use both the “grass seeds” representation
and the ”field lines” representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.

The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have

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52
the small sphere “bounce off” of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.

Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulomb’s law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
“bounce off” of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.

The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not “action at a distance.” Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct “contact” from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.

Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing “lines of force” or “field lines” was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.

2.3 Principle of Superposition

Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be

F3 = F13 + F23 (2.3.1)

The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.

Example 2.1: Three Charges

Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming that q1 = 6.0 × 10 −6 C , q2 = − q1 = −6.0 × 10 −6 C , q3 = +3.0 × 10−6 C and
a = 2.0 × 10−2 m .

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53
 Figure 2.3.1 A system of three charges

Solution:

Using the superposition principle, the force on q3 is

1 » q1q3 q2 q3 ¿
F3 = F13 + F23 = ¼ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 À
4πε 0 ½ r13 r23 Á

In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r̂13 and r̂23 do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.

From the figure, we see that the unit vector r̂13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
2 ˆ ˆ
rˆ13 = cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj = (i + j)
2

Similarly, the unit vector rˆ23 = ˆi points from q2 to q3 . Therefore, the total force is

1 » q1q3 q2 q3 ¿ 1 » q1q3 2 ˆ ˆ (−q1 )q3 ˆ ¿

F3 = ¼ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 À = ¼¼ (i + j) + i ÀÀ
4πε 0 ½ r13 r23 Á 4πε 0 ½ ( 2a ) 2
2
a2 Á
1 q1q3 £» 2 ¿ 2 ˆ§
= ¤¼¼ − 1ÀÀ ˆi + j¨
4πε 0 a 2 ¤¥½ 4 Á 4 ¨©

upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by

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54
 12
1 q1q3 £» 2 ¿ » 2 ¿ §
2 2

F3 = ¤¼ − 1ÀÀ + ¼¼ ÀÀ ¨
4πε 0 a 2 ¤¼½ 4 Á ½ 4 Á ¨©
¥
(6.0 × 10−6 C)(3.0 × 10−6 C)
= (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (0.74) = 3.0 N
(2.0 × 10−2 m) 2

The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is

» F3, y ¿ £ 2/4 §
φ = tan −1 ¼¼ −1
ÀÀ = tan ¤ ¨ = 151.3°
½ F3, x Á ¥ −1 + 2 / 4 ©

Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution φ = −28.7° is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive î and negative ĵ components.

For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be

N
F j = ∑ Fij (2.3.2)
i =1
ib j

where Fij denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.

2.4 Electric Field

The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.

An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of

the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:

Fe
E = lim (2.4.1)
q0 → 0 q
0

We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 → 0

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55
 Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .

From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe = q0E on a test charge q0 .

Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by

1 q
E= rˆ (2.4.2)
4πε 0 r 2

Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:

1 qi
E = ∑ Ei = ∑ rˆ (2.4.3)
i i 4πε 0 ri 2

Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges

Figure 2.4.2 shows one frame of animations of the electric field of a moving positive and
negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of
light.

Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.

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56
2.5 Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of the electric field in
space. The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in Figure 2.5.1.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.

Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.

Figure 2.5.2 Field lines for an electric dipole.

The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:

(1) Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges there is an
equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be symmetrical about the line
joining the two charges

(2) Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge predominates.
Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically symmetric.

(3) Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look like that of a single
point charge of value Q = ∑ i Qi . Thus, the lines should be radially outward, unless
Q = 0.

(4) Null point: This is a point at which E = 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.

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57
The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:

• The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.

• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.

• The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).

• The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.

2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field

Consider a charge + q moving between two parallel plates of opposite charges, as shown
in Figure 2.6.1.

Figure 2.6.1 Charge moving in a constant electric field

Let the electric field between the plates be E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force

Fe = qE (2.6.1)

Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newton’s third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the “source” charges only.

According to Newton’s second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration

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58
 Fe qE qE
a= = = − y ˆj (2.6.2)
m m m

Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 = 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is

2 yqE y
vy = 2 | ay | y = (2.6.3)
m

where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is

1 2
K= mv y = qE y y (2.6.4)
2

2.7 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges, + q and − q , separated by a
distance 2a , as shown in Figure 2.7.1.

Figure 2.7.1 Electric dipole

The dipole moment vector p which points from − q to + q (in the + y - direction) is given
by

p = 2qa ˆj (2.7.1)

The magnitude of the electric dipole is p = 2qa , where q > 0 . For an overall charge-
neutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as

i=N
p c ∑ qi ri (2.7.2)
i =1

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59
where ri is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.

2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole

What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is

» ¿
q » cosθ + cosθ − ¿ q ¼ x x À
Ex = ¼ − À= − (2.7.3)
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2 (2.7.4)

Similarly, the y -component is

» ¿
q » sin θ + sin θ − ¿ q ¼ y−a y+a À
Ey = ¼ − À = − (2.7.5)
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

In the “point-dipole” limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem 2.13.4)
the above expressions reduce to

3p
Ex = sin θ cos θ (2.7.6)
4πε 0 r 3
and
Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1) (2.7.7)

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r . With 3 pr cos θ = 3p ⋅ r and some algebra, the electric
field may be written as

1 » p 3(p ⋅ r )r ¿
E (r ) = ¼− + À (2.7.8)
4πε 0 ½ r 3 r5 Á

Note that Eq. (2.7.8) is valid also in three dimensions where r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ . The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r 3 ,

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60
unlike the 1/ r 2 behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r 2 at large distance. The
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.

Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.

Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole

Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
“grass seeds” representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.

Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.

2.8 Dipole in Electric Field

What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E = E ˆi , with the
dipole moment vector p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see that
the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj . Thus, we have

p = 2qa (cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj) (2.8.1)

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61
 Figure 2.8.1 Electric dipole placed in a uniform field.

As seen from Figure 2.8.1 above, since each charge experiences an equal but opposite
force due to the field, the net force on the dipole is Fnet = F+ + F− = 0 . Even though the net
force vanishes, the field exerts a torque a toque on the dipole. The torque about the
midpoint O of the dipole is

τ = r+ × F+ + r− × F− = (a cos θ ˆi + a sin θ ˆj) × ( F+ ˆi ) + (− a cos θ ˆi − a sin θ ˆj) × (− F− ˆi )

= a sin θ F+ (−kˆ ) + a sin θ F− (−kˆ ) (2.8.2)
= 2aF sin θ (−kˆ )

where we have used F+ = F− = F . The direction of the torque is −kˆ , or into the page.
The effect of the torque τ is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F = qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as

Ä = 2a ( qE ) sin θ = (2aq ) E sin θ = pE sin θ

and the general expression for toque becomes

τ = p×E (2.8.3)

Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.

2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle dθ is

dW = −Ä dθ = − pE sin θ dθ (2.8.4)

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62
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in θ . Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle θ 0 to θ is

θ
W = ∫ (− pE sin θ ) dθ = pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.5)
θ0

The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos θ > cos θ 0 . The
change in potential energy ∆U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:

∆U = U − U 0 = −W = − pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.6)

where U 0 = − PE cos θ 0 is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
reference point to be θ 0 = π 2 so that the potential energy is zero there, U 0 = 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy

U = − pE cos θ = −p ⋅ E (2.8.7)

A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
U min = − pE . On the other hand, when p and E are anti-parallel, U max = + pE is a
maximum and the system is unstable.

If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field E+ at + q differs from
the electric field E− at − q .

Figure 2.8.2 Force on a dipole

Assuming the dipole to be very small, we expand the fields about x :

» dE ¿ » dE ¿
E+ ( x + a ) ≈ E ( x ) + a ¼ À , E− ( x − a ) ≈ E ( x ) − a ¼ À (2.8.8)
½ dx Á ½ dx Á

The force on the dipole then becomes

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63
 » dE ¿ ˆ » dE ¿
Fe = q (E+ − E − ) = 2qa ¼ Ài = p¼ À î (2.8.9)
½ dx Á ½ dx Á

An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).

Figure 2.8.3 Electrostatic attraction between a piece of paper and a comb

2.9 Charge Density

The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space? Let’s consider the system shown in Figure
2.9.1:

Figure 2.9.1 Electric field due to a small charge element ∆qi .

2.9.1 Volume Charge Density

Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P . Let’s consider a small
volume element ∆Vi which contains an amount of charge ∆qi . The distances between
charges within the volume element ∆Vi are much smaller than compared to r, the
distance between ∆Vi and P . In the limit where ∆Vi becomes infinitesimally small, we
may define a volume charge density ρ (r ) as

∆qi dq
ρ (r ) = lim = (2.9.1)
∆Vi → 0 ∆V dV
i

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The dimension of ρ (r ) is charge/unit volume (C/m3 ) in SI units. The total amount of
charge within the entire volume V is

Q = ∑ ∆qi = ∫ ρ (r ) dV (2.9.2)
i V

The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ m (r ) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by

M = ∫ ρ m (r ) dV (2.9.3)
V

2.9.2 Surface Charge Density

In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density à (lowercase Greek letter sigma):

dq
à (r ) = (2.9.4)
dA

The dimension of à is charge/unit area (C/m 2 ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:

Q = ∫∫ Ã (r ) dA (2.9.5)
S

2.9.3 Line Charge Density

If the charge is distributed over a line of length , then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is

dq
λ (r ) = (2.9.6)
d

where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:

Q= ∫ λ (r ) d
line
(2.9.7)

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65
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( ρ , Ã or λ ) then
become uniform.

2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions

The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:

1 dq
dE = rˆ (2.10.1)
4πε 0 r 2

where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:

1 dq
E=
4πε 0 V ∫r 2
rˆ (2.10.2)

This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.

Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.

Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire

Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.

Solution:

The linear charge density is uniform and is given by λ = Q / . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dx ′ is dq = λ dx′ .

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66
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is rˆ = −ˆi . The contribution
to the electric field due to dq is

1 dq 1 λ dx′ ˆ 1 Qdx′ ˆ
dE = rˆ = (− i ) = − i
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 x′ 2
4πε 0 x′2

Integrating over the entire length leads to

1 Q x0 + dx′ ˆ 1 Q» 1 1 ¿ˆ 1 Q
E = ∫ dE = − ∫ i=− ¼ − Ài = − ˆi (2.10.3)
4πε 0 x0 x′ 2
4πε 0 ½ x0 x0 + Á 4πε 0 x0 ( + x0 )

Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 , and the above expression
becomes

1 Qˆ
E≈− i (2.10.4)
4πε 0 x02

The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.

Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.2. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.

Figure 2.10.2

Solution:

We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dx ′ carrying charge dq = λ dx′ is

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67
 1dq 1 λ dx′
dE = = (2.10.5)
4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2

Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x -
component of the electric field vanishes.

Figure 2.10.3 Symmetry argument showing that Ex = 0 .

The y-component of dE is

1 λ dx′ y 1 λ y dx′
dE y = dE cos θ = = (2.10.6)
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
x′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is

1 /2 λ ydx′ λy /2 dx′
E y = ∫ dE y = ∫ = ∫ (2.10.7)
4πε 0 − /2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
4πε 0 − / 2 ( x′ + y 2 ) 3/ 2
2

By making the change of variable: x′ = y tan θ ′ , which gives dx′ = y sec 2 θ ′ dθ ′ , the
above integral becomes

/2 dx′ θ y sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′

∫− / 2 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=∫ 3
−θ y (sec 2 θ ′ + 1) 3/ 2
= 2∫
y −θ (tan θ ′ + 1)
2 3/ 2
= 2
y ∫−θ secθ ′3
(2.10.8)
1 θ dθ ′ 1 θ 2sin θ
= 2∫ = 2 ∫ cos θ ′dθ ′ =
y −θ sec θ ′ y −θ y2

which gives

1 2λ sin θ 1 2λ /2
Ey = = (2.10.9)
4πε 0 y 4πε 0 y y 2 + ( / 2) 2

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In the limit where y , the above expression reduces to the “point-charge” limit:

1 2λ / 2 1 λ 1 Q
Ey ≈ = = (2.10.10)
4πε 0 y y 4πε 0 y 2
4πε 0 y 2

On the other hand, when y , we have

1 2λ
Ey ≈ (2.10.11)
4πε 0 y

In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of E y / E0 (with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 2 ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.

Figure 2.10.4 Electric field of a non-conducting rod as a function of y / .

Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring

A non-conducting ring of radius R with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying in the xy - plane, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. Compute the electric field at a point
P, located at a distance z from the center of the ring along its axis of symmetry.

Figure 2.10.5 Electric field at P due to the charge element dq .

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Solution:

Consider a small length element d ′ on the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq = λ d ′ = λ R dφ ′ . Its contribution to the electric field at P is

1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dE = rˆ = rˆ (2.10.12)
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2

Figure 2.10.6

Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the + z direction.

1 λ R dφ ′ z λ Rz dφ ′
dEz = dE cos θ = = (2.10.13)
4πε 0 R + z
2 2
R2 + z 2 4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2

Upon integrating over the entire ring, we obtain

λ Rz λ 2π Rz 1 Qz
Ez =
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε 0 (R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
(2.10.14)

where the total charge is Q = λ (2π R ) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.

Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
radius R, with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 R 2 .

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Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.

Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk

A uniformly charged disk of radius R with a total charge Q lies in the xy-plane. Find the
electric field at a point P , along the z-axis that passes through the center of the disk
perpendicular to its plane. Discuss the limit where R  z .

Solution:

By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved by using the result obtained in Example 2.4. Consider a ring of radius r ′ and
thickness dr ′ , as shown in Figure 2.10.8.

Figure 2.10.8 A uniformly charged disk of radius R.

By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the + z -direction. Since the ring
has a charge dq = Ã (2π r ′ dr ′) , from Eq. (2.10.14), we see that the ring gives a
contribution

1 z dq 1 z (2πà r ′ dr ′)
dEz = = (2.10.15)
4πε 0 (r ′ + z )
2
2 3/ 2
4πε 0 (r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from r ′ = 0 to r ′ = R , the total electric field at P becomes

Ãz r ′ dr ′ Ãz du à z u −1/ 2 R + z
2 2
R R2 + z 2
Ez = ∫ dEz = ∫ = ∫ =
2ε 0 0 (r ′ + z )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 z2 u 3/ 2 4ε 0 (−1/ 2) z 2
(2.10.16)
Ãz £ 1 1 § Ã £ z z §
=− ¤ 2 − ¨= ¤ − ¨
2ε 0 ¥ R + z 2 z 2 © 2ε 0 ¥| z | R2 + z 2 ©

22
71
The above equation may be rewritten as

§ Ã £ z §
ª ¤1 − 2 ¨ , z>0
ª 2ε 0 ¥ z + R2 ©
Ez = ¨ (2.10.17)
ªÃ £ z §
ª 2ε ¤ − 1 − ¨ , z<0
© 0¥ z 2 + R2 ©

The electric field Ez / E0 ( E0 = Ã / 2ε 0 ) as a function of z / R is shown in Figure 2.10.9.

Figure 2.10.9 Electric field of a non-conducting plane of uniform charge density.

To show that the “point-charge” limit is recovered for z R , we make use of the
Taylor-series expansion:

−1/ 2
z » R2 ¿ » 1 R2 ¿ 1 R2
1− = 1 − ¼1 + 2 À = 1 − ¼1 − 2
+ À≈ 2
(2.10.18)
z 2 + R2 ½ z Á ½ 2 z Á 2 z

This gives

à R2 1 Ãπ R 2 1 Q
Ez = = = (2.10.19)
2ε 0 2 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
4πε 0 z 2

which is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or the
field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this limit
becomes, in unit-vector notation,

§ Ã ˆ
ª 2ε k , z>0
ª
E=¨
0
(2.10.20)
ª− Ã kˆ , z<0
ª© 2ε 0

23
72
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.

Figure 2.10.10 Electric field of an infinitely large non-conducting plane.

Notice the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane. The discontinuity is given
by

à » à ¿ Ã
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −¼− À= (2.10.21)
2ε 0 ½ 2ε 0 Á ε 0

As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density à , then the normal
component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a discontinuity with
∆En = Ã / ε 0 .

2.11 Summary

• The electric force exerted by a charge q1 on a second charge q2 is given by

Coulomb’s law:

q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ = r̂
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where

1
ke = = 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2
4πε 0
is the Coulomb constant.

• The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :

Fe
E = lim
q0 → 0 q
0

24
73
• The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is

1 q
E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

• A particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E has an acceleration

qE
a=
m

• An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude

p = 2aq

• The torque acting on an electric dipole places in a uniform electric field E is

τ = p×E

• The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E is

U = −p ⋅ E

• The electric field at a point in space due to a continuous charge element dq is

1 dq
dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the “point-charge” limit.

25
74
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies

In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral

1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ

where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:

1 dq
(1) Start with dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

(2) Rewrite the charge element dq as

§λ d (length)
ª
dq = ¨Ã dA (area)
ª ρ dV (volume)
©

depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.

(3) Substitute dq into the expression for dE .

(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and

express the differential element ( d , dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see
Table 2.1 below for summary.)

Cartesian (x, y, z) Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z) Spherical (r, θ, φ)

dl dx, dy , dz d ρ , ρ dφ , dz dr , r dθ , r sin θ dφ
dA dx dy , dy dz , dz dx d ρ dz , ρ dφ dz , ρ dφ d ρ r dr dθ , r sin θ dr dφ , r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
dV dx dy dz ρ d ρ dφ dz r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ

Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates

26
75
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.

(6) Complete the integration to obtain E .

In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute
the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.

Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk

Figure

(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ d dq = Ã dA
density

λ dx′ λ dl à dA
(3) Write down dE dE = ke dE = ke dE = ke
r′ 2
r 2
r2

(4) Rewrite r and the dx′ d = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ' dr '

differential element y z z
in terms of the cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
appropriate
r′ r r
coordinates r ′ = x′2 + y 2 r = R2 + z2 r = r′ + z 2
2

(5) Apply symmetry dE y = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ

argument to identify
λ ydx′ λ Rz dφ ′ 2πà zr ′ dr ′
non-vanishing = ke = ke = ke
component(s) of dE ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
(r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Rλ z
+ /2 dx
E z = ke
( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ Ez = 2πÃke z∫
R r′ dr′
Ey = keλ y∫
− /2 ( x2 + y2 )3/ 2 (2π Rλ ) z
0 (r′ + z2 )3/2
2

(6) Integrate to get E = ke 2 2 3/ 2

2keλ » z
=
/2 (R + z ) z ¿
y ( / 2)2 + y2 Qz
= 2πÃke ¼ − À
½| z | z + R Á
2 2
= ke 2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )

27
76
2.13 Solved Problems

2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom

In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
a radius of r = 0.53 × 10 −10 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e = 1.6 ×10−19 C .

(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?

(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?

(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?

(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.

Solutions:

(a) The magnitude of the force is given by

1 e2
Fe =
4πε 0 r 2

Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is

(9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 ×10−19 C)2

Fe = −11
= 8.2 ×10−8 N
(5.3 ×10 m) 2

(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by

1 q (9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 ×10−19 C)

E= = = 5.76 × 1011 N / C
4πε 0 r 2 (0.5 ×10−10 m) 2

(c) The mass of the electron is me = 9.1× 10 −31 kg and the mass of the proton is
m p = 1.7 ×10−27 kg . Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational
force is given by

28
77
 » 1 e2 ¿ 1 2
¼ 2 À e
½ 4πε 0 r Á 4πε 0 (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C) 2
γ= = = −11 −27 −31
= 2.2 ×1039
» m p me ¿ Gm p me (6.67 ×10 N ⋅ m / kg )(1.7 × 10 kg)(9.1× 10 kg)
2 2

¼G 2 À
½ r Á

which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.

(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of 10 −24 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.

2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

An oil drop of radius r = 1.64 ×10−6 m and mass density ρ oil = 8.51× 102 kg m3 is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg = mg = − mg ˆj on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
force, Fe = qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when the electric field is
E = − E y ˆj = −(1.92 × 105 N C) ˆj , with E y = 1.92 ×105 N C .

(a) What is the mass of the oil drop?

(b) What is the charge on the oil drop in units of electronic charge e = 1.6 ×10−19 C ?

Solutions:

(a) The mass density ρoil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of
the oil drop,
»4 ¿
M = ρ oilV = ρ oil ¼ π r 3 À
½3 Á

where the oil drop is assumed to be a sphere of radius r with volume V = 4π r 3 / 3 .

Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,

29
78
 »4 ¿ » 4π ¿
M = ρ oil ¼ π r 3 À = (8.51× 102 kg m 3 ) ¼ −6 −14
À (1.64×10 m) = 1.57×10 kg
3

½ 3 Á ½ 3 Á

(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg + Fe = 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have

0 = mg + qE ⇒ mg = − qE y

With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector ĵ to point upward. We can
solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:

mg (1.57 × 10−14 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 )

q=− =− = −8.03 × 10−19 C
Ey 1.92 × 10 N C
5

Since the electron has charge e = 1 . 6 ×10− 19 C , the charge of the oil drop in units of e is

q 8.02 ×10−19 C
N= = =5
e 1.6 ×10−19 C

You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!

2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field

An electron is injected horizontally into a uniform field produced by two oppositely

charged plates, as shown in Figure 2.13.1. The particle has an initial velocity v 0 = v0 ˆi
perpendicular to E .

Figure 2.13.1 Charge moving perpendicular to an electric field

30
79
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?

(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?

(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?

(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t = 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?

(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?

(f) What angle θ1 does the electron make θ1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?

(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time
t2 . What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t = 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?

Solutions:

(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q = −e , the force on the electron is

F e = qE = −eE = (−e)(− E y )ˆj = eE y ˆj

where the electric field is written as E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . The force on the electron is
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.

(b) The acceleration of the electron is

qE qE eE
a= = − y ˆj = y ˆj
m m m

and its direction is upward.

31
80
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 = L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.

(d) The electron has an initial horizontal velocity, v 0 = v0 ˆi . Since the acceleration of the
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by

» eE y
v = vx ˆi + v y ˆj = v0 ˆi + a y t1 ˆj = v0 ˆi + ¼
¿ ˆ ˆ » eE y L1 À¿ ˆj
À t1 j = v0 i + ¼
½ m Á ½ mv0 Á

(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L1 in the time
t1 = L1 v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement

2
1 1 » eE y ¿ » L1 ¿
y1 = a y t12 = ¼ À¼ À
2 2 ½ m Á ½ v0 Á

(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle θ1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,

vy (eE y / m)( L1 / v0 ) eE y L1
tan θ = = =
vx v0 mv0 2

(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is

eE y L1 L2
y2 = L2 tan θ1 =
mv0 2

and the total deflection becomes

2
1 eE y L1 eE y L1 L2 eE y L1 » 1 ¿
y = y1 + y2 = 2
+ 2
= 2 ¼
L1 + L2 À
2 mv0 mv0 mv0 ½ 2 Á

2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole

Consider the electric dipole moment shown in Figure 2.7.1.

(a) Show that the electric field of the dipole in the limit where r a is

32
81
 3 (
3cos 2 θ − 1)
3p p
Ex = sin θ cos θ , E y =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r .

(b) Show that the above expression for the electric field can also be written in terms of
the polar coordinates as

E(r ,θ ) = Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ

where
2 p cos θ p sin θ
Er = , Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3

Solutions:

(a) Let’s compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x -
component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, 0)
is given by

» ¿
q » cosθ + cosθ − ¿ q ¼ x x À
Ex = ¼ − À = −
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

where

r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2

Similarly, the y -component is given by

» ¿
q » sin θ + sin θ − ¿ q ¼ y−a y+a À
Ey = ¼ − À = −
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r 3 and ignore terms that
are proportional to 1/ r 5 , where r = +( x 2 + y 2 )1 2 .

We begin with

33
82
 −3/ 2
2 −3/ 2 −3/ 2 £
−3 a 2 ± 2ay §
[ x + ( y ± a) ]
2
= [ x + y + a ± 2ay ]
2 2 2
= r ¤1 + ¨
¥ r2 ©

In the limit where r >> a , we use the Taylor-series expansion with s c (a 2 ± 2ay ) / r 2 :

3 15
(1 + s ) −3 / 2 = 1 − s + s 2 − ...
2 8

and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes

q 6 xya
Ex = + ...
4πε 0 r 5
and
q » 2a 6 y 2 a ¿
Ey = ¼− + 5 À + ...
4πε 0 ½ r 3 r Á

where we have neglected the O( s 2 ) terms. The electric field can then be written as

q £ 2a ˆ 6 ya ˆ § p £ 3 yx ˆ » 3 y 2 ¿ §
E = Ex ˆi + E y ˆj = ¤ − 3 j + 5 ( x i + y ˆj) ¨ = ¤ 2 i + ¼ 2 − 1 À ˆj¨
4πε 0 ¥ r r © 4πε 0 r
3
¥ r ½ r Á ©

where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p = 2aq .

In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin θ = x r and cosθ = y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:

Ex =
3p
4πε 0 r 3
sin θ cos θ, Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1)

(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:

E( r ,θ ) =
p £3sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( 3cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj§
4πε 0 r ¥3 ©

With a little algebra, the above expression may be rewritten as

34
83
 E( r ,θ ) =
p
4πε 0 r ¥
3 ( )
£ 2 cos θ sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj + sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj§
©

=
p
( ) (
£ 2 cos θ sin θ ˆi + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cosθ ˆi − sin θ ˆj §
4πε 0 r 3 ¥ © )
where the trigonometric identity ( cos 2 θ − 1) = − sin 2 θ has been used. Since the unit
vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates can be decomposed as

rˆ = sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj
θˆ = cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj,

the electric field in polar coordinates is given by

p £ 2 cos θ rˆ + sin θ θˆ §
E( r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ¥ ©

and the magnitude of E is

p
( 3cos θ + 1)
1/ 2
E = ( Er 2 + Eθ 2 )1/ 2 = 2

4πε 0 r 3

2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc

A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of an arc of a
circle of radius R. The arc subtends a total angle 2θ 0 , symmetric about the x-axis, as
shown in Figure 2.13.2. What is the electric field E at the origin O?

Solution:

Consider a differential element of length d = R dθ , which makes an angle θ with the

x - axis, as shown in Figure 2.13.2(b). The amount of charge it carries is
dq = λ d = λ R dθ .

The contribution to the electric field at O is

1 λ dθ
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ =
1 dq
4πε 0 R 2 (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj =
4πε 0 R
) (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj )

35
84
 Figure 2.13.2 (a) Geometry of charged source. (b) Charge element dq

Integrating over the angle from −θ 0 to +θ 0 , we have

1 λ θ0
( ˆi − sin θ ˆj = 1 λ − sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj θ 0 = − 1 2λ sin θ 0 ˆi
) ( )
4πε 0 R ∫−θ0
E= dθ − cos θ
4πε 0 R −θ 0 4πε 0 R

We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit θ 0 → π , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin π = 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
small θ0 , sin θ 0 ≈ θ 0 and we recover the point-charge limit:

1 2λθ 0 ˆ 1 2λθ 0 R ˆ 1 Q ˆ
E≈− i=− i=− i
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 2
4πε 0 R 2

where the total charge on the arc is Q = λ = λ (2 Rθ 0 ) .

2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.13.3. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y off the axis of the rod.

Figure 2.13.3

36
85
Solution:

The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx′ on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq = λ dx′ .

Figure 2.13.4

The electric field at P produced by this element is

λ dx′
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r ′ 2
rˆ =
1
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
(
− sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj )
where the unit vector r̂ has been written in Cartesian coordinates: rˆ = − sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj .
In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and y-components. The x-
component of the electric field is

1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ x′ 1 λ x′ dx′

dE x = − sin θ ′ = − =−
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from x′ = x1 to x′ = x2 , we have

λ x′ dx′ λ 1 x22 + y 2 du λ −1/ 2 x2 + y

2 2
x2
Ex = −
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=−
4πε 0 2 ∫x12 + y 2 u 3/ 2 4πε 0
= u
x1 + y
2 2

λ £ 1 1 § λ £ y y §
= ¤ − ¨= ¤ − ¨
4πε 0 ¤ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
¨ 4πε y ¤ x 2
+ y 2
x 2
+ y 2
¨©
¥ 1 © 0
¥ 2 1

λ
= ( cos θ 2 − cos θ1 )
4πε 0 y

Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is

37
86
 1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ y 1 λ ydx′
dE y = cos θ ′ = =
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

Integrating over the entire length of the rod, we obtain

λy dx′ λy 1 θ2 λ
( sin θ 2 − sin θ1 )
x2
Ey =
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 y 2 ∫θ 1
cos θ ′ dθ ′ =
4πε 0 y

where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.

In the infinite length limit where x1 → −∞ and x2 → +∞ , with xi = y tan θi , the

corresponding angles are θ1 = −π / 2 and θ 2 = +π / 2 . Substituting the values into the
expressions above, we have

12λ
E x = 0, Ey =
4πε 0 y

in complete agreement with the result shown in Eq. (2.10.11).

2.14 Conceptual Questions

1. Compare and contrast Newton’s law of gravitation, Fg = Gm1m2 / r 2 , and

Coulomb’s law, Fe = kq1q2 / r 2 .

2. Can electric field lines cross each other? Explain.

3. Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.

The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?

4. A test charge is placed at the point P near a positively-charged insulating rod.

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87
 How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?

5. An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?

2.15 Additional Problems

2.15.1 Three Point Charges

Three point charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as shown in
Figure 2.15.1.

Figure 2.15.1 Three point charges

Calculate the net electric force experienced by (a) the 9.00 µ C charge, and (b) the
−6.00 µ C charge.

2.15.2 Three Point Charges

A right isosceles triangle of side a has charges q, +2q and −q arranged on its vertices, as
shown in Figure 2.15.2.

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88
 Figure 2.15.2

What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and −q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.

2.15.3 Four Point Charges

Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.

Figure 2.15.3 Four point charges

(a) What is the electric field at the location of charge q ?

(b) What is the net force on 2q?

2.15.4 Semicircular Wire

A positively charged wire is bent into a semicircle of radius R, as shown in Figure 2.15.4.

Figure 2.15.4

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89
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by λ = λ0 cosθ .

(a) What is the relationship between λ0 , R and Q?

(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?

2.15.5 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the + x -
direction is displaced by a small angle θ from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.

Figure 2.15.5

The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?

2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder

(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)

Figure 2.15.6 A uniformly charged cylinder

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90
(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)

2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls

Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle θ with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that θ is so small that tanθ ≈ sin θ .

Figure 2.15.9

(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is

13
» q2 ¿
r =¼ À
½ 2πε 0 mg Á

(b) If l = 1.2 × 102 cm , m = 1.0 × 101 g , and x = 5.0 cm , what is q ?

2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two charges q1 = +2e and q2 = −2e ( e = 1.6 × 10− 19 C ),
separated by a distance d = 10− 9 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
shown in Figure 2.15.10.

Figure 2.15.10

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Suppose a constant external electric field Eext = (3 ˆi + 3ˆj)N/C is applied.

(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?

(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?

(c) Do the electric fields of the charges q1 and q2 contribute to the torque on the dipole?
Briefly explain your answer.

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Chapter 2
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge........................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Coulomb's Law ....................................................................................................... 2
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator .................................................................. 3
2.3 Principle of Superposition....................................................................................... 4
Example 2.1: Three Charges....................................................................................... 4
2.4 Electric Field........................................................................................................... 6
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges ........................................................ 7
2.5 Electric Field Lines ................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field .................................................... 9
2.7 Electric Dipole ...................................................................................................... 10
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole......................................................................... 11
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole................................................................................ 12
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field......................................................................................... 12
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ........................................................... 13
2.9 Charge Density...................................................................................................... 15
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density.................................................................................. 15
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density .................................................................................. 16
2.9.3 Line Charge Density ....................................................................................... 16
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions....................................... 17
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod .................................................... 17
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector ...................................... 18
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring ................................................... 20
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk ............................... 22
2.11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 24
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies .................................................................................. 26
2.13 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 28
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom ........................................................................................... 28
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment .................................................................... 29
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field .................................. 30
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole............................................................................. 32
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc................................................................................ 35
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod.................................................. 36

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2.14 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................... 38
2.15 Additional Problems ............................................................................................. 39
2.15.1 Three Point Charges..................................................................................... 39
2.15.2 Three Point Charges..................................................................................... 39
2.15.3 Four Point Charges ...................................................................................... 40
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire ........................................................................................ 40
2.15.5 Electric Dipole ............................................................................................. 41
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder ...................................................... 41
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls ................................................................................. 42
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole....................................................................... 42

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 Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge

There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).

The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of

e = 1.602 ×10−19 C (2.1.1)

Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron carries

one unit of negative charge, −e , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, +e . In
a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be
created nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.

2.2 Coulomb's Law

Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r in vacuum.

The force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:

q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ (2.2.1)
r2

where ke is the Coulomb constant, and rˆ = r / r is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 ,

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges

Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by

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95
 1
ke = = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 (2.2.2)
4πε 0

where
1
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N ⋅ m 2 (2.2.3)
4π (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C )
9 2 2

is known as the “permittivity of free space.” Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 = −F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.

As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r = 5.3 × 10 −11 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately Fe = ke e 2 / r 2 = 8.2 × 10 −8 N . On the other hand, one may show
that the gravitational force is only Fg ≈ 3.6 ×10−47 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
neglected when dealing with electrostatic forces!

Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator

Consider Figure 2.2.2(a) below. The figure illustrates the repulsive force transmitted
between two objects by their electric fields. The system consists of a charged metal
sphere of a van de Graaff generator. This sphere is fixed in space and is not free to move.
The other object is a small charged sphere that is free to move (we neglect the force of
gravity on this sphere). According to Coulomb’s law, these two like charges repel each
another. That is, the small sphere experiences a repulsive force away from the van de
Graaff sphere.

Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
“stresses” transmitted by electric fields. We use both the “grass seeds” representation
and the ”field lines” representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.

The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have

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96
the small sphere “bounce off” of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.

Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulomb’s law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
“bounce off” of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.

The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not “action at a distance.” Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct “contact” from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.

Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing “lines of force” or “field lines” was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.

2.3 Principle of Superposition

Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be

F3 = F13 + F23 (2.3.1)

The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.

Example 2.1: Three Charges

Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming that q1 = 6.0 × 10 −6 C , q2 = − q1 = −6.0 × 10 −6 C , q3 = +3.0 × 10−6 C and
a = 2.0 × 10−2 m .

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97
 Figure 2.3.1 A system of three charges

Solution:

Using the superposition principle, the force on q3 is

1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞
F3 = F13 + F23 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠

In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r̂13 and r̂23 do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.

From the figure, we see that the unit vector r̂13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
2 ˆ ˆ
rˆ13 = cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj = (i + j)
2

Similarly, the unit vector rˆ23 = ˆi points from q2 to q3 . Therefore, the total force is

1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞ 1 ⎛ q1q3 2 ˆ ˆ (−q1 )q3 ˆ ⎞

F3 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟ = ⎜⎜ (i + j) + i ⎟⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ( 2a ) 2
2
a2 ⎠
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ˆ⎤
= ⎢⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ˆi + j⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎥⎦

upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by

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98
 12
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
2 2

F3 = ⎢⎜ − 1⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎜⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
(6.0 × 10−6 C)(3.0 × 10−6 C)
= (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (0.74) = 3.0 N
(2.0 × 10−2 m) 2

The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is

⎛ F3, y ⎞ ⎡ 2/4 ⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ −1
⎟⎟ = tan ⎢ ⎥ = 151.3°
⎝ F3, x ⎠ ⎣ −1 + 2 / 4 ⎦

Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution φ = −28.7° is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive î and negative ĵ components.

For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be

N
F j = ∑ Fij (2.3.2)
i =1
i≠ j

where Fij denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.

2.4 Electric Field

The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.

An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of

the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:

Fe
E = lim (2.4.1)
q0 → 0 q
0

We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 → 0

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99
 Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .

From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe = q0E on a test charge q0 .

Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by

1 q
E= rˆ (2.4.2)
4πε 0 r 2

Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:

1 qi
E = ∑ Ei = ∑ rˆ (2.4.3)
i i 4πε 0 ri 2

Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges

Figure 2.4.2 shows one frame of animations of the electric field of a moving positive and
negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of
light.

Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.

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2.5 Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of the electric field in
space. The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in Figure 2.5.1.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.

Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.

Figure 2.5.2 Field lines for an electric dipole.

The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:

(1) Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges there is an
equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be symmetrical about the line
joining the two charges

(2) Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge predominates.
Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically symmetric.

(3) Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look like that of a single
point charge of value Q = ∑ i Qi . Thus, the lines should be radially outward, unless
Q = 0.

(4) Null point: This is a point at which E = 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.

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101
The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:

• The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.

• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.

• The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).

• The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.

2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field

Consider a charge + q moving between two parallel plates of opposite charges, as shown
in Figure 2.6.1.

Figure 2.6.1 Charge moving in a constant electric field

Let the electric field between the plates be E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force

Fe = qE (2.6.1)

Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newton’s third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the “source” charges only.

According to Newton’s second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration

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102
 Fe qE qE y ˆ
a= = =− j (2.6.2)
m m m

Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 = 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is

2 yqE y
vy = 2 | ay | y = (2.6.3)
m

where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is

1 2
K= mv y = qE y y (2.6.4)
2

2.7 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges, + q and − q , separated by a
distance 2a , as shown in Figure 2.7.1.

Figure 2.7.1 Electric dipole

The dipole moment vector p which points from − q to + q (in the + y - direction) is given
by

p = 2qa ˆj (2.7.1)

The magnitude of the electric dipole is p = 2qa , where q > 0 . For an overall charge-
neutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as

i=N
p ≡ ∑ qi ri (2.7.2)
i =1

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103
where ri is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.

2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole

What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is

⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ cosθ + cosθ − ⎞ q ⎜ x x ⎟
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟= − (2.7.3)
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠

where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2 (2.7.4)

Similarly, the y -component is

⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟ (2.7.5)
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠

In the “point-dipole” limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem 2.13.4)
the above expressions reduce to

3p
Ex = sin θ cos θ (2.7.6)
4πε 0 r 3
and
Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1) (2.7.7)

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r . With 3 pr cos θ = 3p ⋅ r and some algebra, the electric
field may be written as

1 ⎛ p 3(p ⋅ r )r ⎞
E(r ) = ⎜− + ⎟ (2.7.8)
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r5 ⎠

Note that Eq. (2.7.8) is valid also in three dimensions where r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ . The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r 3 ,

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11
unlike the 1/ r 2 behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r 2 at large distance. The
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.

Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.

Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole

Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
“grass seeds” representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.

Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.

2.8 Dipole in Electric Field

What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E = E ˆi , with the
dipole moment vector p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see that
the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj . Thus, we have

p = 2qa (cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj) (2.8.1)

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12
 Figure 2.8.1 Electric dipole placed in a uniform field.

As seen from Figure 2.8.1 above, since each charge experiences an equal but opposite
force due to the field, the net force on the dipole is Fnet = F+ + F− = 0 . Even though the net
force vanishes, the field exerts a torque a toque on the dipole. The torque about the
midpoint O of the dipole is

τ = r+ × F+ + r− × F− = (a cos θ ˆi + a sin θ ˆj) × ( F+ ˆi ) + (− a cos θ ˆi − a sin θ ˆj) × (− F− ˆi )

= a sin θ F+ (−kˆ ) + a sin θ F− (−kˆ ) (2.8.2)
= 2aF sin θ (−kˆ )

where we have used F+ = F− = F . The direction of the torque is −kˆ , or into the page.
The effect of the torque τ is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F = qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as

τ = 2a ( qE ) sin θ = (2aq ) E sin θ = pE sin θ

and the general expression for toque becomes

τ = p×E (2.8.3)

Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.

2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle dθ is

dW = −τ dθ = − pE sin θ dθ (2.8.4)

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106
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in θ . Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle θ 0 to θ is

θ
W = ∫ (− pE sin θ ) dθ = pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.5)
θ0

The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos θ > cos θ 0 . The
change in potential energy ∆U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:

∆U = U − U 0 = −W = − pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.6)

where U 0 = − PE cos θ 0 is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
reference point to be θ 0 = π 2 so that the potential energy is zero there, U 0 = 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy

U = − pE cos θ = −p ⋅ E (2.8.7)

A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
U min = − pE . On the other hand, when p and E are anti-parallel, U max = + pE is a
maximum and the system is unstable.

If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field E+ at + q differs from
the electric field E− at − q .

Figure 2.8.2 Force on a dipole

Assuming the dipole to be very small, we expand the fields about x :

⎛ dE ⎞ ⎛ dE ⎞
E+ ( x + a ) ≈ E ( x ) + a ⎜ ⎟ , E− ( x − a ) ≈ E ( x ) − a ⎜ ⎟ (2.8.8)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠

The force on the dipole then becomes

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107
 ⎛ dE ⎞ ˆ ⎛ dE ⎞
Fe = q (E+ − E − ) = 2qa ⎜ ⎟i = p⎜ ⎟ î (2.8.9)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠

An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).

Figure 2.8.3 Electrostatic attraction between a piece of paper and a comb

2.9 Charge Density

The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space? Let’s consider the system shown in Figure
2.9.1:

Figure 2.9.1 Electric field due to a small charge element ∆qi .

2.9.1 Volume Charge Density

Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P . Let’s consider a small
volume element ∆Vi which contains an amount of charge ∆qi . The distances between
charges within the volume element ∆Vi are much smaller than compared to r, the
distance between ∆Vi and P . In the limit where ∆Vi becomes infinitesimally small, we
may define a volume charge density ρ (r ) as

∆qi dq
ρ (r ) = lim = (2.9.1)
∆Vi → 0 ∆V dV
i

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108
The dimension of ρ (r ) is charge/unit volume (C/m3 ) in SI units. The total amount of
charge within the entire volume V is

Q = ∑ ∆qi = ∫ ρ (r ) dV (2.9.2)
i V

The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ m (r ) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by

M = ∫ ρ m (r ) dV (2.9.3)
V

2.9.2 Surface Charge Density

In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density σ (lowercase Greek letter sigma):

dq
σ (r ) = (2.9.4)
dA

The dimension of σ is charge/unit area (C/m 2 ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:

Q = ∫∫ σ (r ) dA (2.9.5)
S

2.9.3 Line Charge Density

If the charge is distributed over a line of length , then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is

dq
λ (r ) = (2.9.6)
d

where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:

Q= ∫ λ (r ) d
line
(2.9.7)

16
109
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( ρ , σ or λ ) then
become uniform.

2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions

The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:

1 dq
dE = rˆ (2.10.1)
4πε 0 r 2

where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:

1 dq
E=
4πε 0 V ∫r 2
rˆ (2.10.2)

This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.

Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.

Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire

Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.

Solution:

The linear charge density is uniform and is given by λ = Q / . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dx ′ is dq = λ dx′ .

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110
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is rˆ = −ˆi . The contribution
to the electric field due to dq is

1 dq 1 λ dx′ ˆ 1 Qdx′ ˆ
dE = rˆ = (− i ) = − i
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 x′ 2
4πε 0 x′2

Integrating over the entire length leads to

1 Q x0 + dx′ ˆ 1 Q⎛ 1 1 ⎞ˆ 1 Q
E = ∫ dE = − ∫ i=− ⎜ − ⎟i = − ˆi (2.10.3)
4πε 0 x0 x′ 2
4πε 0 ⎝ x0 x0 + ⎠ 4πε 0 x0 ( + x0 )

Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 , and the above expression
becomes

1 Qˆ
E≈− i (2.10.4)
4πε 0 x02

The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.

Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.2. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.

Figure 2.10.2

Solution:

We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dx ′ carrying charge dq = λ dx′ is

18
111
 1dq 1 λ dx′
dE = = (2.10.5)
4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2

Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x -
component of the electric field vanishes.

Figure 2.10.3 Symmetry argument showing that Ex = 0 .

The y-component of dE is

1 λ dx′ y 1 λ y dx′
dE y = dE cos θ = = (2.10.6)
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
x′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is

1 /2 λ ydx′ λy /2 dx′
E y = ∫ dE y = ∫ = ∫ (2.10.7)
4πε 0 − /2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
4πε 0 − / 2 ( x′ + y 2 ) 3/ 2
2

By making the change of variable: x′ = y tan θ ′ , which gives dx′ = y sec 2 θ ′ dθ ′ , the
above integral becomes

/2 dx′ θ y sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′

∫− / 2 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=∫ 3
−θ y (sec 2 θ ′ + 1) 3/ 2
= 2∫
y −θ (tan θ ′ + 1)
2 3/ 2
= 2
y ∫−θ secθ ′3
(2.10.8)
1 θ dθ ′ 1 θ 2sin θ
= 2∫ = 2 ∫ cos θ ′dθ ′ =
y −θ sec θ ′ y −θ y2

which gives

1 2λ sin θ 1 2λ /2
Ey = = (2.10.9)
4πε 0 y 4πε 0 y y 2 + ( / 2) 2

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112
In the limit where y , the above expression reduces to the “point-charge” limit:

1 2λ / 2 1 λ 1 Q
Ey ≈ = = (2.10.10)
4πε 0 y y 4πε 0 y 2
4πε 0 y 2

On the other hand, when y , we have

1 2λ
Ey ≈ (2.10.11)
4πε 0 y

In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of E y / E0 (with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 2 ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.

Figure 2.10.4 Electric field of a non-conducting rod as a function of y / .

Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring

A non-conducting ring of radius R with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying in the xy - plane, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. Compute the electric field at a point
P, located at a distance z from the center of the ring along its axis of symmetry.

Figure 2.10.5 Electric field at P due to the charge element dq .

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113
Solution:

Consider a small length element d ′ on the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq = λ d ′ = λ R dφ ′ . Its contribution to the electric field at P is

1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dE = rˆ = rˆ (2.10.12)
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2

Figure 2.10.6

Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the + z direction.

1 λ R dφ ′ z λ Rz dφ ′
dEz = dE cos θ = = (2.10.13)
4πε 0 R + z
2 2
R2 + z 2 4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2

Upon integrating over the entire ring, we obtain

λ Rz λ 2π Rz 1 Qz
Ez =
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε 0 (R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
(2.10.14)

where the total charge is Q = λ (2π R ) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.

Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
radius R, with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 R 2 .

21
114
Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.

Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk

A uniformly charged disk of radius R with a total charge Q lies in the xy-plane. Find the
electric field at a point P , along the z-axis that passes through the center of the disk
perpendicular to its plane. Discuss the limit where R  z .

Solution:

By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved by using the result obtained in Example 2.4. Consider a ring of radius r ′ and
thickness dr ′ , as shown in Figure 2.10.8.

Figure 2.10.8 A uniformly charged disk of radius R.

By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the + z -direction. Since the ring
has a charge dq = σ (2π r ′ dr ′) , from Eq. (2.10.14), we see that the ring gives a
contribution

1 z dq 1 z (2πσ r ′ dr ′)
dEz = = (2.10.15)
4πε 0 (r ′ + z )
2
2 3/ 2
4πε 0 (r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from r ′ = 0 to r ′ = R , the total electric field at P becomes

σz r ′ dr ′ σz du σ z u −1/ 2 R + z
2 2
R R2 + z 2
Ez = ∫ dEz = ∫ = ∫ =
2ε 0 0 (r ′ + z )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 z2 u 3/ 2 4ε 0 (−1/ 2) z 2
(2.10.16)
σz ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ σ ⎡ z z ⎤
=− ⎢ 2 − ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥
2ε 0 ⎣ R + z 2 z 2 ⎦ 2ε 0 ⎣ | z | R2 + z 2 ⎦

22
115
The above equation may be rewritten as

⎧ σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ , z>0
⎪ 2ε 0 ⎣ z + R2 ⎦
Ez = ⎨ (2.10.17)
⎪σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ 2ε ⎢ − 1 − ⎥ , z<0
⎩ 0⎣ z 2 + R2 ⎦

The electric field Ez / E0 ( E0 = σ / 2ε 0 ) as a function of z / R is shown in Figure 2.10.9.

Figure 2.10.9 Electric field of a non-conducting plane of uniform charge density.

To show that the “point-charge” limit is recovered for z R , we make use of the
Taylor-series expansion:

−1/ 2
z ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ 1 R2
1− = 1 − ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = 1 − ⎜1 − 2
+ ⎟≈ 2
(2.10.18)
z 2 + R2 ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ 2 z ⎠ 2 z

This gives

σ R2 1 σπ R 2 1 Q
Ez = = = (2.10.19)
2ε 0 2 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
4πε 0 z 2

which is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or the
field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this limit
becomes, in unit-vector notation,

⎧ σ ˆ
⎪ 2ε k , z>0
⎪
E=⎨
0
(2.10.20)
⎪− σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0

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116
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.

Figure 2.10.10 Electric field of an infinitely large non-conducting plane.

Notice the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane. The discontinuity is given
by

σ ⎛ σ ⎞ σ
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −⎜− ⎟= (2.10.21)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ ε 0

As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density σ , then the normal
component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a discontinuity with
∆En = σ / ε 0 .

2.11 Summary

• The electric force exerted by a charge q1 on a second charge q2 is given by

Coulomb’s law:

q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ = r̂
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where

1
ke = = 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2
4πε 0
is the Coulomb constant.

• The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :

Fe
E = lim
q0 → 0 q
0

24
117
• The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is

1 q
E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

• A particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E has an acceleration

qE
a=
m

• An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude

p = 2aq

• The torque acting on an electric dipole places in a uniform electric field E is

τ = p×E

• The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E is

U = −p ⋅ E

• The electric field at a point in space due to a continuous charge element dq is

1 dq
dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the “point-charge” limit.

25
118
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies

In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral

1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ

where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:

1 dq
(1) Start with dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

(2) Rewrite the charge element dq as

⎧λ d (length)
⎪
dq = ⎨σ dA (area)
⎪ ρ dV
⎩ (volume)

depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.

(3) Substitute dq into the expression for dE .

(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and

express the differential element ( d , dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see
Table 2.1 below for summary.)

Cartesian (x, y, z) Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z) Spherical (r, θ, φ)

dl dx, dy , dz d ρ , ρ dφ , dz dr , r dθ , r sin θ dφ
dA dx dy , dy dz , dz dx d ρ dz , ρ dφ dz , ρ dφ d ρ r dr dθ , r sin θ dr dφ , r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
dV dx dy dz ρ d ρ dφ dz r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ

Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates

26
119
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.

(6) Complete the integration to obtain E .

In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute
the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.

Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk

Figure

(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ d dq = σ dA
density

λ dx′ λ dl σ dA
(3) Write down dE dE = ke dE = ke dE = ke
r′ 2
r 2
r2

(4) Rewrite r and the dx′ d = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ' dr '

differential element y z z
cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
in terms of the
appropriate
r′ r r
coordinates r ′ = x′2 + y 2 r = R2 + z2 r = r′ + z 2
2

(5) Apply symmetry dE y = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ

argument to identify
λ ydx′ λ Rz dφ ′ 2πσ zr ′ dr ′
non-vanishing = ke = ke = ke
component(s) of dE ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
(r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Rλ z
+ /2 dx
E z = ke
( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ Ez = 2πσke z∫
R r′ dr′
Ey = keλ y∫
− /2 ( x2 + y2 )3/ 2 (2π Rλ ) z
0 (r′ + z2 )3/2
2

(6) Integrate to get E = ke 2 2 3/ 2

2keλ ⎛ z
=
/2 (R + z ) z ⎞
y ( / 2)2 + y2 Qz
= 2πσke ⎜ − ⎟
= ke 2 2 3/ 2 ⎝| z | z + R ⎠
2 2
(R + z )

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27
2.13 Solved Problems

2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom

In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
a radius of r = 0.53 × 10 −10 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e = 1.6 ×10−19 C .

(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?

(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?

(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?

(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.

Solutions:

(a) The magnitude of the force is given by

1 e2
Fe =
4πε 0 r 2

Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is

(9.0× 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6×10−19 C)2

Fe = −11
= 8.2 ×10−8 N
(5.3 ×10 m) 2

(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by

1 q (9.0×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6×10−19 C)
E= = = 5.76×1011 N / C
4πε 0 r 2 (0.5×10−10 m) 2

(c) The mass of the electron is me = 9.1× 10−31 kg and the mass of the proton is
m p = 1.7 ×10−27 kg . Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational
force is given by

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121
 ⎛ 1 e2 ⎞ 1 2
⎜ 2 ⎟ e
⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠ 4πε 0 (9.0× 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 )(1.6×10−19 C) 2
γ= = = −11 −27 −31
= 2.2×1039
⎛ m p me ⎞ Gm p me (6.67 ×10 N ⋅ m / kg )(1.7 ×10 kg)(9.1×10 kg)
2 2

⎜G 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠

which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.

(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of 10 −24 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.

2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

An oil drop of radius r = 1.64 ×10−6 m and mass density ρ oil = 8.51× 102 kg m 3 is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg = mg = − mg ˆj on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
force, Fe = qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when the electric field is
E = −E y ˆj = −(1.92 × 105 N C) ˆj , with E y = 1.92 ×105 N C .

(a) What is the mass of the oil drop?

(b) What is the charge on the oil drop in units of electronic charge e = 1.6 ×10−19 C ?

Solutions:

(a) The mass density ρoil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of
the oil drop,
⎛4 ⎞
M = ρ oilV = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟
⎝3 ⎠

where the oil drop is assumed to be a sphere of radius r with volume V = 4π r 3 / 3 .

Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,

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29
 ⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ 4π ⎞
M = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = (8.51×102 kg m 3 ) ⎜ −6 −14
⎟ (1.64×10 m) = 1.57×10 kg
3

⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg + Fe = 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have

0 = mg + qE ⇒ mg = −qE y

With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector ĵ to point upward. We can
solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:

mg (1.57 ×10−14 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 )

q=− =− = −8.03×10−19 C
Ey 1.92 × 10 N C
5

Since the electron has charge e = 1 . 6 × 10−19 C , the charge of the oil drop in units of e is

q 8.02×10−19 C
N= = =5
e 1.6×10−19 C

You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!

2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field

An electron is injected horizontally into a uniform field produced by two oppositely

charged plates, as shown in Figure 2.13.1. The particle has an initial velocity v 0 = v0 ˆi
perpendicular to E .

Figure 2.13.1 Charge moving perpendicular to an electric field

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123
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?

(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?

(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?

(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t = 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?

(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?

(f) What angle θ1 does the electron make θ1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?

(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time
t2 . What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t = 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?

Solutions:

(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q = −e , the force on the electron is

F e = qE = −eE = (−e)(−E y )ˆj = eE y ˆj

where the electric field is written as E = −E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . The force on the electron is
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.

(b) The acceleration of the electron is

qE qE eE
a= = − y ˆj = y ˆj
m m m

and its direction is upward.

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31
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 = L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.

(d) The electron has an initial horizontal velocity, v 0 = v0 ˆi . Since the acceleration of the
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by

⎛ eE y
v = vx ˆi + v y ˆj = v0 ˆi + a y t1 ˆj = v0 ˆi + ⎜
⎞ ˆ ˆ ⎛ eE y L1 ⎟⎞ ˆj
⎟ t1 j = v0 i + ⎜
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ mv0 ⎠

(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L1 in the time
t1 = L1 v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement

2
1 1 ⎛ eE y ⎞ ⎛ L1 ⎞
y1 = a y t12 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ v0 ⎠

(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle θ1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,

vy (eE y / m)( L1 / v0 ) eE y L1
tan θ = = =
vx v0 mv0 2

(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is

eE y L1 L2
y2 = L2 tan θ1 =
mv0 2

and the total deflection becomes

2
1 eE y L1 eE y L1 L2 eE y L1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
y = y1 + y2 = + = 2 ⎜
L1 + L2 ⎟
2 mv0 2
mv0 2
mv0 ⎝ 2 ⎠

2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole

Consider the electric dipole moment shown in Figure 2.7.1.

(a) Show that the electric field of the dipole in the limit where r a is

125
32
 3 (
3cos 2 θ − 1)
3p p
Ex = sin θ cos θ , E y =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r .

(b) Show that the above expression for the electric field can also be written in terms of
the polar coordinates as

E(r ,θ ) = Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ

where
2 p cos θ p sin θ
Er = , Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3

Solutions:

(a) Let’s compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x -
component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, 0)
is given by

⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ cosθ + cosθ − ⎞ q ⎜ x x ⎟
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠

where

r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2

Similarly, the y -component is given by

⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠

We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r 3 and ignore terms that
are proportional to 1/ r 5 , where r = +( x 2 + y 2 )1 2 .

We begin with

126
33
 −3/ 2
2 −3/ 2 −3/ 2 ⎡
−3 a 2 ± 2ay ⎤
[ x + ( y ± a) ]
2
= [ x + y + a ± 2ay ]
2 2 2
= r ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ r2 ⎦

In the limit where r >> a , we use the Taylor-series expansion with s ≡ (a 2 ± 2ay ) / r 2 :

3 15
(1 + s ) −3 / 2 = 1 − s + s 2 − ...
2 8

and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes

q 6 xya
Ex = + ...
4πε 0 r 5
and
q ⎛ 2a 6 y 2 a ⎞
Ey = ⎜− + 5 ⎟ + ...
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r ⎠

where we have neglected the O( s 2 ) terms. The electric field can then be written as

q ⎡ 2a ˆ 6 ya ˆ ⎤ p ⎡ 3 yx ˆ ⎛ 3 y 2 ⎞ ⎤
E = Ex ˆi + E y ˆj = ⎢ − 3 j + 5 ( x i + y ˆj) ⎥ = ⎢ 2 i + ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ ˆj⎥
4πε 0 ⎣ r r ⎦ 4πε 0 r
3
⎣ r ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦

where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p = 2aq .

In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin θ = x r and cosθ = y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:

Ex =
3p
4πε 0 r 3
sin θ cos θ, Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1)

(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:

E( r ,θ ) =
p ⎡3sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( 3cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
4πε 0 r ⎣3 ⎦

With a little algebra, the above expression may be rewritten as

127
34
 E( r ,θ ) =
p
4πε 0 r ⎣
3 ( )
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj + sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
⎦

=
p
( ) (
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ ˆi + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cosθ ˆi − sin θ ˆj ⎤
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦ )
where the trigonometric identity ( cos 2 θ − 1) = − sin 2 θ has been used. Since the unit
vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates can be decomposed as

rˆ = sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj
θˆ = cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj,

the electric field in polar coordinates is given by

p ⎡ 2 cos θ rˆ + sin θ θˆ ⎤
E( r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦

and the magnitude of E is

p
( 3cos θ + 1)
1/ 2
E = ( Er 2 + Eθ 2 )1/ 2 = 2

4πε 0 r 3

2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc

A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of an arc of a
circle of radius R. The arc subtends a total angle 2θ 0 , symmetric about the x-axis, as
shown in Figure 2.13.2. What is the electric field E at the origin O?

Solution:

Consider a differential element of length d = R dθ , which makes an angle θ with the

x - axis, as shown in Figure 2.13.2(b). The amount of charge it carries is
dq = λ d = λ R dθ .

The contribution to the electric field at O is

1 λ dθ
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ =
1 dq
4πε 0 R 2 (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj =
4πε 0 R
) (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj )

128
35
 Figure 2.13.2 (a) Geometry of charged source. (b) Charge element dq

Integrating over the angle from −θ 0 to +θ 0 , we have

1 λ θ0
( ˆi − sin θ ˆj = 1 λ − sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj θ 0 = − 1 2λ sin θ 0 ˆi
) ( )
4πε 0 R ∫−θ0
E= dθ − cos θ
4πε 0 R −θ 0 4πε 0 R

We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit θ 0 → π , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin π = 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
small θ0 , sin θ 0 ≈ θ 0 and we recover the point-charge limit:

1 2λθ 0 ˆ 1 2λθ 0 R ˆ 1 Q ˆ
E≈− i=− i=− i
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 2
4πε 0 R 2

where the total charge on the arc is Q = λ = λ (2 Rθ 0 ) .

2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.13.3. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y off the axis of the rod.

Figure 2.13.3

36
129
Solution:

The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx′ on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq = λ dx′ .

Figure 2.13.4

The electric field at P produced by this element is

λ dx′
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r ′ 2
rˆ =
1
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
(
− sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj )
where the unit vector r̂ has been written in Cartesian coordinates: rˆ = − sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj .
In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and y-components. The x-
component of the electric field is

1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ x′ 1 λ x′ dx′

dE x = − sin θ ′ = − =−
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from x′ = x1 to x′ = x2 , we have

λ x′ dx′ λ 1 x22 + y 2 du λ −1/ 2 x2 + y

2 2
x2
Ex = −
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=−
4πε 0 2 ∫x12 + y 2 u 3/ 2 4πε 0
= u
x1 + y
2 2

λ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ λ ⎡ y y ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥= ⎢ − ⎥
4πε 0 ⎢ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
⎥ 4πε y ⎢ x 2
+ y 2
x 2
+ y 2
⎥⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦ 0
⎣ 2 1

λ
= ( cos θ 2 − cos θ1 )
4πε 0 y

Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is

130
37
 1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ y 1 λ ydx′
dE y = cos θ ′ = =
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

Integrating over the entire length of the rod, we obtain

λy dx′ λy 1 θ2 λ
( sin θ 2 − sin θ1 )
x2
Ey =
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 y 2 ∫θ 1
cos θ ′ dθ ′ =
4πε 0 y

where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.

In the infinite length limit where x1 → −∞ and x2 → +∞ , with xi = y tan θi , the

corresponding angles are θ1 = −π / 2 and θ 2 = +π / 2 . Substituting the values into the
expressions above, we have

12λ
E x = 0, Ey =
4πε 0 y

in complete agreement with the result shown in Eq. (2.10.11).

2.14 Conceptual Questions

1. Compare and contrast Newton’s law of gravitation, Fg = Gm1m2 / r 2 , and

Coulomb’s law, Fe = kq1q2 / r 2 .

2. Can electric field lines cross each other? Explain.

3. Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.

The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?

4. A test charge is placed at the point P near a positively-charged insulating rod.

38
131
 How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?

5. An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?

2.15 Additional Problems

2.15.1 Three Point Charges

Three point charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as shown in
Figure 2.15.1.

Figure 2.15.1 Three point charges

Calculate the net electric force experienced by (a) the 9.00 µ C charge, and (b) the
−6.00 µ C charge.

2.15.2 Three Point Charges

A right isosceles triangle of side a has charges q, +2q and −q arranged on its vertices, as
shown in Figure 2.15.2.

39
132
 Figure 2.15.2

What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and −q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.

2.15.3 Four Point Charges

Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.

Figure 2.15.3 Four point charges

(a) What is the electric field at the location of charge q ?

(b) What is the net force on 2q?

2.15.4 Semicircular Wire

A positively charged wire is bent into a semicircle of radius R, as shown in Figure 2.15.4.

Figure 2.15.4

40
133
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by λ = λ0 cosθ .

(a) What is the relationship between λ0 , R and Q?

(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?

2.15.5 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the + x -
direction is displaced by a small angle θ from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.

Figure 2.15.5

The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?

2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder

(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)

Figure 2.15.6 A uniformly charged cylinder

41
134
(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)

2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls

Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle θ with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that θ is so small that tanθ ≈ sin θ .

Figure 2.15.9

(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is

13
⎛ q2 ⎞
r =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πε 0 mg ⎠

(b) If l = 1.2 × 102 cm , m = 1.0 × 101 g , and x = 5.0 cm , what is q ?

2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two charges q1 = +2e and q2 = −2e ( e = 1.6 × 10− 19 C ),
separated by a distance d = 10− 9 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
shown in Figure 2.15.10.

Figure 2.15.10

42
135
Suppose a constant external electric field Eext = (3 ˆi + 3ˆj)N/C is applied.

(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?

(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?

(c) Do the electric fields of the charges q1 and q2 contribute to the torque on the dipole?
Briefly explain your answer.

43
136
 Physics 102: Lecture 02
Coulomb’s Law
and Electric Fields
Today we will …
• get some practice using Coulomb’s Law
• learn the concept of an Electric Field

137
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 1
 Recall Coulomb’s Law
Force between charges q1 and q2 separated
distance r:

1 2 “Coulomb constant”
2 9 109 2
/ 2

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel

138
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 2
 Coulomb Law practice:
Three Charges
• Calculate force on +2μC charge due to other two charges
– Draw forces
– Calculate force from +7μC charge
F+7
– Calculate force from –7μC
7μC charge
– Add (VECTORS!) Q=+2.0μC

F-7

4m
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-7.0 μC

139
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 3
 Three Charges – Calculate forces
• Calculate force on +2μC charge due to other two charges
– Draw forces
– Calculate force from +7μC charge
– Calculate force from –7μC
7μC charge F+7
– Add (VECTORS!)
Q=+2.0μC
• Calculate magnitudes

F-7

4m
6m
Q=+7 0μC
Q=+7.0μC Q= 7 0 μC
Q=-7.0

140
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 4
 Three charges – Adding Vectors F+7+F
F-77
• Calculate components of vectors F+7 and F-7:

F+7
Q=+2.0μC

F-7

4m
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-7.0 μC

141
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 5
 Three charges – Adding Vectors F+7+F
F-77
• Add like components of vectors F+7 and F-7:

F+7
Q=+2.0μC
F
• Final vector F has magnitude
andd direction
di ti
F-7

4m
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-7.0 μC
• Double-check with drawing

142
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 6
 Electric Field
• Charged particles create electric fields.
– Direction is the same as for the force that a + charge
would feel at that location.
– Magnitude given by: E ≡ F/q = kq/r2

Qp=1.6x10-19 C
+
E
r = 1x10-10 m

E = (9×109)(1.6×10-19)/(10-10)2 N = 1.4×1011 N/C (to the right)

143
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 7
 CheckPoint 2.1
What is the direction of the electric field at point A?

7% 1) Up y
7% 2) Down A

2% 3)) Left B
x
53% 4) Right
32% 5) Zero

144
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 8
 ACT: E Field
What is the direction of the electric field at point C?
A.. Left
e Away from positive charge (right)
B. Right Towards negative charge (right)
C Zero
C. Net E field is to right.
right

y
A

C B
x

145
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 9
 E Field from 2 Charges
• Calculate electric field at point A due to two unequal charges
– Draw electric fields
– Calculate E from +7μC charge
– μ charge
Calculate E from –3.5μC g
– Add (VECTORS!)
A
Note: this is similar to ((but a bit
harder than) my earlier example.

4m
We ll do some of this
We’ll
here… you try the rest at
home! 6m
Q = +7.0μC Q = –3.5 μC

146
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 10
 E Field from 2 Charges
• Calculate electric field at ppoint A due to charges
g
– Calculate E from +7μC charge
– Calculate E from –3.5μC charge
E7
– Add*

E = k q/r2 A

E3

4m
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-3.5 μC

147
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 11
 Adding Vectors E7+E3
• Decompose into x and y components.
components

E7
E7y=E7 (4/5)
( / )
A θ
E7x=E7 (3/5)

4m
θ
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-3.5 μC

148
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 12
 Adding Vectors E7+E3
• Decompose into x and y components.
• Add components.
E7

A Etotal

E3

4m
Ex = 2.25×10+3 N/C
6m
Q=+7.0μC Q=-3.5 μC
1 0×10+3 N/C
Ey = 1.0×10

149
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 13
 Comparison:
Electric
l i Force vs. Electric
l i Field
ld
• Electric Force (F) – the force felt by a charge at
some location
• Electric Field (E) – found for a location only (any
location) – tells what the electric force would be if
a + charge were located there:
F = Eq
• Both are vectors,
vectors with magnitude and direction.
direction

Ok, what is E actually good for?

150
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 14
 Electric Field Map
• Electric field defined at any location

y
A

C B
x

151
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 15
Electric fields:
A useful record-keeping tool!

Calculate once for fixed charges,

use to find force on other charges
(like ions/electrons in neurons,
heart tissue,
tiss e and cell membranes)

Eisenberg, BU
152
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 16
 Electric Field Lines
• Closeness of lines shows field strength (lines never cross)
• Number of lines at surface ∝ Q
• Arrow gives direction of E (Start on +, end on –)

153
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 17 This is becoming a mess!!!
 CheckPoint 3.1
X

A B
Y

Charge A is Field lines start on positive charge, end on negative.

1) positive 2) negative 3) unknown
93% 4% 3%
154
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 18
 CheckPoint 3.2 / ACT
X

A B
A Y B
Y

Compare the ratio of charges QA/ QB # lines proportional to Q

A) QA= 0.5QB B) QA= QB C) QA= 2 QB
15% 17% 53%
155
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 19
 CheckPoint 3.4
X

A B
Y

The electric field is stronger when the

lines are located closer to one another.

The magnitude of the electric field at point X is greater than at point Y

1) True 2) False Density of field lines gives E

18% 82%
156
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 20
 E inside of conductor
• Conductor ≡ electrons free to move
– El
Electrons feels
f l electric
l i force
f - will
ill move until
il
they feel no more force (F=0)
– F=Eq:
F E if F F=0
0 th
then E
E=00
• E=0 inside a conductor (Always!)

157
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 21
 Demo: E-field
E field from dipole

y
A

C B
x

158
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 22
 Recap
• E Field has magnitude and direction:
– E ≡ F/q
– Calculate jjust like Coulomb’s law
– Careful when adding vectors
• Electric Field Lines
– Density gives strength (# proportional to charge.)
– Arrow gives direction (Start + end on –)
• Conductors
– Electrons free to move ⇒ E = 0

159
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 23
 To Do
• Campus closed on Monday; no office hours.
• Homework 1 due Wednesday, Jan 23 @ 8 AM!
• Do your Checkpoint by 8:00 AM Wednesday.

160
Physics 102: Lecture 2, Slide 24
Chapter 2
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge..................................................................................................... 2-3
2.2 Coulomb's Law .................................................................................................... 2-3
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator ............................................................... 2-4
2.3 Principle of Superposition.................................................................................... 2-5
Example 2.1: Three Charges.................................................................................... 2-5
2.4 Electric Field........................................................................................................ 2-7
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges ..................................................... 2-8
2.5 Electric Field Lines .............................................................................................. 2-9
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field ............................................... 2-10
2.7 Electric Dipole ................................................................................................... 2-11
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole...................................................................... 2-12
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole............................................................................. 2-13
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field...................................................................................... 2-13
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ........................................................ 2-14
2.9 Charge Density................................................................................................... 2-16
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density............................................................................... 2-16
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density ............................................................................... 2-17
2.9.3 Line Charge Density .................................................................................... 2-17
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions.................................... 2-18
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod ................................................. 2-18
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector ................................... 2-19
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring ................................................ 2-21
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk ............................ 2-23
2.11 Summary ............................................................................................................ 2-25
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies ............................................................................... 2-27
2.13 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 2-29
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom ........................................................................................ 2-29
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment ................................................................. 2-30
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field ............................... 2-31
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole.......................................................................... 2-33

2-1
161
 2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc............................................................................. 2-36
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod............................................... 2-37
2.14 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................ 2-39
2.15 Additional Problems .......................................................................................... 2-40
2.15.1 Three Point Charges.................................................................................. 2-40
2.15.2 Three Point Charges.................................................................................. 2-40
2.15.3 Four Point Charges ................................................................................... 2-41
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire ..................................................................................... 2-41
2.15.5 Electric Dipole .......................................................................................... 2-42
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder ................................................... 2-42
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls .............................................................................. 2-43
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole.................................................................... 2-43

2-2
162
 Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge

There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).

The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of

e = 1.602 ×10−19 C (2.1.1)

Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron carries

one unit of negative charge, −e , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, + e . In
a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be
created nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.

2.2 Coulomb's Law

Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r in vacuum.

The force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:

q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ (2.2.1)
r2

where ke is the Coulomb constant, and rˆ = r / r is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 ,

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges

Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by

2-3
163
 1
ke = = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 (2.2.2)
4πε 0

where
1
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N ⋅ m 2 (2.2.3)
4π (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C )
9 2 2

is known as the “permittivity of free space.” Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 = −F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.

As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r = 5.3 × 10−11 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately Fe = ke e 2 / r 2 = 8.2 × 10−8 N . On the other hand, one may show
that the gravitational force is only Fg ≈ 3.6 ×10−47 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
neglected when dealing with electrostatic forces!

Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator

Consider Figure 2.2.2(a) below. The figure illustrates the repulsive force transmitted
between two objects by their electric fields. The system consists of a charged metal
sphere of a van de Graaff generator. This sphere is fixed in space and is not free to move.
The other object is a small charged sphere that is free to move (we neglect the force of
gravity on this sphere). According to Coulomb’s law, these two like charges repel each
another. That is, the small sphere experiences a repulsive force away from the van de
Graaff sphere.

Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
“stresses” transmitted by electric fields. We use both the “grass seeds” representation
and the ”field lines” representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.

The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have

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the small sphere “bounce off” of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.

Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulomb’s law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
“bounce off” of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.

The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not “action at a distance.” Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct “contact” from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.

Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing “lines of force” or “field lines” was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.

2.3 Principle of Superposition

Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be

F3 = F13 + F23 (2.3.1)

The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.

Example 2.1: Three Charges

Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming that q1 = 6.0 × 10 −6 C , q2 = − q1 = −6.0 × 10 −6 C , q3 = +3.0 × 10−6 C and
a = 2.0 × 10−2 m .

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165
 Figure 2.3.1 A system of three charges

Solution:

Using the superposition principle, the force on q3 is

1 » q1q3 q2 q3 ¿
F3 = F13 + F23 = ¼ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 À
4πε 0 ½ r13 r23 Á

In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r̂13 and r̂23 do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.

From the figure, we see that the unit vector r̂13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
2 ˆ ˆ
rˆ13 = cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj = (i + j)
2

Similarly, the unit vector rˆ23 = ˆi points from q2 to q3 . Therefore, the total force is

1 » q1q3 q2 q3 ¿ 1 » q1q3 2 ˆ ˆ (−q1 )q3 ˆ ¿

F3 = ¼ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 À = ¼¼ (i + j) + i ÀÀ
4πε 0 ½ r13 r23 Á 4πε 0 ½ ( 2a ) 2
2
a2 Á
1 q1q3 £» 2 ¿ ˆ 2 ˆ§
= ¤ ¼ − 1 À i + j¨
4πε 0 a 2 ¤¥¼½ 4 À
Á 4 ¨©

upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by

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2-6
 12
1 q1q3 £» 2 ¿ » 2 ¿ §
2 2

F3 = ¤¼ − 1ÀÀ + ¼¼ ÀÀ ¨
4πε 0 a 2 ¤¼½ 4 Á ½ 4 Á ¨©
¥
(6.0 × 10−6 C)(3.0 × 10−6 C)
= (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (0.74) = 3.0 N
(2.0 × 10−2 m) 2

The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is

» F3, y ¿ £ 2/4 §
φ = tan −1 ¼¼ −1
ÀÀ = tan ¤ ¨ = 151.3°
½ F3, x Á ¥ −1 + 2 / 4 ©

Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution φ = −28.7° is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive î and negative ˆj components.

For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be

N
F j = ∑ Fij (2.3.2)
i =1
ib j

where Fij denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.

2.4 Electric Field

The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.

An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of

the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:

Fe
E = lim (2.4.1)
q0 →0 q
0

We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 →0

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167
 Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .

From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe = q0 E on a test charge q0 .

Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by

1 q
E= rˆ (2.4.2)
4πε 0 r 2

Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:

1 qi
E = ∑ Ei = ∑ rˆ (2.4.3)
i i 4πε 0 ri 2

Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges

Figure 2.4.2 shows one frame of animations of the electric field of a moving positive and
negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of
light.

Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.

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2-8
2.5 Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of the electric field in
space. The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in Figure 2.5.1.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.

Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.

Figure 2.5.2 Field lines for an electric dipole.

The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:

(1) Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges there is an
equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be symmetrical about the line
joining the two charges

(2) Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge predominates.
Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically symmetric.

(3) Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look like that of a single
point charge of value Q = ∑ i Qi . Thus, the lines should be radially outward, unless
Q = 0.

(4) Null point: This is a point at which E = 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.

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169
The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:

• The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.

• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.

• The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).

• The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.

2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field

Consider a charge + q moving between two parallel plates of opposite charges, as shown
in Figure 2.6.1.

Figure 2.6.1 Charge moving in a constant electric field

Let the electric field between the plates be E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force

Fe = qE (2.6.1)

Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newton’s third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the “source” charges only.

According to Newton’s second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration

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2-10
 Fe qE qE
a= = = − y ˆj (2.6.2)
m m m

Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 = 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is

2 yqE y
vy = 2 | ay | y = (2.6.3)
m

where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is

1 2
K= mv y = qE y y (2.6.4)
2

2.7 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges, + q and − q , separated by a
distance 2a , as shown in Figure 2.7.1.

Figure 2.7.1 Electric dipole

The dipole moment vector p which points from − q to + q (in the + y - direction) is given
by

p = 2qa ˆj (2.7.1)

The magnitude of the electric dipole is p = 2qa , where q > 0 . For an overall charge-
neutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as

i=N
p c ∑ qi ri (2.7.2)
i =1

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171
where ri is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.

2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole

What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is

» ¿
q » cosθ + cosθ − ¿ q ¼ x x À
Ex = ¼ − À= − (2.7.3)
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a ) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2 (2.7.4)

Similarly, the y -component is

» ¿
q » sin θ + sin θ − ¿ q ¼ y−a y+a À (2.7.5)
Ey = ¼ − À = −
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

In the “point-dipole” limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem 2.13.4)
the above expressions reduce to

3p
Ex = sin θ cos θ (2.7.6)
4πε 0 r 3
and
Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3 ( 3cos θ − 1)
2
(2.7.7)

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r . With 3 pr cos θ = 3p ⋅ r and some algebra, the electric
field may be written as

1 » p 3(p ⋅ r )r ¿
E( r ) = ¼− + À (2.7.8)
4πε 0 ½ r 3 r5 Á

Note that Eq. (2.7.8) is valid also in three dimensions where r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ . The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r 3 ,

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172
unlike the 1/ r 2 behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r 2 at large distance. The
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.

Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.

Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole

Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
“grass seeds” representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.

Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.

2.8 Dipole in Electric Field

What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E = E ˆi , with the
dipole moment vector p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see
that the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj . Thus, we have

p = 2qa(cos θ ˆi + sin θ ˆj) (2.8.1)

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 Figure 2.8.1 Electric dipole placed in a uniform field.

As seen from Figure 2.8.1 above, since each charge experiences an equal but opposite
force due to the field, the net force on the dipole is Fnet = F+ + F− = 0 . Even though the net
force vanishes, the field exerts a torque a toque on the dipole. The torque about the
midpoint O of the dipole is

τ = r+ × F+ + r− × F− = (a cos θ ˆi + a sin θ ˆj) × ( F+ ˆi ) + (− a cos θ ˆi − a sin θ ˆj) × (− F− ˆi )

= a sin θ F+ (−kˆ ) + a sin θ F− (−kˆ ) (2.8.2)
= 2aF sin θ (−kˆ )

where we have used F+ = F− = F . The direction of the torque is −kˆ , or into the page.
The effect of the torque τ is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F = qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as

Ä = 2a(qE ) sin θ = (2aq ) E sin θ = pE sin θ

and the general expression for toque becomes

τ = p×E (2.8.3)

Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.

2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle dθ is

dW = −Ä dθ = − pE sin θ dθ (2.8.4)

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174
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in θ . Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle θ 0 to θ is

θ
W = ∫ (− pE sin θ )dθ = pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.5)
θ0

The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos θ > cos θ 0 . The
change in potential energy ∆U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:

∆U = U − U 0 = −W = − pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.6)

where U 0 = − PE cos θ 0 is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
reference point to be θ 0 = π 2 so that the potential energy is zero there, U 0 = 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy

U = − pE cos θ = −p ⋅ E (2.8.7)

A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
U min = − pE . On the other hand, when p and E are anti-parallel, U max = + pE is a
maximum and the system is unstable.

If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field E+ at + q differs from
the electric field E− at − q .

Figure 2.8.2 Force on a dipole

Assuming the dipole to be very small, we expand the fields about x :

» dE ¿ » dE ¿
E+ ( x + a) ≈ E ( x) + a ¼ À , E− ( x − a ) ≈ E ( x) − a ¼ À (2.8.8)
½ dx Á ½ dx Á

The force on the dipole then becomes

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175
 » dE ¿ ˆ » dE ¿
Fe = q (E+ − E − ) = 2qa ¼ Ài = p¼ À î (2.8.9)
½ dx Á ½ dx Á

An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).

Figure 2.8.3 Electrostatic attraction between a piece of paper and a comb

2.9 Charge Density

The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space? Let’s consider the system shown in Figure
2.9.1:

Figure 2.9.1 Electric field due to a small charge element ∆qi .

2.9.1 Volume Charge Density

Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P . Let’s consider a small
volume element ∆Vi which contains an amount of charge ∆qi . The distances between
charges within the volume element ∆Vi are much smaller than compared to r, the
distance between ∆Vi and P . In the limit where ∆Vi becomes infinitesimally small, we
may define a volume charge density ρ (r ) as

∆qi dq
ρ (r ) = lim = (2.9.1)
∆Vi → 0 ∆V dV
i

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176
The dimension of ρ (r ) is charge/unit volume (C/m3 ) in SI units. The total amount of
charge within the entire volume V is

Q = ∑ ∆qi = ∫ ρ (r ) dV (2.9.2)
i V

The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ m (r ) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by

M = ∫ ρ m (r ) dV (2.9.3)
V

2.9.2 Surface Charge Density

In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density à (lowercase Greek letter sigma):

dq
à (r ) = (2.9.4)
dA

The dimension of à is charge/unit area (C/m 2 ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:

Q = ∫∫ Ã (r ) dA (2.9.5)
S

2.9.3 Line Charge Density

If the charge is distributed over a line of length , then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is

dq
λ (r ) = (2.9.6)
d

where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:

Q= ∫ λ (r ) d
line
(2.9.7)

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177
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( ρ , Ã or λ ) then
become uniform.

2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions

The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:

1 dq
dE = rˆ (2.10.1)
4πε 0 r 2

where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:

1 dq
E= ∫r
4πε 0 V 2
rˆ (2.10.2)

This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.

Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.

Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire

Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.

Solution:

The linear charge density is uniform and is given by λ = Q / . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dx ′ is dq = λ dx′ .

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178
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is rˆ = −ˆi . The contribution
to the electric field due to dq is

1 dq 1 λ dx′ ˆ 1 Qdx′ ˆ
dE = rˆ = (−i ) = − i
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 x′ 2
4πε 0 x′2

Integrating over the entire length leads to

1 Q x0 + dx′ ˆ 1 Q» 1 1 ¿ˆ 1 Q
E = ∫ dE = − ∫ i=− ¼ − Ài = − ˆi (2.10.3)
4πε 0 x0 x′ 2
4πε 0 ½ x0 x0 + Á 4πε 0 x0 ( + x0 )

Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 , and the above expression
becomes

1 Qˆ
E≈− i (2.10.4)
4πε 0 x02

The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.

Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.2. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.

Figure 2.10.2

Solution:

We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dx ′ carrying charge dq = λ dx′ is

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179
 1dq 1 λ dx′
dE = = (2.10.5)
4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2

Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x -
component of the electric field vanishes.

Figure 2.10.3 Symmetry argument showing that Ex = 0 .

The y-component of dE is

1 λ dx′ y 1 λ y dx′
dE y = dE cos θ = = (2.10.6)
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
x ′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is

1 /2 λ ydx′ λy /2 dx′
E y = ∫ dE y = ∫ = ∫ (2.10.7)
4πε 0 − /2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
4πε 0 − / 2 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

By making the change of variable: x′ = y tan θ ′ , which gives dx′ = y sec 2 θ ′ dθ ′ , the
above integral becomes

/2 dx′ θ y sec2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec2 θ ′dθ ′

∫− / 2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
= ∫−θ y (sec θ ′ + 1)
3 2 3/ 2
= 2 ∫
y −θ (tan θ ′ + 1)
2 3/ 2
= 2
y ∫−θ secθ ′3
(2.10.8)
1 θ dθ ′ 1 θ 2sin θ
= 2∫ = 2 ∫ cos θ ′dθ ′ =
y −θ sec θ ′ y −θ y2

which gives

1 2λ sin θ 1 2λ /2
Ey = = (2.10.9)
4πε 0 y 4πε 0 y y + ( / 2) 2
2

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180
In the limit where y , the above expression reduces to the “point-charge” limit:

1 2λ / 2 1 λ 1 Q
Ey ≈ = = (2.10.10)
4πε 0 y y 4πε 0 y 2
4πε 0 y 2

On the other hand, when y , we have

1 2λ
Ey ≈ (2.10.11)
4πε 0 y

In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of E y / E0 (with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 2 ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.

Figure 2.10.4 Electric field of a non-conducting rod as a function of y / .

Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring

A non-conducting ring of radius R with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying in the xy - plane, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. Compute the electric field at a point
P, located at a distance z from the center of the ring along its axis of symmetry.

Figure 2.10.5 Electric field at P due to the charge element dq .

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181
Solution:

Consider a small length element d ′ on the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq = λ d ′ = λ R dφ ′ . Its contribution to the electric field at P is

1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dE = rˆ = rˆ (2.10.12)
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2

Figure 2.10.6

Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the + z direction.

1 λ R dφ ′ z λ Rz dφ ′
dEz = dE cos θ = = (2.10.13)
4πε 0 R + z
2 2
R2 + z 2 4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2

Upon integrating over the entire ring, we obtain

λ Rz λ 2π Rz 1 Qz
Ez =
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε 0 (R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
(2.10.14)

where the total charge is Q = λ (2π R) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.

Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
radius R, with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 R 2 .

2-22
182
Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.

Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk

A uniformly charged disk of radius R with a total charge Q lies in the xy-plane. Find the
electric field at a point P , along the z-axis that passes through the center of the disk
perpendicular to its plane. Discuss the limit where R  z .

Solution:

By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved by using the result obtained in Example 2.4. Consider a ring of radius r ′ and
thickness dr ′ , as shown in Figure 2.10.8.

Figure 2.10.8 A uniformly charged disk of radius R.

By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the + z -direction. Since the ring
has a charge dq = Ã (2π r ′ dr ′) , from Eq. (2.10.14), we see that the ring gives a
contribution

1 z dq 1 z (2πà r ′ dr ′)
dEz = = (2.10.15)
4πε 0 (r ′ + z )
2
2 3/ 2
4πε 0 (r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from r ′ = 0 to r ′ = R , the total electric field at P becomes

Ãz r ′ dr ′ Ãz du à z u −1/ 2 R + z
2 2
R R2 + z 2
Ez = ∫ dEz = ∫ = ∫ =
2ε 0 0 (r ′ + z )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 z2 u 3/ 2 4ε 0 (−1/ 2) z 2
(2.10.16)
Ãz £ 1 1 § Ã £ z z §
=− ¤ − ¨ = ¤ − ¨
2ε 0 ¥ R 2 + z 2 z 2 © 2ε 0 ¥ | z | R2 + z 2 ©

2-23
183
The above equation may be rewritten as

§ Ã £ z §
ª ¤1 − 2 ¨, z>0
ª 2ε 0 ¥ z + R2 ©
Ez = ¨ (2.10.17)
ªÃ £ z §
ª 2ε ¤ − 1 − ¨ , z<0
© 0¥ z 2 + R2 ©

The electric field Ez / E0 ( E0 = Ã / 2ε 0 ) as a function of z / R is shown in Figure 2.10.9.

Figure 2.10.9 Electric field of a non-conducting plane of uniform charge density.

To show that the “point-charge” limit is recovered for z R , we make use of the
Taylor-series expansion:

−1/ 2
z » R2 ¿ » 1 R2 ¿ 1 R2
1− = 1 − ¼1 + 2 À = 1 − ¼1 − 2
+ À≈ 2
(2.10.18)
z 2 + R2 ½ z Á ½ 2 z Á 2 z

This gives

à R2 1 Ãπ R 2 1 Q
Ez = = = (2.10.19)
2ε 0 2 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
4πε 0 z 2

which is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or the
field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this limit
becomes, in unit-vector notation,

§ Ã ˆ
ª 2ε k , z>0
ª
E=¨
0
(2.10.20)
ª − Ã kˆ , z<0
ª© 2ε 0

2-24
184
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.

Figure 2.10.10 Electric field of an infinitely large non-conducting plane.

Notice the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane. The discontinuity is given
by

à » à ¿ Ã
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −¼− À= (2.10.21)
2ε 0 ½ 2ε 0 Á ε 0

As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density à , then the normal
component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a discontinuity with
∆En = Ã / ε 0 .

2.11 Summary

• The electric force exerted by a charge q1 on a second charge q2 is given by

Coulomb’s law:

q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ = r̂
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where

1
ke = = 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2
4πε 0
is the Coulomb constant.

• The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :

Fe
E = lim
q0 →0 q0

2-25
185
• The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is

1 q
E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

• A particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E has an acceleration

qE
a=
m

• An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude

p = 2aq

• The torque acting on an electric dipole places in a uniform electric field E is

τ = p×E

• The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E is

U = −p ⋅ E

• The electric field at a point in space due to a continuous charge element dq is

1 dq
dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

• At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the “point-charge” limit.

2-26
186
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies

In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:

1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rˆi
i

For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral

1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ

where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:

1 dq
(1) Start with dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

(2) Rewrite the charge element dq as

§λ d (length)
ª
dq = ¨Ã dA (area)
ª ρ dV
© (volume)

depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.

(3) Substitute dq into the expression for dE .

(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and

express the differential element ( d , dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see
Table 2.1 below for summary.)

Cartesian (x, y, z) Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z) Spherical (r, θ, φ)

dl dx, dy, dz d ρ , ρ dφ , dz dr , r dθ , r sin θ dφ
dA dx dy, dy dz , dz dx d ρ dz , ρ dφ dz , ρ dφ d ρ r dr dθ , r sin θ dr dφ , r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
dV dx dy dz ρ d ρ dφ dz r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ

Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates

187
2-27
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.

(6) Complete the integration to obtain E .

In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute
the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.

Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk

Figure

(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ d dq = Ã dA
density

λ dx′ λ dl à dA
(3) Write down dE dE = ke dE = ke dE = ke
r′ 2
r 2
r2

(4) Rewrite r and the dx′ d = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ' dr '

differential element y z z
cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
in terms of the
r′ r r
appropriate
coordinates r ′ = x′2 + y 2 r = R2 + z 2 r = r′ + z 2
2

(5) Apply symmetry dE y = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ

argument to identify
λ ydx′ λ Rz dφ ′ 2πà zr ′ dr ′
non-vanishing = ke = ke = ke
component(s) of dE ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
(r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2

Rλ z
+ /2 dx
E z = ke
( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ Ez = 2πÃke z∫
R r′ dr′
Ey = keλ y∫
− /2 ( x2 + y2 )3/ 2 (2π Rλ ) z
0 (r′ + z2 )3/2
2

(6) Integrate to get E = ke 2

2keλ » z
=
/2 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2 z ¿
y ( / 2)2 + y2 Qz
= 2πÃke ¼ − À
= ke 2 ½| z | z + R Á
2 2
( R + z 2 )3/ 2

2-28
188
2.13 Solved Problems

2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom

In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
a radius of r = 0.53 × 10 −10 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e = 1.6 ×10−19 C .

(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?

(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?

(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?

(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.

Solutions:

(a) The magnitude of the force is given by

1 e2
Fe =
4πε 0 r 2

Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is

(9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 ×10−19 C) 2

Fe = −11
= 8.2 ×10−8 N
(5.3 ×10 m) 2

(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by

1 q (9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)

E= = = 5.76 ×1011 N / C
4πε 0 r 2 (0.5 × 10−10 m) 2

(c) The mass of the electron is me = 9.1× 10 −31 kg and the mass of the proton is
m p = 1.7 ×10−27 kg . Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational
force is given by

189
2-29
 » 1 e2 ¿ 1 2
¼ 2 À e
½ 4πε 0 r Á 4πε 0 (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 ×10−19 C) 2
γ= = = −11 −27 −31
= 2.2 × 1039
» m p me ¿ Gm p me (6.67 ×10 N ⋅ m / kg )(1.7 ×10 kg)(9.1× 10 kg)
2 2

¼G 2 À
½ r Á

which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.

(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of 10 −24 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.

2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

An oil drop of radius r = 1.64 ×10−6 m and mass density ρ oil = 8.51× 102 kg m3 is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg = mg = − mg ˆj on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
force, Fe = qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when the electric field is
E = − E y ˆj = −(1.92 × 105 N C) ˆj , with E y = 1.92 ×105 N C .

(a) What is the mass of the oil drop?

(b) What is the charge on the oil drop in units of electronic charge e = 1.6 ×10−19 C ?

Solutions:

(a) The mass density ρoil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of
the oil drop,
»4 ¿
M = ρoilV = ρoil ¼ π r 3 À
½3 Á

where the oil drop is assumed to be a sphere of radius r with volume V = 4π r 3 / 3 .

Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,

190
2-30
 »4 ¿ » 4π ¿
M = ρoil ¼ π r 3 À = (8.51× 102 kg m3 ) ¼ −6 −14
À (1.64×10 m) = 1.57×10 kg
3

½ 3 Á ½ 3 Á

(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg + Fe = 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have

0 = mg + qE ⇒ mg = − qE y

With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector ĵ to point upward. We can
solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:

mg (1.57 ×10−14 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 )

q=− =− = −8.03 × 10−19 C
Ey 1.92 ×10 N C
5

Since the electron has charge e = 1 . 6 ×10− 19 C , the charge of the oil drop in units of e is

q 8.02 ×10−19 C
N= = =5
e 1.6 × 10−19 C

You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!

2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field

An electron is injected horizontally into a uniform field produced by two oppositely

charged plates, as shown in Figure 2.13.1. The particle has an initial velocity v 0 = v0 ˆi
perpendicular to E .

Figure 2.13.1 Charge moving perpendicular to an electric field

2-31
191
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?

(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?

(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?

(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t = 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?

(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?

(f) What angle θ1 does the electron make θ1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?

(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time
t2 . What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t = 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?

Solutions:

(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q = −e , the force on the electron is

F e = q E = −eE = (−e)(− E y )ˆj = eE y ˆj

where the electric field is written as E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . The force on the electron is
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.

(b) The acceleration of the electron is

qE qE eE
a= = − y ˆj = y ˆj
m m m

and its direction is upward.

192
2-32
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 = L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.

(d) The electron has an initial horizontal velocity, v 0 = v0 ˆi . Since the acceleration of the
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by

» eE y
v = vx ˆi + v y ˆj = v0 ˆi + a y t1 ˆj = v0 ˆi + ¼
¿ ˆ ˆ » eE y L1 À¿ ˆj
À t1 j = v0 i + ¼
½ m Á ½ mv0 Á

(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L1 in the time
t1 = L1 v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement

2
1 1 » eE ¿ » L ¿
y1 = a y t12 = ¼ y À ¼ 1 À
2 2 ½ m Á ½ v0 Á

(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle θ1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,

vy (eE y / m)( L1 / v0 ) eE y L1
tan θ = = =
vx v0 mv0 2

(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is

eE y L1 L2
y2 = L2 tan θ1 =
mv0 2

and the total deflection becomes

2
1 eE y L1 eE y L1 L2 eE y L1 » 1 ¿
y = y1 + y2 = + = 2 ¼
L1 + L2 À
2 mv0 2
mv0 2
mv0 ½ 2 Á

2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole

Consider the electric dipole moment shown in Figure 2.7.1.

(a) Show that the electric field of the dipole in the limit where r a is

193
2-33
 3 (
3cos 2 θ − 1)
3p p
Ex = sin θ cos θ , E y =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r

where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r .

(b) Show that the above expression for the electric field can also be written in terms of
the polar coordinates as

E(r ,θ ) = Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ

where
2 p cos θ p sin θ
Er = , Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3

Solutions:

(a) Let’s compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x -
component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, 0)
is given by

» ¿
q » cosθ + cosθ − ¿ q ¼ x x À
Ex = ¼ − À = −
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a ) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

where

r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2

Similarly, the y -component is given by

» ¿
q » sin θ + sin θ − ¿ q ¼ y−a y+a À
Ey = ¼ − À = −
4πε 0 ½ r+ 2 r− 2 Á 4πε 0 ¼ £ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 § 3/ 2 £ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 § 3/ 2 À
½¥ © ¥ © Á

We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r 3 and ignore terms that
are proportional to 1/ r 5 , where r = +( x 2 + y 2 )1 2 .

We begin with

194
2-34
 −3/ 2
2 −3/ 2 −3/ 2 £ −3a 2 ± 2ay §
[ x + ( y ± a) ]
2
= [ x + y + a ± 2ay ]
2 2 2
= r ¤ +
1 ¨
¥ r2 ©

In the limit where r >> a , we use the Taylor-series expansion with s c (a 2 ± 2ay ) / r 2 :

3 15
(1 + s ) −3/ 2 = 1 − s + s 2 − ...
2 8

and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes

q 6 xya
Ex = + ...
4πε 0 r 5
and
q » 2a 6 y 2 a ¿
Ey = ¼− + 5 À + ...
4πε 0 ½ r 3 r Á

where we have neglected the O( s 2 ) terms. The electric field can then be written as

q £ 2a ˆ 6 ya ˆ § p £ 3 yx ˆ » 3 y 2 ¿ §
E = Ex ˆi + E y ˆj = ¤ − 3 j + 5 ( x i + y ˆj) ¨ = ¤ 2 i + ¼ 2 − 1 À ˆj¨
4πε 0 ¥ r r © 4πε 0 r
3
¥ r ½ r Á ©

where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p = 2aq .

In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin θ = x r and cosθ = y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:

Ex =
3p
4πε 0 r 3
sin θ cos θ, Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3 ( 3cos 2
θ − 1)

(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:

E( r ,θ ) =
p £3sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( 3cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj§
4πε 0 r ¥3 ©

With a little algebra, the above expression may be rewritten as

195
2-35
 E( r ,θ ) =
p
4πε 0 r ¥
3 ( )
£ 2 cosθ sin θ ˆi + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cos θ ˆi + ( cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj§
©

=
p
( ) (
£ 2 cos θ sin θ ˆi + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj §
4πε 0 r ¥
3 © )
where the trigonometric identity ( cos 2 θ − 1) = − sin 2 θ has been used. Since the unit
vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates can be decomposed as

rˆ = sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj
θˆ = cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj,

the electric field in polar coordinates is given by

p £ 2 cos θ rˆ + sin θ θˆ §
E( r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ¥ ©

and the magnitude of E is

p
( 3cos θ + 1)
1/ 2
E = ( Er 2 + Eθ 2 )1/ 2 = 2

4πε 0 r 3

2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc

A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of an arc of a
circle of radius R. The arc subtends a total angle 2θ 0 , symmetric about the x-axis, as
shown in Figure 2.13.2. What is the electric field E at the origin O?

Solution:

Consider a differential element of length d = R dθ , which makes an angle θ with the

x - axis, as shown in Figure 2.13.2(b). The amount of charge it carries is
dq = λ d = λ R dθ .

The contribution to the electric field at O is

1 λ dθ
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ =
1 dq
4πε 0 R 2 (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj =
4πε 0 R
) (
− cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj )

196
2-36
 Figure 2.13.2 (a) Geometry of charged source. (b) Charge element dq

Integrating over the angle from −θ 0 to +θ 0 , we have

λ λ θ0 2λ sin θ 0 ˆ
dθ ( − cos θ ˆi − sin θ ˆj) = ( − sin θ ˆi + cos θ ˆj)
1 θ0 1 1
E=
4πε 0 R ∫ θ
− 0 4πε 0 R −θ 0
=−
4πε 0 R
i

We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit θ 0 → π , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin π = 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
small θ 0 , sin θ 0 ≈ θ 0 and we recover the point-charge limit:

1 2λθ 0 ˆ 1 2λθ 0 R ˆ 1 Q ˆ
E≈− i=− i=− i
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 2
4πε 0 R 2

where the total charge on the arc is Q = λ = λ (2 Rθ 0 ) .

2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod

A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.13.3. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y off the axis of the rod.

Figure 2.13.3

2-37
197
Solution:

The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx′ on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq = λ dx′ .

Figure 2.13.4

The electric field at P produced by this element is

λ dx′
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r ′ 2
rˆ =
1
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
(
− sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj )
where the unit vector r̂ has been written in Cartesian coordinates: rˆ = − sin θ ′ ˆi + cos θ ′ ˆj .
In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and y-components. The x-
component of the electric field is

1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ x′ 1 λ x′ dx′

dEx = − sin θ ′ = − =−
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x ′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2

Integrating from x′ = x1 to x′ = x2 , we have

λ x′ dx′ λ 1 x22 + y 2 du λ −1/ 2 x2 + y

2 2
x2
Ex = −
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=−
4πε 0 2 ∫x12 + y 2 u 3/ 2 4πε 0
= u
x1 + y
2 2

λ £ 1 1 § λ £ y y §
= ¤ − ¨= ¤ − ¨
4πε 0 ¤ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
¨ 4πε 0 y ¤ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
¨©
¥ 1 © ¥ 1

λ
= ( cos θ 2 − cos θ1 )
4πε 0 y

Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is

198
2-38
 1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ y 1 λ ydx′
dE y = cos θ ′ = =
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2

Integrating over the entire length of the rod, we obtain

λy dx′ λy 1 θ2 λ
( sin θ 2 − sin θ1 )
x2
Ey =
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 y 2 ∫θ 1
cos θ ′ dθ ′ =
4πε 0 y

where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.

In the infinite length limit where x1 → −∞ and x2 → +∞ , with xi = y tan θi , the

corresponding angles are θ1 = −π / 2 and θ 2 = +π / 2 . Substituting the values into the
expressions above, we have

12λ
Ex = 0, Ey =
4πε 0 y

in complete agreement with the result shown in Eq. (2.10.11).

2.14 Conceptual Questions

1. Compare and contrast Newton’s law of gravitation, Fg = Gm1m2 / r 2 , and

Coulomb’s law, Fe = kq1q2 / r 2 .

2. Can electric field lines cross each other? Explain.

3. Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.

The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?

4. A test charge is placed at the point P near a positively-charged insulating rod.

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 How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?

5. An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?

2.15 Additional Problems

2.15.1 Three Point Charges

Three point charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as shown in
Figure 2.15.1.

Figure 2.15.1 Three point charges

Calculate the net electric force experienced by (a) the 9.00 µ C charge, and (b) the
−6.00 µ C charge.

2.15.2 Three Point Charges

A right isosceles triangle of side a has charges q, +2q and −q arranged on its vertices, as
shown in Figure 2.15.2.

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 Figure 2.15.2

What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and −q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.

2.15.3 Four Point Charges

Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.

Figure 2.15.3 Four point charges

(a) What is the electric field at the location of charge q ?

(b) What is the net force on 2q?

2.15.4 Semicircular Wire

A positively charged wire is bent into a semicircle of radius R, as shown in Figure 2.15.4.

Figure 2.15.4

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201
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by λ = λ0 cosθ .

(a) What is the relationship between λ0 , R and Q?

(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?

2.15.5 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the + x -
direction is displaced by a small angle θ from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.

Figure 2.15.5

The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?

2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder

(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)

Figure 2.15.6 A uniformly charged cylinder

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(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)

2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls

Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle θ with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that θ is so small that tanθ ≈ sin θ .

Figure 2.15.9

(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is

13
» q2 ¿
r =¼ À
½ 2πε 0 mg Á

(b) If l = 1.2 × 102 cm , m = 1.0 ×101 g , and x = 5.0 cm , what is q ?

2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two charges q1 = +2e and q2 = −2e ( e = 1.6 ×10− 19 C ),
separated by a distance d = 10− 9 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
shown in Figure 2.15.10.

Figure 2.15.10

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Suppose a constant external electric field Eext = (3 ˆi + 3ˆj)N/C is applied.

(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?

(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?

(c) Do the electric fields of the charges q1 and q2 contribute to the torque on the dipole?
Briefly explain your answer.

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