IGCSE

Computer
Studies
CIE 0420

Theory Notes

Contents

1 Applications Of Computers, Their

Social & Economic Implications................................1
1.1 The Range And Scope Of Computer
Applications.............................................................................1
1.2 The Social And Economic Implications
Of The Use Of Computers.......................................................3
2 System Analysis..........................................................6
2.1 Systems Analysis...................................................................6
3 Problem Solution, Algorithm
Design & Programming Concepts.............................8
3.1 Making An Overall Plan..........................................................8
3.2 Programming.........................................................................10
4 Generic Software And The
Organisation Of Data.................................................15
4.1 Generic Software...................................................................15
4.2 Data........................................................................................ 18
5 Hardware, Systems And
Communications.......................................................22
5.1 Hardware................................................................................22
5.2 Systems And Communications...........................................26
5.3 Types Of System...................................................................28
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1 Applications Of Computers, Their Social & Economic

Implications
1.1 The Range And Scope Of Computer Applications
General Application Areas
The range of computer applications is vast. You should have an awareness of as
many applications as possible, and for each, try to know the following:
1 The purpose of the application.
2 The required outcome.
3 The overall system design, including both the computerised and
the non- computerised parts of the application.
4 The necessary inputs to the system and the means by which any data is
captured.
5 The overall organisation and processing of the data within the system.
6 The use and organisation of the major software and hardware components
of the system.
7 The need for recovery in the event of a system failure.
8 The interface between the system and its users.
9 The effectiveness of the system in practice.
10 The effects of the application on individuals and organisations.

Communication And Information Systems

Data is exchanged between computers. The data can be in the form of text,
images, sound or video.
Electronic mail (e-mail) simple message exchange. Can attach other files
Electronic conferencing can either be a text, voice or video conference

On-Line Services & Remote Databases

Computers are often placed in locations where the public can use them
to lookup information.
Information retrieval online databases, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, bus
timetables, etc.
Library systems documents are stored digitally where they can be
searched
Multimedia systems stored information contains text, sound, video, etc.

Commercial And General Data Processing

These are often batch-processing systems involving data being collected over
a period of time, and then processed later. The collected data is stored in a
transaction file, and this is used to update the master file to give a new master
file.
Banking systems bank accounts are updated based on daily
transactions Personnel records employee's pay is calculated based on

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hours worked Stock control when items are sent / received, the stock
is updated Order processing received orders are dealt with

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Industrial, Technical And Scientific Uses

Data is entered into the computer and the computer can then manipulate the
data. In the case of CAD systems, products can be designed and tested
completely within the computer's memory. In forecasting systems, predictions
are made about the future based on previous data, and a model of how the
system works.
Weather Forecasting try to predict weather, taking data from sensors, using
computer models of weather systems
Computer-aided design (CAD) designs for objects can be designed, altered and
tested within the computer, prior to manufacture

Monitoring And Control Systems

A computer is used to monitor a system through the use of sensors (such as
light, heat, etc.) The computer can then operate devices to control the
system (such as pumps, valves, etc.)
Monitoring hospital patients checks heart rate, etc. setting off an alarm if
low Nuclear power station control monitors temperature, etc. and
adjusts coolant Traffic survey and control checks the number of cars,
alters traffic light timings

Automation And Robotics

The use of computers to control other mechanical devices. Usually requires
some sort of interface which allows the computer to receive data from input
sensors, and to control output devices such as motors.
Domestic automation washing machines, microwaves
Automatic navigation aircraft, ships, cars (GSM satellite navigation)
Industrial robots used to work on manufacturing lines. Can work non-stop,
24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Can work in
hazardous areas

Expert Systems And Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the attempt to simulate the human brain, and its
thought processes, using computer hardware and software. Expert systems
use AI techniques to replace a human expert. All of the human's knowledge
on a subject is entered into the computer as a series of rules.
Medical diagnosis data is fed into the system, and questions are answered.
The expert system rules then come up with
the best diagnosis (usually with a %
confidence level)
Speech recognition checks voice patterns to determine what was spoken

Miscellaneous Areas
Some other applications of computers are:
Computer-aided learning (CAL) CD-ROMs, etc. where you can learn at your own

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pace, like having your own personal tutor
Computer animation for films and TV. Special effects, etc.

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1.2 The Social And Economic Implications Of The Use Of

Computers
Social And Economic Effects
Effects on people, organisations and on society in general.
Redundancies jobs lost when staff replaced by computer-based systems
De-skilling replacement of skilled staff by computers. Staff
are then left to do less skilled jobs
Electronic 'scabbing' if staff are striking, work can easily switched to non-
striking
staff via a network, even in a different country
Tactical striking unions maximise impact of strikes by selecting computing
staff first. Whole company is then affected
'New tech,' agreements benefits to workers (cleaner, safer workplace) and
management (more cost-effective) of using
computer- based systems

Economic Reasons For The Use Of Computers

There are many financial reasons for using computers, and computer
controlled systems, even though they are expensive to set-up initially.
More efficient tasks completed quicker, and with lest wastage
Work longer than people automated systems need no rest, can work for 24 hours a
day
Save on wages computers can often do the work of several people, so
people are made redundant

Changes To Existing Methods, Products And Services

Businesses change the way they work, and provide different, and better services
to clients.
On-line banking more convenient for customer, cheaper for banks, less
real staff required to deal with cash
E-commerce selling goods online means less overheads, so better
prices for customers, and more profit for company
EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) tills in shops where the
good purchased are automatically taken from
the database of stock. Can automatically
generate orders for new stock
EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer) allows people to pay for
goods using a card which is 'swiped' in the store,
authorising the transfer of money from the
customer's bank account

Development Of New Products And Services

Computers have lead to the development of new markets and businesses.
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 Internet service providers
 Web-design services
 Internet cafes

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Changes In The Working Environment

Using computers within businesses has altered the environment that we work in
Cleaner and safer dangerous / messy jobs done by computer systems
Work injuries can go up due to prolonged computer use – RSI, back ache, etc.

Changes In Employment
The use of computers in the workplace has an impact on the way
people work
Retraining of staff software packages upgraded, staff need to be trained.
This is often a regular thing. However…
Individual training training can be personalised to staff's needs through the
use of CAL systems, CD-ROMs, etc.

Privacy And Integrity Of Data

So much personal data is stored within computer systems that companies and
governments have to have guidelines and laws to protect the privacy of people
and their information.

Data Protection Legislation

The Data Protection Act gives the following requirements to anyone who stores data
about someone else:
 Person must give permission for data to be stored
 Data must not be used for purposes other than those it was given for
 Must not store more data than is necessary for the purpose
 Data must be kept up-to-date
 Data should not be kept for longer than is necessary
 Data must be protected against unlawful access, or accidental loss
 Data must not be transferred outside of EU unless the country also has data
laws

Security And Reliability

Data must be protected. This involves a number of procedures.
Back-ups of critical data should be performed on a regular basis. A full copy of all
files is taken (can use CD-R, magnetic tape, etc.)
Usual technique is to keep 3 generations of
back-ups (today's, yesterday's and the day
before's). This is the grandfather, father, son
system.
Batch-Processing Backup of both transaction files and master files
required. If today's master file is lost, we can re-
build it from yesterday's backed-up master file
and transaction file.
Archiving of old data to reduce the amount of system resources required (disk
space, etc.) and keep the system running
smoothly, old data that is no longer used (but may

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be required for future reference) is moved into an
archive file.

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Consequences Of System Failure

The requirements for security and reliability vary considerably depending on
the nature of the application. For example, a failure during a batch update of a
sequential master file is irritating and will cause delay, whereas a failure in an
air traffic control system could well have catastrophic results.
Safety-critical systems (such as air-traffic control, or medical systems) have
much more emphasis (and money) placed on reliability.

Hacking And Other Computer Crime

Computer crime includes activities such as the cracking of ineffective security
systems to gain unauthorised access to commercially sensitive or confidential
personal files, and fraud through the improper transfer of funds from one
account to another. Computer criminals may work within the organisation or
may be outsiders. Precautions can be taken.
Physical security only allow authorised users near the
computers Complex security codes use of good passwords (not just
'Fred' or 'Password') Firewall soft/hardware prevents access from
outside the network Encryption of data can only be read by
someone with the password Monitoring of all access trace users who
are accessing and misusing system

Computer viruses
Sensible precautions should be taken.
 Up-to-date virus protection
 Limited use of disks, etc from outside your network
 Firewall software / hardware – prevents viruses using your Internet connection

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2 System Analysis
2.1 Systems Analysis
Systems Analysis describes the process followed when replacing or
upgrading a system with a computer-based one. The steps followed are:
 Fact-finding
 Feasibility study
 Analysis
 System design
 Implementation
 Testing
 Documentation
 Evaluation

Identification Of The Problem (Fact-Finding)

What exactly is/are the problem(s) that needs to be solved? How do we find
out as much as possible about the present system? We need to do some fact-
finding:
 Interviewing people who work for the company
 Questionnaires
 Observation of people at work within the company
 Inspecting documents that are used within the present system

Deciding And Stating Specific Desired Outcomes (Feasibility Study)

Before continuing with solving the problem identified, it is important that it will
be worthwhile. The feasibility Study, and the resulting Feasibility Report, will
give an idea of:
 A brief description of the business and the sections which will be affected
 A description of what the system is required to do (objectives)
 Some early system designs to allow estimations of time and cost
 Details of why some designs were chosen, and some rejected
 Approximately how long the project will take
 Approximately how much it will cost
 Cost / benefit analysis detailing whether the solution will save money or not
 Plan of further action
 Conclusions as to whether to continue, and if so, how
Based on the contents of the study and report, the company will decide if they
are going to proceed with the project.

Analysing The Flow Of Information And Data In Existing Solutions and

Evaluation Of Existing Solutions
If the project is to continue, then a much more detailed look at the business
and its systems is required. Data will be collected and analysed thoroughly to
aid in the design of a replacement system. In particular this stage will provide:
 Charts and diagrams of the present system, and the proposed new
system (structure diagrams, data-flow diagrams, etc.)
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 Detailed objectives for the new system

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 Details of exactly which parts of the old system will be replaced

 Constraints of the new system (things it will not be able to do)
 An updated cost / benefit analysis
 A new plan for further action (including timing, responsibilities, etc.)

Consideration Of Alternative Solutions

Designs will need to be produced including:
 Required outputs (documents, reports, etc.)
 Required inputs (data, method of entry, validation, etc.)
 File / database design (number of tables, links between them, etc.)
 Hardware configuration (computers, networks, printers, etc.)
 Software required (operating systems, application packages, custom written,
etc.)
A solution will need to be selected, based on the objectives that were set:
Which solution fulfils all of the objectives?

Implementation
This can be done in one of three ways:
Direct implementation the new system simply replaces the old one. Only
suitable
for small systems
Phased implementation parts of the old system are slowly replaced by the new
one, taking time to make sure each bit works
before the next is begun
Parallel running the new system runs alongside the old one to check it
works as well. When all problems have been
solved, the old one stops.

Testing
We must ensure that any new system functions as expected, both in
normal use, and when potential problems arise. We test the system with:
Normal data to see if correct, expected results are achieved
Data with errors to check that our validation and error-checking
routines Large amounts of data to ensure that the system can cope with
high loading Rare / uncommon eventslike yearly reports, just to see that
they work as expected Extreme data to make sure that validation works,
and calculations cope
with the large / small values

Documentation
There are two main type of document that are required:
User documentation explaining how to use the new system (a user guide)
Technical documentation to allow people to alter / upgrade the system in the future

Evaluation
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Finally, the new system has to be assessed. Did it meet its objectives? Ask
the new users!

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3 Problem Solution, Algorithm Design & Programming

Concepts
3.1 Making An Overall Plan
Defining The Scope Of Separate Modules
Software problems should always be broken down into small modules of
code (subroutines). These modules should be small and as self-sufficient
as possible as:
 The module is easy to produce, not being dependent upon other modules
 The module is easy to test for the same reason
 The code is re-usable - the same module can be used in another project
e.g. Software for teaching children about shapes could be broken down into the
following modules:
 One that deals with drawing shapes (further broken down into shape modules)
 One that deals with asking questions about shapes, and uses the drawing
modules
 One that saves and loads the student's progress to / from disk
Each module has a clear purpose and it's dependency on other modules is
clear. If the modules are well defined, then the overall problem becomes easier
to solve.

Designing Algorithms
When writing algorithms to solve software problem, you must always bear in
mind that your solution must satisfy the requirements of the system. If the
software is required to calculate the average scores of 1000 students, then
that is what your algorithms must do.

Explaining Algorithms And How They Relate To The System

The design of any algorithm should be driven by:
Inputs supplied what data will be passed to the algorithm to work with?
Outputs required what data is expected from the algorithm?
The inputs and outputs will be defined by the algorithm's location within the
overall system, and it's connections to other modules.
e.g. If an algorithm is required to draw a square on the screen, then we
need to define how it will be used. We want to use it several times for
different sized squares, in different places on the screen, so we'll need
to give it some sizes and a location:
 Inputs: side length l, and position of top-left corner (x, y)
 Outputs: a square! Sides l, located at (x, y)
This algorithm can now be easily used to draw any square, anywhere, as
long as we supply it with the correct data.
The actual algorithm produced is almost irrelevant as long at it produces the
desired results, from the inputs supplied (there are issues of speed, good
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programming practice, etc. to be considered though)

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Explaining How Hardware Needs Arise From The Output Required

Any software system will need some hardware to run on. The
configuration of the hardware is dependent upon:
Outputs required items like printers, monitors, loudspeakers, etc. will be
required depending on the output of the system
Processing needs a modern computer will have a processor running at
about
3GHz. That's a lot of processing power! If less
speed is required, money can be saved
Environment Certain items of hardware are suited to certain
workplaces
(e.g. extra-rugged keyboards for factories)
Space available some hardware (e.g. flat-screen monitors) is very space
efficient
Costs hardware costs very greatly. A CRT monitor is
much cheaper than a flat-screen one.

Algorithm Tools
Top-down design a software problem is solved by breaking it down into
smaller and smaller modules, until each of these is
easy to solve, and write software for. The final
solution is formed by joining the modules together.
Usually represented using a structure diagram.
Structure diagrams (see Section 3.2 below)
Flowcharts (see Section 3.2 below)
Menus these are an effective way of breaking up a
software task. The user has menu options, each of
which is handled by a separate bit of the software
(like the top-down structure)
Libraries of subroutines Many common software problems have been solved
already, and you can buy in libraries of software
modules that can be 'glued' together to form an
application

Interpreting And Testing Algorithms

You should be able to work out the purpose of an algorithm and to suggest
and apply suitable test data.
Valid data data that tests the normal operation of the
algorithm (e.g. if entering test scores, your test
data could include 0%, 20%, 56%, 89%, 100%)
Extreme data including values that are at the limits of the expected
input (e.g. 0% or 100% for exam result, or a text
string that is the
Abnormal data data that may be valid, but is not usual (e.g. all test
scores 0%, or all 100%, or no test scores at all)
Invalid data this includes data that is not of the correct type or
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format (e.g. text into a number field)

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3.2 Programming
The Concept Of A Program
A computer program is a collection of commands that the computer is to
follow. The main requirements of a programming language are:
 To allow manipulation of data of various types and structures
 The control of inputs and outputs
 To provide for selection and repetition (see below)
 To allow links between subprograms

Sequence Following one command by another by another, etc.

i.e. Instruction 1
Instruction 2 the computer executes each instruction in order
Instruction 3
etc…

Selection The computer is given a question as then performs different tasks

based on the answer
i.e. Has something happened?

Yes No

Instruction 1 Instruction 1 the instructions that are executed depend

Instruction 2 Instruction 2 answer to the question
etc… etc…

Repetition Following the same group of commands over and over again
(loop) The loop may go on forever (infinite loop) or may stop
due to a certain condition (conditional loop)
i.e.

Instruction 1 Instruction 1
Instruction 2 an infinite loop Instruction 2 a conditional
… … loop
Stop now?
No

Low-Level Languages
Low level languages are close to the actual language that computers use (machine
code)
 Hard to program in
 Most common is assembly language
 An assembler converts assembly language into machine code
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High-Level Languages
These are languages that are closer to human language than computer.
 There are many different types, some dedicated to specific
applications (e.g. Fortran is used for mathematics, Cobol is used
for business databases)
 Much easier to use than low level languages
 Very easy to create the programming structures such as loops
 Lots of easy-to-use tools to help debug programs
 Require either an interpreter or a compiler to convert language into machine
code

Assemblers
Convert low-level languages into machine code. This is called assembly.

Interpreters
Convert high-level languages into machine code
 Convert one instruction at a time, executing it immediately
 To run programs that use an interpreter, requires the user to have an
interpreter themselves
 The final program runs more slowly than a compiled program

Compilers
Convert high-level languages into machine code
 Convert the whole program in one go
 The program cannot be run until it is fully compiled
 Once a program is compiled, the user does not need a compiler to
run it (the program is 'stand-alone'
 The resulting programs run very quickly compared to interpreted programs

Structure Diagrams
These diagrams help us design software, by letting us break the task down.
 The programming problem is broken down into a number of sub-tasks
 These sub-tasks can also be broken down into smaller tasks
 And so on…
The smaller tasks are then simple to solve, and when they are all joined
together, we should end up with a solution to the overall problem.

Main Problem

Sub-Task A Sub-Task B Sub-Task C

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 C1 C2 C3

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Variables
Within any computer program, data needs to be stored whilst it is being
processed. We store it in special locations in memory called variables (their
contents can change, so they are 'variable'!)
 Variables have names – pick names based on what you want to store (e.g.
'score')
 They can store different types of data: numbers, text ('strings'), etc.
 You can use variables within calculations (e.g. 'total = score1 + score 2')
 The content of a variable can be set (e.g. 'Set score to 0', or 'score = 0')

Flowcharts
These diagrams show the flow of our program (the order that instructions are
executed)
 The start and end of the
Start Start
program is shown as a
'sausage'
 Any tasks that are just
simply executed are Output "Enter score"
Instructio
shown in rectangles n
 Inputs and outputs are In/Out
shown in parallelograms Input Score
 Places where a decision
Question
is made (selection) are
shown using diamonds Add Score to Total
 Places where files are
saved to or read from disk
File
are shown using cylinders
 When files are master files
or transaction files, they File
are Was Score
shown as reels of tape = 0?
 Places where print-outs are
generated are shown as a Print-out
piece of paper Output Total
 Arrows join the
symbols together
Start

Pseudocode
This is a way of describing an algorithm (or program) using words. It is an
alternative to a flowchart, and is often easier to write, and more
understandable, since it is close to English.
 Words are close to English
 Uses some standard words for program structures such as loops (see below)
 Indentation is used to highlight the structure of the code
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 Inputs and outputs are shown using the words Input ( data ) and Output ( data )
 Mathematical operations can be written in words (e.g. 'Add 6 to score')

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Pseudocode Structures
There are several standard pseudocode structures that are commonly used:
Input ( variable ) Gets data from the user and stores it in the variable
Output ( variable / "text" ) Prints the contents of the variable, or the text on the
screen for the user to see
Repeat ... Until Repeats the instructions between the 'Repeat' and 'Until'
lines until a condition is
met e.g.
Repeat
Output ( "Please enter a score:" )
Input ( score )
Until score equals 0

If ... Then ... Else ... Endif Allows for selection or decision-making. A condition is
tested and if it is true then one set of
commands is executed, else if it is false
another set is executed. e.g.
If Score is greater than 60% Then
Output "You have passed. Well done!"
Else
Ouput "You have failed. Sorry!"
Endif

Case of ... Otherwise ... Endcase If you want to have different things happening
depending on the value of a
variable. e.g.
Case of
score is greater than 70
Output ( "You have an A" )
score is greater than 60
Ouptut ( "You have a B" )
score is greater than 50
Output ( "You have a C" )
Otherwise
Output ( "You have failed" )
Endcase

While ... Do ... Endwhile This is another form of loop (like Repeat…Until) except
that this one keep going whilst a condition is true,
and the condition is checked before the loop starts
e.g.
Set count to 10
While count is greater than 0 Do
Output ( count )
Take 1 away from count
Endwhile
Output ( "Blast off!!!" )

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User Documentation
Any piece of software requires some kind of user documentation.
 Instructions on how to set-up and install the software
 Instructions on using the software (User Guide)
 Troubleshooting tips (for when things don't work as expected)

Technical Documentation
This is required by those responsible for improving and maintaining a
software solution in working order, or for developing the solution to meet new
needs.
 A guide showing the structure of the software (using structure
diagrams for example)
 What inputs are expected
 What outputs are generated
 What algorithms are used to process data, etc. (using pseudocode or flowcharts)
 Any actual code should contain comments. These are notes
explaining what a particular set of instructions is supposed to do.

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4 Generic Software And The Organisation Of Data

4.1 Generic Software
Word-processing (e.g. Word)
 Letters, etc. can be typed
 Full control over font, font size, styles, etc.
 Most WP applications also include some graphics and DTP functions
 Has resulted in many people doing their own typing, making office staff
redundant

Database management (e.g. Access)

 From simple databases similar to card files (flat databases) through to
complex databases, with many groups of data linked together
(relational databases)
 A database consists of a collection of records which in turn are made up of fields
 Database can be interrogated using queries
 Can easily generate reports containing selected data

Spreadsheets (e.g. Excel)

 Made up of individual cells which can contain data (number, text, etc.) or
formulae
 Allows complex and powerful calculations on collections of data
 Can experiment with data values and see the results ('what-if' analysis)
 A mathematical 'model' of a situation can be produced (e.g. company future
profit)
 Rows are numbered, columns are lettered, cells by letter/number (e.g. A3)
 Formulae all begin with '='
 Many built-in functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, etc.
 Numbers can be formatted as currency, percentage, etc. (e.g. a cell
containing 0.5 could be shown as $0.50, 0.5000, 5e-1, 50%)

Graphics (e.g. Photoshop)

 Images can be produced from scratch, or photos manipulated
 Effects can be added (e.g. blurring, colour alterations, etc.)
 Input can be from a graphics tablet for more natural lines, etc.
 Images can be exported into many file formats (e.g. GIF, JPEG, TIFF, etc.)

Communications (e.g. E-Mail, Internet)

 Very quick delivery of messages
 Used both across the Internet, and within businesses (internal e-mail)
 Normal e-mail is text-based, but other files can be 'attached'
 People now communicate more regularly since it is so easy, but are
possibly less sociable since they now use the phone / meet less often
(less human contact)

Multimedia Authoring
 The production of CD-ROM / websites that include text, images, video,
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sound, etc.
 Common applications are education, CAL, reference (encyclopaedia, etc.)

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Data-logging
 A computer uses sensors to detect events, etc.
 Examples could be measuring traffic flow, science experiments, etc.
 Data is more accurate than that taken by a person, and can be analysed instantly
(graphs, etc.)

CAD
 Products are designed on the screen rather than on paper
 Much faster, and far more flexible than drafting designs by hand
 The products sizes (dimensions) can be altered easily (no rubbing out!)
 The product can be viewed from different angles with lighting effects, etc.
 Some CAD systems allow products to be tested using modelling
techniques, so that weaknesses can be found before anything is
actually physically manufactured

Programming
 Software can be produced using programming languages
 Many modern programming languages are now so easy to use that
applications can be produced in minutes

Desktop Publishing (e.g. Publisher)

 Allows the user to layout text, images, etc. on the page with total flexibility
 Items are placed in 'frames' which can be layered, moved, re-shaped, etc.
 Authors can produce books that are fully laid out without the need for
publishers
 Anyone can easily make flyers, posters, etc.
 Used to produce printed matter from labels to magazines
 Has made publishers almost redundant as designers can now do every
stage of the work, passing on the final files directly to the printers

Typical Problems Capable Of Solution By Packages

Many problems can be solved using generic software packages:
Small businesses accounts can be calculated using a spreadsheet, letters
written using a word-processor, stock details kept
using a database
Schools / charities don’t need to employ expensive consultants to produce
professional looking reports, posters, flyers, etc.

Use Of Standard Techniques Or Routines

Cut / copy / paste data can be easily moved between applications
Mail-merge a standard letter can be sent to a number of people by
merging a database of names and address with
the letter template. Special codes in the template
are replaced each time by the appropriate name /
address
Sorting of data a list of items (e.g. names) can easily be sorted into order
Import / export of data Applications can save data in a format that is suitable for
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another application (export), or can open files
that they wouldn't normally use (import)

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Spell / grammar check within many applications, the computer will automatically
check and correct your spelling and grammar
Wizards Many complex tasks are made extremely easy for
novices through the use of wizards. The user is
asked a series of questions and their answers
result in an appropriate complex set of actions
(e.g. producing a poster)
Macros When a number of operations need to be repeated
over and over again, they can be 'recorded' and
stored in a macro. This macro can be 'replayed'
any number of times

Integrated Packages Versus Custom-Written Software

Integrated packages are completely general-purpose, so they are:
 Cheap to buy (many copies will be sold, so the unit cost is low)
 Well documented (since many people will use them – lots of training courses)
 Stable (mostly bug-free) because of the large user-base
 Not always suitable for every business's needs, unlike custom-written software
Some business's needs cannot be satisfied by generic software, and
custom-written applications are necessary. These are:
 Very expensive since they are usually one-offs
 Perfectly suited to the business's needs
 Easy to learn since they can be exactly matched to the skills of the workforce
 Sometime quite unstable (buggy) since they have only limited testing

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4.2 Data
The Relationship Between Information And Data
Information is data that has been processed.
e.g. 234567 is simply data (a number) but it could mean many things – a
membership number, a mathematical result, etc. Once it is given this
meaning, it becomes information.

The Collection Of Data

There are many methods for collecting data for computer systems:
Questionnaires These can be closely matched to the on-screen computer
form so the data from them is easily transferred, or…
OMR forms where marks are made with a pencil (e.g. multiple
choice test) and read into a computer by a special
reader
Bar-codes Bar-code readers can scan the codes in very
rapidly, e.g. at a till in a store, or from books in a
library
Scanners Paper documents can be scanned into a
computer. They become large, graphic images
which can then be…
OCR of documents (Optical Character Recognition) after text documents are
scanned, the image file can be processed by
software that recognises the shapes of the
characters. Output is a text file containing the
original text. Not always 100% right
Sensors these can record things such as temperature, light
levels, sound, etc. and the readings can be
entered into a computer for logging and
processing

Methods Of Ensuring Data Correctness

Data can be checked in two ways: validation (is it valid and logical?) and
verification (is it correct?)

Data Validation
To ensure that the data being processed is accurate it must be checked to see
that it makes sense. It is asking too much of a computer to check if it's true -
somebody may just be lying! Certain validation checks can be carried out:
Range-check e.g. a driver's age should be between 17 and
99 Type-check e.g. a name should only contain alphabetic
characters Format-check e.g. a data should be entered as dd/mm/yyyy
Presence-check e.g. certain data must be entered (e-mail
address)
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Checksum e.g. the numeric values in a file should always add up to
a
known amount
Check-digit e.g. the last digit of an account number is calculated from
the previous digits, and then recalculated on input
to see if it matches

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Data Verification
Once we know our data is valid (i.e. it is logical, and in the right format, etc.)
then we also need to check if it is correct (it maybe a valid date-of-birth, but is
it your date-of-birth?!)
Proof-reading the person entering the data simply reads through what
they have entered to check it is correct
Double-entry the data is entered twice, either by the same, or another
operator. The computer compares the data, and
any that doesn’t match is questioned.

The Coding Of Data For Input

Before data is entered into a computer system, it needs to be put into a suitable
format:
 Dates should all be of the same format (e.g. dd/mm/yy or dd/mm/yyyy)
 Text that is to be entered into a database field may be limited to a
certain number of characters (if your paper form is designed well with
little squares for each letter so the user knows how much space they
have, this will be easy)
 Data from sensors needs to be converted into digital data for the computer

Storing Data In Files

Data, particularly data held in files, requires access in different ways depending
on the particular application. Some applications require the data to be ordered
in a particular way for processing, whilst some need the data to be very easily
searchable for rapid access to specific items
The medium on which the data is stored, and particularly the way in which it
is organised, depend on the requirements for access. You would not store a
file on magnetic tape, if you needed quick access to any part of the data – it
would take too long to find items.
Sequential access is the storage of data in a way that you can only read one
item at a time (like recording a film on video tape
– you have to work your way through the film
from the start)
A magnetic tape is a sequential access device. You
read it from the start until you find the data you
want, re-winding and starting again if you need to
do another search
Sequential indexed the file is still accessed sequentially, but each item of
data has an index (a number or code to identify
it). This index can be used to search for data
more rapidly
Random access any item of data can be accessed immediately. A hard
drive is a random access device – you do not need
to read all of the data from the start to get to a
particular file, you simply jump straight to it.
Some common file processing:
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Sorting the data on the file is arranged into a logical order
(perhaps by numeric index, or alphabetically)
Merging two files are combined, creating a new file. The
data is often sorted at the same time so the two
sets are mixed in the correct order

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Updating when data records in a file are altered because

the data has changed, the file is said to be
updated
Insertion if new data is to be added in the correct place in a
sequential file, the file is first searched to find the
right location and the data added. The remaining
data must be moved to make room
Deletion when an item of data needs to be removed, the
sequential file is searched until the item is found,
it is removed and the remaining data is moved to
fill in the gap left behind

The Presentation Of Useful Information From Processed Data

There are many ways in which processed data can be presented so that it may be
better understood:
Graphs and charts numeric data is presented visually as bar charts, line
charts, etc.
Images data can be converted into an image, for example
weather information from sensors can be shown as
lines / colours on a map to help aid weather
prediction

Analogue-To-Digital And Digital-To-Analogue Conversions

There are two categories of data:
Analogue data this is constantly varying data, such as temperature,
time, etc.
Digital data this is discrete data that has exact values, such as exam
grades (A, or B, or C… There is no level in-between
Analogue data can be made digital if it is sampled. This involves measuring
the level at a particular moment in time
Since computers are digital devices, whilst many other devices are analogue,
we need to be able to convert analogue data into digital for input into a
computer, and back again.

Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)

The analogue signal is sampled at regular time intervals to give a
sequence of digital values. An example:
 Temperature sensor supplies an analogue voltage dependent upon the
temperature. This voltage passes through an ADC to become binary
(digital) values

Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)

The computer's digital data (binary numbers) is converted into an
analogue signal. An example:
 Sounds for a computer game are generated as digital data. These are
passed to a DAC which produces an analogue signal which can drive a
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loudspeaker (all sound cards in PCs are essentially DAC devices)

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Data Types
Data can take many types including:
Numbers these can be integers (whole numbers) or real
numbers (with fractional parts). Numbers can be
formatted to be displayed as currency, dates, etc.
Characters are the symbols on the keyboard, including letters,
numbers, punctuation, etc. Characters can be joined
together to make…
Strings a load of characters joined together (e.g. "Steve", "HHGF45sju" )
Arrays are a collection of a particular data type. So an array of
integers would be a whole set of numbers stored
together. Arrays have a name, and the individual parts
are numbered (e.g. Scores(3) is the third item in the
'Score' array)

The Need For Different Data Types And Structures

As part of our system design, we need to specify what types of data are to
be used to store information.
e.g.
A person's name stored in a string (as it's a
collection of characters)
A person's age stored in an integer (since always
whole number of years)
A person's height in metres stored in a real number (since will have a
decimal part)
A collection of temperature values stored in an array of real numbers (since can
be fractions of a degree)

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5 Hardware, Systems And Communications

5.1 Hardware
Computer
Comprised of a number of components (parts):
Central Processing Unit (CPU) the 'brains' of the computer, comprises
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) which
processes instructions and performs
calculations
 Control Unit (CU) which co-ordinates the
operation of the different parts of the computer
 Primary memory (RAM) which holds data
that is currently being used.
Peripheral devices all of the devices that the computer interacts with, and
that
make it useful
 Input devices which get data into the
computer (e.g. a keyboard)
 Output devices which convert data from
the computer into other forms (e.g. a
printer)
Backing storage devices that allow us to store data that is not currently
being processed, or which needs to be saved
when the power is turned off (non-volatile
storage)
 Magnetic storage such as hard drives, floppy
disks, magnetic tape
 Optical storage such as CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, etc.
 Memory cards such as the ones found in
digital cameras. Use a form of ROM that can
be changed electronically. These are
replacing floppy disks

Microcomputer
The original digital computers from the 1940s were huge beasts that took up
whole rooms, or even buildings. Since then, computers have got a lot smaller,
a lot more powerful and a lot more user-friendly.
Mainframes the original, large computers were called mainframes
Minicomputers the next generation of computers, and the first ones that
were sold in large number to businesses
Microcomputer the small computer that you will be used to using, one
that
is self-contained and sits on your desk
Laptop a portable microcomputer

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Palmtop a portable computer that is small enough to be hand-held
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) tiny computer that
usually has no keyboard, using a touch screen
instead

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Microprocessor (Embedded Computer)

Not all computers need to have floppy drives, monitors, etc. Some are
designed to do just one specific job and don’t need to be able to load new
software, etc. These computers are very small and are often on a single chip.
Examples of devices where microprocessors are found are:
Digital watches only task of the software is to tell the time. Inputs come
from buttons, and the outputs are the display and a
buzzer
Digital cameras the tiny microprocessor takes inputs from sensors about
the light level, etc. and then outputs control
the shutter speed when the picture is taken.
Engine Management in cars a microcomputer controls all of the engine's
systems, taking a range of inputs from sensors
around the car (speed, etc.) Outputs devices
control the flow of petrol, etc.

Standard Input Devices

You need to be aware of a range of input devices, and the data they are
provide, including:
 Keyboard
 Mouse and other pointing devices (graphics tablet, touchpad, touch screen,
etc.)
 Microphone
 Joystick
 Barcode reader
 Scanner
 Sensors which detect or measure things (e.g. light sensors, heat sensors, etc.)

Standard Output Devices

You need to be aware of a range of output devices, including:
 Monitor
 Printer, including dot-matrix, inkjet, laser printer
 Plotter
 Loudspeakers
 Robot arms or other actuators used to perform tasks or control things

Processor Power
A processor deals with instructions one at a time. The quicker it can read and
process instructions, the quicker tasks will be completed. Because of this,
people are always keen to get quicker and quicker processors.
We measure processor speed in Hertz (Hz), and this measures how many
instructions a processor can handle per second. Most processors will handle
millions or even billions of instructions per second, so you will see their speed
quoted in megahertz (MHz, millions) or gigahertz (GHz, billions)

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The Functions And Characteristics Of Storage Media

There are many ways we can store date. It depends on what we are doing,
and how we need to be able to access the data. The size of storage is
measured in bytes, kilobytes (kB, thousands of bytes) or megabytes (MB,
millions of bytes).
RAM this memory is volatile (loses it's contents when the power
goes off) so only suitable for temporary storage whilst the
computer is switched on. RAM is used to hold:
 Some of the operating system (e.g. Windows)
 The applications currently running (e.g. Word)
 User data (e.g. the letter you're typing)
The computer can access RAM extremely quickly.
Commonly computers have about 256MB of RAM
ROM this memory is non-volatile (keeps it's contents when the
power goes off) so it is used to hold data that is permanently
required. The main use is to hold the small boot-up program
that a computer runs when first switched on.
Hard disk a form of magnetic storage that can hold huge amounts of data
(up to 500GB, or 500,000,000,000 bytes of data!) Data can be
accessed very rapidly (not as fast as RAM though) so it is
good for most storage.
Users need larger and larger hard drives since they are
starting to save digital images, music and even video, all of
which take up a lot of space. For example:
 Digital photo, A4 size 500kB (0.5MB)
 4 minute MP3 music track 4MB
 10 minutes of a movie, full screen (VCD) 80MB
Floppy disk a form of magnetic storage that is removable, so it can be used
to transfer data between computers. Very old, crude
technology so not very reliable. Can hold 1.44MB of data
(1,440,000 bytes)
Zip disk similar to a floppy, but holds much more data (20MB or more)
Magnetic tape a form of magnetic storage that is a little like a small video cassette.
It can hold huge amounts of data (24GB), but the data can
only be accessed sequentially (one bit after another) so tape
is usually only used for backing up data.
CD-ROM optical storage (read by a laser) that is commonly used to
hold data such as software, reference data, etc. Normally
holds abut 700MB of data. CD-ROMs are read-only, so data
cannot be saved onto them.
CD-R and RW CDs that can be written to, so data can be saved onto them.
CD-Rs can be used saved to once, CD-RWs can be saved to
many times.
DVD-ROM similar to a CD-ROM, but can hold up to 17GB of data (25 x bigger)
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Memory card a type of ROM that can be written to electronically. These little
devices are found in digital cameras, MP3 players, etc. and
allow data to be easily moved about. They are replacing
floppy disks. Still quite expensive. Come in capacities from
16MB up to 2GB

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The Characteristics And Performance Of A Range Of Peripherals

You should be able to discuss the suitability of different peripherals for
various applications.
e.g.
Laser Printer fast, quite, cheap to run
suitable for an office
environment Bar-code reader allows very rapid entry of
data codes
suitable for POS terminals in stores
Flat-screen monitor although expensive, saves space, more energy efficient
suitable for office desks and shops where space is
limited Touch-screen very easy for novices to use, natural input, tough
suitable for public information points (no mouse required)
Etc…

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5.2 Systems And Communications

Operating Systems
An operating system (OS) performs the following tasks:
 Acts are the interface between the computer's hardware, and the
application software: Applications can run on a range of different
hardware without needing any alterations (the OS 'hides' the differences
 Manages system resources, such as memory, CPU processing time, etc.
 Manages the transfer of data to / from peripheral devices
 Manages system security (login, file access, etc.)
Examples of common OSs are Windows 98, Windows XP, Mac OS, Unix, Linux, etc.

The Interface Between The Operating System And The User

Most computer OSs require user interaction at some point. This human /
computer interface (HCI) usually takes one of three forms:
Command-line interface The user types in commands to tell the computer what to
do. Very quick for experts, but hard to learn for novices.
Examples are MS-DOS, and basic UNIX
Menu interfaces the user is presented with a number of options. They
pick one, and another set of options appear, and
so on until they find the operation / data that
they want. Very user-friendly, even with a large
number of options, and easy to add / remove
options.
Examples of a menu-driven interface are
cash-point machines at banks, and mobile
phones
Graphical user interface (GUI) where computer operations and data is represented
by pictures (icons); these are clicked by a pointer
controlled by a pointing device (e.g. a mouse);
information is shown in overlapping areas called
windows and there is usually menus too. Often
called a WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer).
Very easy to learn for novices since it mimics the
real world (desktop, waste bin, etc.)
An example of a GUI is Windows

Management Of Files and File Directories

Files stored on the backing store of a computer include operating system
files, programs (e.g. Word) and data (e.g. a letter that you typed). There are
often 10,000s of files on a computer's hard drive, so they have to be kept
organised:
 Usually they are grouped in folders (or 'directories')
 Folders can contain sub-folders allowing for a hierarchy of folders
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(a 'tree' structure). So a file could be stored in /My
Letters/2003/January/
 Files should be named to make it clear what they are (e.g. "Letter to Mum.doc")

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Files often need to be moved, copied or deleted. This can be accomplished

through a GUI (e.g. in Windows you can delete a file by dragging it to the
waste bin) or by typing commands (e.g. In Unix you type "rm filename", in
MS-DOS you type "del filename").
Sometime you need to see the contents of a file, or to print it out. In a GUI you
might drag the file to a suitable application (e.g. In windows you would use
Notepad to view text files) or you may type a command (e.g. In Unix you
would type "cat filename" to view it)

Peripheral Device Control

There must be some central control of peripherals so that data is passed
between them without any problems (like data being lost)

Use Of Buffers
A buffer is a small arrear of memory that is used to temporarily hold data that
is either being sent to a peripheral (e.g. a printer) or coming from a peripheral
(e.g. a keyboard)
The buffer allows the computer (which is very fast) and the peripheral (which
is often very slow) to operate independently without having to wait for each
other.
For example, when printing, the OS places the print data in a buffer and the
printer begins to print it. The OS does not have to wait about for the printer to
finish. It can get on with more useful tasks.

Interrupts And Interrupt Priorities

This is one way that peripherals can interact with the CPU. If anything occurs
that the computer needs to know about, the peripheral sends a control
signal which 'interrupts' the CPU (hence the name 'interrupt'). The CPU then
deals with the peripheral before continuing normal operation.
Some interrupts have more importance than other. This is called the
interrupt's priority. High priority interrupts get dealt with more rapidly by the
CPU.

Polling
Another way of peripherals interacting with the CPU is for the CPU to
regularly 'ask' the peripheral if anything has happened that it needs to deal
with. It goes around each of its peripherals in turn. This is called 'polling'.
Polling is much more inefficient than an interrupt system, as often nothing
will have happened, so the CPU wastes time asking.

Handshaking
When establishing a communication link, two computers will 'greet' each other,
and 'introduce' themselves. Once both computers are happy, and ready,
communication can continue. This initial process is know as 'handshaking'

Check Sums
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Adding together all of the elements (e.g. the bytes) of a block of data produces
a single element known as the check sum. This can be stored with the data
block and provides a check when the block is transferred. The receiver re-
calculates the data's checksum and compares it with the one sent. If they
differ, a communication error probably occurred.

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5.3 Types Of System

You must be able to distinguish between the different types of system:
 What is needed to support them?
 Which is the most suitable for any given application
 Implications for the user

Batch Processing Systems

MF TF
In broad terms, a batch processing system is
one in which a job is processed without any
direct interaction between the job and the
user.
The operation is controlled by a Job Merge
Control Language (JCL)
Typical applications are payroll and billing systems.
A master file of data is updated using a New MF
transaction file that contains all of the
changes that have occurred to the data since
the last update. The result is a new master
file.

Single-User Online Systems

Online systems provide for interaction between the job and the user, which may
influence the future course of processing. e.g. word processing
Such systems may be single-user (for example, a personal computer)

Multi-User Online Systems

Multi-user online systems allow several users to interact with the computer at
one time, often from completely different locations.
Typical applications are online information retrieval (e.g. flight booking in a travel
agents)

Multi-Tasking Systems
If a user can run several tasks at once (concurrently) on the same computer, it
is aid to be multi-tasking.
An example is when you have a word-processor, a spreadsheet and a CD
player all running at once. The computer is multi-tasking.

Real-Time Systems
A real-time transaction system is an online system in which individual,
discrete transactions are processed as they occur.
An airline booking system and an online stock control system are typical examples.
A real-time control system is a system in which physical quantities are
continuously monitored and processed sufficiently rapidly to be capable of
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influencing the sources of data.
A chemical plant, or an autopilot system in an aircraft are examples.

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Control Systems
In a control system, one or more computers is used to control the operation of
some non-computer equipment, usually involving some monitoring and
logging of physical quantities, providing some analysis of performance and
allowing some user interaction.
Feedback is an essential element in most control systems. Timing
considerations are often critical and the term real-time control system is
sometimes used to indicate this.
Control systems are used in applications such as oil refining, chemical
processing and integrated traffic-control systems.

Automated Systems
Automated systems are broadly similar to control systems but are dedicated
to a particular task, and lack the ability to collect and analyse data and the
flexibility to allow for and act on user interaction beyond a very simple level.
Examples are the systems found in equipment such as washing machines and
cameras.

Multimedia Systems
Candidates should be able to specify minimum hardware and software
requirements for multimedia applications, and describe typical features and
uses of multimedia systems.

Network Systems
A network system is one in which several computers are joined together by
communication links, and can then share resources such as file storage,
printers and information resources.
Local resources hardware and software that reside on your computer
Remote resources those items that you access via the network (e.g. a
printer)

Star Networks
The computers are arranged around a central hub. This hub
may be a computer or a dedicated piece of hardware.
Star networks are very fast as data between computers can
always take the most direct route. They are also quite
secure (safe from people seeing your data) as data is only
read by the computers sending / receiving.

Linear (Bus) Networks

The computers connect to a long, common cable. All data is
sent onto this cable, and each computer listens out for
messages for itself.
Bus networks are cheap to install, and if a computer
breaks, the rest of the network can still operate.
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Ring Networks
Computers are connected to a circular cable. Data can go
either way, so this network can cope better with cable
breakages than other network types.

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