2 - Bacterial Cell-08-09-2020

BACTERIAL CELLS
Cell wall - Peptidoglycan layer
Gram –Negative bacteria

Peptidoglycan: PBP activities
endopeptidase
l
D-Ala
DD-carboxypeptidase
Höltje 1998
Peptidoglycan-Gram Positive bacteria
Lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin) in Gram–negative bacteria
Backbone composed of alternating pyrophosphate units (POP), linked

to glucosamine (G) and it is flanked outward by repeating units of
polysaccharides (O-antigen) and inward by long chain fatty acids
(Lipid A)
Lane 1 marker
Lane 2 O-antigen positive E. coli strain
Lane 3 O-antigen negative E. coli strain
•60-90% peptidoglycan and removal of cell wall makes protoplast which bursts
easily by osmotic shock.
•Retention of crystal violet is directly proportional to cell wall thickness.
•Due to lack of periplasmic space the digestive enzymes and toxin are not retained
and they are released into the environment.
•Only 10-20% of the cell wall is peptidoglycan remainder consists of various proteins,
lipids and polysaccharides.
•Toxins and digestives enzymes are retained in periplasmic space for action,
but these enzymes or toxins do not harm the organism that produced them.
•After digestion of cell wall they form spheroplast (containing CM, OM)
Mycobacteria
•Cell wall is thick, contains 60% lipids and very less peptidoglycan.
•The lipids make acid-fast organisms impermeable to most other strains and protect
them from acids and alkalis.
•The organism grow slowly because the lipids impede entry of nutrients into cell and
cells spend large amount of energy to synthesize lipids.
•They can be stained by Gram staining method and stained as Gram positive.
Nuclear region or nucleoid:
Nucleoid is centrally located, contains
DNA, RNA and proteins associated with it.
Most of the bacterium contains one circular
chromosome (except V. cholerae, which
has two). Manipulation of the microbial
genome/ chromosomes is the most
important tool in any biotechnology
industry.
Internal membrane systems:

Photosynthetic and cyanobacteria contain
internal membrane system (chromometaphore),
which has membranes derived from cell
membrane (CM) and pigments (helps to
capture lights).
Nitrifying bacteria, soil organisms those convert

nitrogen compounds into forms usable by green
plants, also have internal membranes. They
house enzymes and those are used in deriving
energy from oxidation of nitrogen compounds.
Inclusion bodies:
Bacteria can have within their cytoplasm a variety of small bodies collectively
referred to as inclusion bodies. Some are called granules and other are called
vesicles.
Granules: Densely compacted substances without a membrane covering. Each

granule contains specific substances, such as glycogen (glucose polymer) and
polyphosphate (phosphate polymer, supplies energy to metabolic processes).
Sulfur bacteria contains reserve granules of sulfur.
Polyphosphate granules are called volutin or metachromic granules, because

they display metachromasia (metachromic granules exhibit different intensities of
color). These granules are depleted in starvation.
Vesicles: Certain bacteria have specialized membrane enclosed structures

called vesicles (or vacuoles). Some aquatic photosynthetic bacteria and
cyanobacteria have rigid gas-filled vacuoles and it helps in floating at a certain
level.
Some magnetotactic bacterium, eg. Aquaspirillium
magnetotacticum, stores Magnetitite (Ferric oxide).
The presence of such magnetic inclusions enables
these bacteria to responds to magnetic fields.
•There are certain bacterial cells which are called
Endospore: vegetative having low level of metabolizing
nutrients. Vegetative cells of Bacillus and
Clostridium, produce resting stages called
endospores.
•A bacterium produces a single endospore, which
merely helps the survival not reproduction. (But
the fungal spores are for survival as well as
reproduction).
•Sporulation or endospore formation is a mean
by which some bacteria prepare for the
possibilities for adversities in future.
•Endospores form within the cells contain very less water and are highly resistant to
heat, drying, acids, bases, certain disinfectants and even radiation.
•It consists of a core, surrounded by a cortex, a spore coat and in some cases
delicately thin layer called exosporium.
•The core has an outer core wall, a cell membrane, nuclear region and other cell
components. They contain dipicolinic acid (Pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, a metal
chelating agent) and large amount of calcium ions.
•Endospores are capable of survive a few months to several thousands of years in
adverse environment exerting heat, cold, radiation stress.
•When conditions become more favorable the spores germinate or begin to develop
into functional vegetative cells.
Endospore formation
Flagella:
Polar monotrichous Polar amphitrichous

Spirillium Lophotrichous
Pseudomonas
Spirillum
Peritrichous
Salmonella
SEM of peritrichous strain Proteous
Note: bacteria without flagella are called atrichous.

• Flagella - Flagella (singular, flagellum) are hairlike structures that provide a means
of locomotion for those bacteria that have them.
• The flagella beat in a propeller-like motion to help the bacterium move toward
nutrients; away from toxic chemicals; or, in the case of the photosynthetic
cyanobacteria; toward the light. The species of bacteria, which are motile, move due
to presence of flagella.
Genetically determined as to number and location, a species with one flagellum is

called monotrichous; with two (one on each end), amphitrichous or bipolar; with a
tuft at one end called lophotrichous; and with many flagella, peritrichous.
Prokaryotes are known to exhibit a variety of types of tactic behavior, i.e., the ability
to move (swim) in response to environmental stimuli.
-chemotaxis a bacterium can sense the quality and quantity of certain chemicals in
their environment and swim towards them (if they are useful nutrients) or away from
them (if they are harmful substances).
Positive or negative chemotaxis, phototaxis, or even magnetotaxis can determine

the direction of movement which alternates between swimming and tumbling motion.
In Gram-negative Bacteria
•The diameter of a prokaryotic flagellium is about 1/10 th of that of
eukaryotic.
•It is made up of protein subunits called flagellin.
•Each flagellium is attached to cell membrane with the help of proteins

other than flagellin.
•The basal region has a hook like structure and a complex basal body.
•The basal body consists of a central rod or shaft surrounded by a set of

rings.
•Gram negative bacteria has a pair of rings embedded in the cell

membrane and another pair of rings associated with the peptidoglycan
and lipopolysaccharide layers.
•Gram-positive bacteria has one ring embedded in the cell membrane

and another in the cell wall.
In Gram-positive Bacteria
BACTERIAL MOVEMENT
•Bacterial movement is produced through the action of the flagella .
• Bacteria move toward attractive stimuli and away from harmful

substances and waste products in the process known as chemotaxis.
•Monotrichous bacteria move forward in a simple response to chemotactic

stimuli by the counterclockwise rotation of the flagellum. This forward
movement is termed the "run".
•Negative chemotaxis causes clockwise rotation of the flagellum and

results in a random tumbling motion.
•Peritrichous bacteria move in a similar fashion, even though the situation

is somewhat complicated by a requirement for bundling of the flagella to
produce coordinated action during counterclockwise rotation. The
"tumble" in peritrichous bacteria is the result of bundle disruption during
clockwise flagellar rotation.
bacterial movement contd.
Both run and tumble are generally random movement; no one direction of
movement is more likely than any other direction.
•Runs lasts for an average of 1.0 sec, during which the bacterium swims
about 10-20 times the length of its body.
•Tumbles last about 0.1 sec and no forward progress can be achieved.
•“Cruising speed” of a bacteria is about 10 body length/second which is

almost equal to the flying speed for us.
Chemotaxis
•Bacterial chemotaxis is controlled by a complex series of events

beginning with the binding of an attractant molecule to a cell
surface chemoreceptor.
• Chemoreceptors are often clustered at the ends of rod-shaped

cells like E. coli. Chemoreceptors do not influence flagellar motion
directly, but convey information through a phosphorylation cascade
required for signaling.
•Information about the environment can be translated into motion

within 200 milliseconds. A return to steady-state is assured by a
coordinated feedback loop that quickly causes a reversion to
original levels of protein phosphorylation in the absence of stimuli.
Pilli or fimbrae
• Conjugation pilli found in certain group of
bacteria.
• Used for genetic material transfer.
• The transfer process is called conjugation.
• Antibiotic resistance transfer.
• Attachment pilli, Help bacteria adhare to the

surfaces, such as cell surfaces and
interface of water and air.
• It helps in colonization and pathogenicity.
• Without this pili,many disease-causing

bacteria lose their ability to infect because
they're unable to attach to host tissue.
Gonorrhea is one of the widest spread of the
reportable diseases due to attachment fimbriae

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BACTERIAL CELLS

Cell wall - Peptidoglycan layer

Gram –Negative bacteria

Backbone composed of alternating pyrophosphate units (POP), linked

Internal membrane systems:

Nitrifying bacteria, soil organisms those convert

Granules: Densely compacted substances without a membrane covering. Each

Polyphosphate granules are called volutin or metachromic granules, because

Vesicles: Certain bacteria have specialized membrane enclosed structures

Polar monotrichous Polar amphitrichous

SEM of peritrichous strain Proteous

Note: bacteria without flagella are called atrichous.

Genetically determined as to number and location, a species with one flagellum is

Positive or negative chemotaxis, phototaxis, or even magnetotaxis can determine

•It is made up of protein subunits called flagellin.

•Each flagellium is attached to cell membrane with the help of proteins

•The basal body consists of a central rod or shaft surrounded by a set of

•Gram negative bacteria has a pair of rings embedded in the cell

•Gram-positive bacteria has one ring embedded in the cell membrane

•Bacterial movement is produced through the action of the flagella .

• Bacteria move toward attractive stimuli and away from harmful

•Monotrichous bacteria move forward in a simple response to chemotactic

•Negative chemotaxis causes clockwise rotation of the flagellum and

•Peritrichous bacteria move in a similar fashion, even though the situation

•“Cruising speed” of a bacteria is about 10 body length/second which is

•Bacterial chemotaxis is controlled by a complex series of events

• Chemoreceptors are often clustered at the ends of rod-shaped

•Information about the environment can be translated into motion

• Used for genetic material transfer.

• The transfer process is called conjugation.

• Antibiotic resistance transfer.

• Attachment pilli, Help bacteria adhare to the

• Without this pili,many disease-causing

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