Essential University Physics

Fourth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 35
Quantum Mechanics

Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Learning Outcomes
35.1 Explain the relationship between wave–
particle duality and the probability of locating a
particle.
35.2 Describe the Schrödinger equation and
how the wave function relates to probabilities.
35.3 Evaluate energies of particles in square-
well and harmonic-oscillator potentials and
describe quantum tunneling.
35.4 Find energies of particles confined in two
and three dimensions.
35.5 Describe some implications of relativistic
invariance for quantum mechanics, especially
antimatter and spin.
 35.1 Particles, Waves, and Probability
• The relation between wave and particle is statistical.
• For electromagnetic radiation, the probability of finding
a particle (a photon) is proportional to the intensity of the
electromagnetic wave - the square of the wave fields - as
given by Maxwell's equations.
• For matter, the probability of finding a particle is
proportional to the square of the corresponding matter-
wave amplitude.

For electromagnetic radiation For matter

 35.2 The Schrö dinger Wave Equation

• The Schrö dinger wave equation describes the time and

space dependence of the wave function for a particle moving
at nonrelativistic speeds.
• The time dependence is generally an oscillatory function
with frequency f = E/h, where E is the particle's energy.
• The
• The time-independent Schrö dinger equation describes
the spatial dependence alone.
• In one dimension, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is

where (x) is the wave function, U(x) is the particle's potential energy
as a function of position, and E is the particle's total energy.
 35.2 The Schrö dinger Wave Equation
A. Derivation of Schrödinger equation
1. By considering a sinusoidal wave of the form :  ( x ) = A sin kx
2
2. k = ,  the wavelength

d ( x ) d 2 ( x )
3. = Ak cos kx  2
= − Ak 2 sin kx = − k 2 ( x )
dx dx
1 d 2 ( x )
k =−2
 ( x ) dx 2
h
4. for matter waves, de Broglie' s hypothesis gives  = ,
p
h Planck's constant and p the particle's momentum
2 2 2p p p
5. k = = = = =
 h h h 
p 2
p2
6. classical physics a particle K =
2m
 35.2 The Schrö dinger Wave Equation
A. Derivation of Schrödinger equation
p2
7. K = = E − U  p 2 = 2m ( E − U )
2m
p
 k2 = 2 =
2
2 m ( E − U ) = −
1 d 2
 (x)
 2  ( x ) dx 2
 2 d 2 ( x )
− 2
= ( E − U ) ( x )
2m dx
 2 d 2 ( x )
− 2
+ U ( x ) = E ( x )
2m dx
 35.2 The Schrö dinger Wave Equation
B. Wave Functions and Probability
• In one dimension, the probability density P(x) = ψ2(x)dx
gives the probability of finding a particle with wave function ψ(x)
in the interval of width dx at position x.
• Since a particle must be somewhere, the wave function obeys
the normalization condition:

where the integral is over the entire region available to the

particle.
Got It? 35.2
• In the figure below, are the probabilities of
finding a particle in small regions of width dx
given by (a) the areas of the shaded rectangles,
(b) the values of ψ2 in each region, or (c) the
value of ψ in each region?

(a)
  2 (0)
 2 (x) =
2
x2
−2 A2
Ae =
2 2
a
2
x2
2
2=e a2

x2
 ln 2 = 2 2
a
a 2 ln 2
x =2
2
ln 2
 x = a
2
 x = 0.589a
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
A. The Infinite Square Well, perfectly rigid walls
Solution of the Infinite Square Well
 2 d 2
− + U ( x ) = E 
2m dx 2

  ( x ) = A sin kx
Subject to the boundary conditions
 (0 ) = 0 and  ( L) = 0
1. x = 0   (0 ) = 0  A sin k  0 = 0
 with A and k both const.
2. x = L   ( L ) = 0  A sin kL = 0
n
 sin kL = 0  k = , n is any integer
L
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
A. The Infinite Square Well, perfectly rigid walls
• An infinite square well has perfectly rigid walls, so a particle is
confined to the space between the walls.
• The potential energy is given by

• The rigid walls mean the wave function

is zero at the walls.
• Within the well (U=0), the Schrödinger equation
becomes

• Solutions to the Schrödinger equation

are sinusoidal functions:

• where A is the normalization constant, L

is the well width and n is the quantum number.
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
B. Energy Levels of the Infinite Square Well
Solution of Energy Levels of the Infinite Square Well
 nx  d An  nx 
( )
 x = A sin   = cos 
 L  dx L  L 
d 2 n 2 2  nx 
 = − A 2 sin  
 L 
2
dx L
 nx  d 2 n 2 2  nx 
substitute  ( x ) = A sin   and = − A sin  
   
2 2
L dx L L
 2 d 2 ( x )
into − 2
= E ( x )
2m dx
  2  n 2 2 nx   nx 
  −  − A 2 sin   = EA sin  
 2m   L  L   L 
n 2 2 2 n 2 h2
E= 2
=
2mL 8mL2
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
B. Energy Levels of the Infinite Square Well
Solution of the constant A in the wave function
cos 2 = cos 2  − sin 2  = 1 − 2 sin 2 
1
 2 sin  = 1 − cos 2  sin  = (1 − cos 2 )
2 2
2
L  nx 
0  x  L   A2 sin 2  dx = 1
0
 L 
A2 L  2nx 

2 0 

1 − cos
 L 
dx = 1
L
A   2nx   
2
L A2 L L
  x − sin   =  L − sin (2n ) − 0 + sin 0
2  2n  L  0 2  2n 2n 
A2 L
= =1
2
2
 A=
L
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
B. Energy Levels of the Infinite Square Well
• The energy of a state with quantum
number n is

• Energy is proportional to n2, so the levels

aren't evenly spaced.
• The lowest possible energy state is the
ground state.
• Its energy isn't zero.
• The constant A in the wave function is
determined by the normalization
condition:

• The diagram shows some wave

functions for the infinite square well.
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
B. Energy Levels of the Infinite Square Well
2  nx 
The normalized wave function is then n = sin  
L  L 
35.3 Particles and Potentials
 2  nx  2  x 
n = sin   1 = sin  
L  L  L  L

the probability density P(x) = ψ2(x)dx

1
L
the probability 0
4  12 dx
cos 2 = cos 2  − sin 2  = 1 − 2 sin 2 
1
 2 sin 2  = 1 − cos 2  sin 2  = (1 − cos 2 )
2
cos 2 = cos 2  − sin 2  = 1 − 2 sin 2 
 2 sin 2  = 1 − cos 2
1
 sin 2  = (1 − cos 2 )
2
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
C. The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
• The harmonic oscillator has a quadratic potential-energy
function: A mass-spring system,  = k 
m

where = 2πf is the classical oscillation (angular) frequency.

• Using U(x) in the Schrödinger equation gives wave functions
associated with evenly spaced energy levels.
• The energy levels are given by

• The ground-state energy is

• Subsequent levels are spaced

evenly by
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
D. The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: A Closer Look
• A classical harmonic oscillator is moving
slowest at its extremes of motion.
• Therefore it's most likely to be found at
the extremes.
• But for low n, a quantum harmonic
oscillator exhibits very different behavior.
• For the n = 0 ground state, it's most
likely to be in its equilibrium position.
• And there's a significant probability of
finding the particle beyond its
classical turning points.
• As n increases, the oscillator's behavior
becomes more classical.
• This is an instance of Bohr's
correspondence principle.
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
E. Quantum Tunneling
• Extension of the harmonic oscillator wave function into a
classically forbidden region is an example of quantum tunneling.
• In quantum physics, a particle shows a nonzero probability of being
found in a region forbidden classically by conservation of energy.
• When the particle encounters an energy barrier higher than its total
energy, it can still tunnel through.
• The effect is most prominent for particles of low mass, so it's
obvious only in the quantum realm.

Wave function extends through the barrier, giving a Tunneling is less likely with a more
finite probability of finding a particle on the other side. massive particle.
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
F. The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
• The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of
electrons across the gap between a fine conducting tip and a
surface to image the locations of individual atoms on the surface.

Electron microscope photo of an

STM tip

STM image showing a "quantum

Diagram of an STM
corral" of 48 iron atoms on a copper
surface
 35.3 Particles and Potentials
G. The Finite Square Well
• A finite square well has a finite number of discrete states,
determined by the particle mass m, well height U0, and width L.
• These are called bound states.
• For particles with energy above the well
height U0, any energy is possible.
• These states constitute a continuum of
energy levels.
• The figure is an energy-level diagram for a
particular case with only three bound states.
 35.4 Quantum Mechanics in Three
Dimensions
• In three dimensions, a quantum particle has quantum numbers for
each dimension.
• Different states may have the same energy.
• Such states are termed degenerate.
• Breaking symmetry removes the degeneracy, separating
the energy levels.
• An important example is the Zeeman splitting of atomic
energy levels in a magnetic field.

A possible wave function for a The first excited energy level in a cubical box is
2-dimensional square well. degenerate, but making the box rectangular
breaks symmetry and removes the degeneracy.
35.4 Quantum Mechanics in Three
Dimensions
 35.5 Relativistic Effects in Quantum
Mechanics
• Recall the relativistic energy-momentum relationship

• This equation has two solutions for E, one positive and one
negative.
• In 1928 Dirac showed that the negative root could be interpreted
to to imply the existence of antimatter—particles with the same
mass but opposite electrical charge and other properties.
• When matter and antimatter particles of mass m meet, they
annihilate to produce two photons each carrying energy mc2.
• Interactions involving high enough energy can produce
matter-antimatter pairs (pair creation).
• The principle of relativity also requires that most particles have
spin—an intrinsic angular momentum.
• Spin has enormous consequences, which we'll explore in the
next chapter.