INTRODUCTION Course Postgraduate PhD

Designers of machines, vehicles, and structures must achieve acceptable levels of performance and economy, while at the same
Asst. Prof. Dr. Alaa Dahham Younis
time striving to guarantee that the item is both safe and durable. To assure performance, safety, and durability, it is necessary
to avoid excess deformation that is, bending, twisting, or stretching of the components (parts) of the machine, vehicle, or
structure.
In addition, cracking in components must be avoided entirely, or strictly limited, so that it does not progress to the point of
complete fracture.
The study of deformation and fracture in materials is called mechanical behavior of materials. Knowledge of this area provides Advanced Mechanical Behavior of Engineering Materials
the basis for avoiding these types of failure in engineering applications. One aspect of the subject is the physical testing of
samples of materials by applying forces and deformations. Once the behavior of a given material is quantitatively known from
Introduction, Stress and Strain, Complex stress/strain states,
testing, or from published test data, its chances of success in a particular engineering design can be evaluated. Macroscopic Elasticity and Plasticity, Viscoelasticity, Yielding, Yield
The most basic concern in design to avoid structural failure is that the stress in a component must not exceed the strength of the Surfaces, Work Hardening, Geometric Dislocation Theory, Fracture,
material, where the strength is simply the stress that causes a deformation or fracture failure. Additional complexities or
particular causes of failure often require further analysis, such as the following: Creep, Fatigue, Temperature Dependent and Environment
1. Stresses are often present that act in more than one direction; that is, the state of stress is biaxial or triaxial. Dependent Mechanical Properties, Strain-Rate and Temperature
2. Real components may contain flaws or even cracks that must be specifically considered.
3. Stresses may be applied for long periods of time. Dependence of Flow stress, Mechanical working
4. Stresses may be repeatedly applied and removed, or the direction of stress repeatedly reversed.

TYPES OF MATERIAL FAILURE

A deformation failure is a change in the physical dimensions or shape of a component that is sufficient for its function to be lost or
impaired. Cracking to the extent that a component is separated into two or more pieces is termed fracture. Corrosion is the loss of
material due to chemical action, and wear is surface removal due to abrasion or sticking between solid surfaces that touch.
If wear is caused by a fluid (gas or liquid), it is called erosion, which is especially likely if the fluid contains hard particles.
The basic types of material failure that are classified as either deformation or fracture are indicated in Fig. 1.1. Since several
different causes exist, it is important to correctly identify the ones that may apply to a given design, so that the appropriate analysis
methods can be chosen to predict the behavior.

Lecture 1
Introduction, Stress and Strain,
Complex stress/strain states

Figure 1.1 Basic types of deformation and fracture.

The values obtained in the limiting process of Eq. (1) differ from point to point on the surface as
F varies. The stress components depend on not only F however, but also on the orientation of
Stress
DEFINITION OF STRESS
the plane on which it acts at point Q. Even at a given point, therefore, the stresses will differ as
A body under the action of external forces, undergoes distortion and the effect due to this system
different planes are considered.
of forces is transmitted throughout the body developing internal forces in it. Stress is the term
The complete description of stress at a point thus requires the specification of the
used to define the intensity and direction of the internal forces acting at a particular point on a
stress on all planes passing through the point. Because the stress ( or ) is obtained by dividing the
given plane.
force by area, it has units of force per unit area. In SI units, stress is measured in newton's per
Consider a body in equilibrium subject to a system of external forces, as shown in Fig. 6a. Under
square meter (N/m²) or Pascal's (Pa). As the Pascal is a very small quantity, the mega Pascal
the action of these forces, internal forces will be developed within the body. To examine the latter
(MPa) is commonly used. When U.S. Customary System units are used, stress is expressed in
at some interior point Q, we use an imaginary plane to cut the body at a section a a through Q,
pounds per square inch (psi) or kips per square inch (ksi).
dividing the body into two parts. As the

Stresses acting on an area, A, under a normal force,

y y = Fy /Ay yy cos2 FIGURE 6. (a) Sectioning of a body; (b) free body with internal forces; (c) enlarged
y x = Fx/Ay Ayx/ yy area A with components of the force F.

forces acting on the entire body are in equilibrium, the forces acting on one part alone must be in
The stress-strain relations of a linear-elastic isotropic equilibrium: This requires the presence of forces on plane a a.
material with all components of stress present These internal forces, applied to both parts, are distributed continuously over the cut surface. The
aforementioned process, referred to as the method of sections, will be relied on as a first step in
solving all problems involving the investigation of internal forces.
Figure 6b shows the isolated left part of the body. An element of area A located at point Q on
the cut surface is acted on by force F. Let the origin of coordinates be placed at point Q, with x
normal and y, z tangent to A. In general, F does not lie along x, y, or z. Decomposing F into
components parallel to x, y, and z (Fig. 6c), we define the normal stress x and the shearing
stresses xy, xz:

. (1)

These definitions provide the stress components at a point Q to which the area A is reduced in
the limit. Our consideration is with the average stress on areas, which, while small as compared
with the size of the body, is large compared with interatomic distances in the solid. Stress is thus
defined adequately for engineering purposes. As shown in Eq. (1), the intensity of force
perpendicular, or normal, to the surface is termed the normal stress at a point, while the intensity
of force parallel to the surface is the shearing stress at a point.
Volumetric From Fig.
strain

Volume increase of a slender member in tensile test can be obtained when , are known.
If > 0.5, there is a contradiction that volume decreases when material is extended, so max =
0.5.
Meanwhile, upon use of the strain transformation formulas

Unit volume change in three-axial stresses Having unit length and o = 1,

This equation and must be equal, so

The shear-stress components cannot have an effect on the volume change.

K : Bulk modulus or modulus of compression

The bulk modulus is a constant the describes how resistant a substance is to compression. It is Volume change of the isotropic, linear-elastic material at extension
defined as the ratio between pressure increase and the resulting decrease in a material's volume.
Together with Young modulus, the shear modulus, and Hooke law, the bulk modulus describes a
b1
material's response to stress or strain.
Usually, bulk modulus is indicated by K or B in equations and tables. While it applies to uniform
compression of any substance, it is most often used to describe the behavior of fluids. It can be
used to predict compression, calculate density, and indirectly indicate the types of chemical
bonding within a substance. The bulk modulus is considered a descriptor of elastic properties c1
because a compressed material returns to its original volume once the pressure is released. The lengths of each side after deformation are
The units for the bulk modulus are Pascal (Pa) or Newton per square meter (N/m2) in the metric
system, or pound per square inch (PSI) in the English system.
Bulk Modulus (K) = Volumetric stress / Volumetric strain
This is the same as saying it equals the change in pressure divided by the change in volume
divided by initial volume:
Bulk Modulus (K) = (p1 - p0) / [(V1 - V0) / V0]
Here, p0 and V0 are the initial pressure and volume, respectively, and p1 and V1 are the pressure
and volume measured upon compression.
The bulk modulus property of the material is related to its behavior of elasticity. It is one of the measures of
mechanical properties of solids. Other such elastic modulii are Young s modulus and Shear modulus. In all
cases, the bulk elastic properties of a material are used to find out how much it will compress under a given
amount of external pressure. It is very important to find the ratio of the change in pressure to the fractional
volume compression. The Bulk Modulus is defined as the relative change in the volume of a body produced by
a unit compressive or tensile stress acting throughout the surface uniformly.
Thermal strains are always axial strains . No shear strains are developed in a single material In short, elastic deformation of crystalline structures (like steel) happen on an atomic scale,
because expansion or contraction takes place in all directions at once. Because the material where the bonds of the atoms in the lattice are stretched. This allows for a change in how close
expands in all directions in the same way, thermal strains will appear in every direction the individual atoms are packed together.
If you remove the load, the energy stored within these bonds can be reversed (comparable to a
Example: For assembly shown in the figure. Determine the stress in each of the two vertical rods spring), therefore it's only elastic.
if the temperature rises 40 C after the load P=50 kN is applied. Neglect the deformation and On the other hand, plastic deformation happens along gliding planes, for example between
mass of the horizontal bar AB. Use Ea=70 GPa, a=23.0 µm/m. C, Aa=900 mm2 , Es=200 GPa, individual crystals (inter-crystalline) or within the crystal itself (intra-crystalline). During plastic
s=11.7 µm/m. C and As=600 mm2 . deformation crystals "slide" along that plane, they perform a translation which is permanent,
therefore plastic. The crystalline structure itself remains more or less unaffected during that
translation, therefore no volumetric change occurs.

The effect is completely dependent on the Poisson's ratio; a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 implies no
volumetric change for tensile stretching or compressive contraction of a bar/rod, for example, in
the elastic regime..

Thermal stress
Thermal strain is a property of material wherein a material is allowed to contract or expand
freely with the increase or decrease in temperature. Thermal stress causes the body to produce
thermal strain.

In the elastic region the effect of temperature on strain appears in two ways.
i) By causing a modification in the values of the elastic constants
ii) By directly producing a strain even in the absence of stress

For an isotropic material, symmetry arguments show that the thermal strain must be a pure
expansion or contraction with no shear-strain components referred to any set of axes.

where is a thermal expansion coefficient

Total strain

Thermal strains are typically linear in nature. A uniform change in strain will occur for every
degree change in temperature no matter where on the temperature scale it starts from.

The linear relationship for thermal strain is shown as

 Generalized Hooke s law
They satisfy the relation
The generalized Hooke's Law can be used to
predict the deformations caused in a given
material by an arbitrary combination of
stresses.
If the x-coordinate is taken along the axis of the

FIGURE 1.1
where E denotes the modulus of elasticity in

The axial loading induces lateral contraction

or reduction in the cross-sectional area of the
specimen, and the lateral strains in the y and z
coordinates are linearly proportional to
the axial strain. Hence,

Use Lame s elasticity constants for

s ratio with typical values between 0.1 and 0.5. For

structural steel, Poisson s ratio is 0.3. The linear portion of the stress strain curve terminates at
point A, which is known as the proportional limit. The point of initiation of plastic or irreversible
deformation is called the yield point or the elastic limit, which occurs slightly above point A.

In this range of loading, the deformation of the material is elastic because the specimen returns
to its original shape upon removal of the load, that is, loading, unloading, and reloading
generate line 0A. Beyond A, there is an extension of constant load indicating the beginning of
plastic flow and plastic deformation.

Note that Young s modulus of elasticity and Poisson s ratio in terms of Lame s constants are Another simple test consists of applying equal and opposite twisting moments (torques) at the
ends of a specimen to determine the shear stress shear strain relation by finding the change in a
right angle of a typical element on the surface of the specimen undergoing pure shear. In the
elastic range, we have the following Hooke s law in shear:

where G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity. The applied torques do not
create any normal stress.

we have Hooke s law in two dimensions

The parameter is referred to in fluid dynamics as the dynamic viscosity of a fluid(not the same
units); whereas in the context of elasticity, is called the shear modulus, and is sometimes Similarly, for an element subjected to triaxial
denoted by G instead of
follows:
Example (1): the principle stresses at a point are shown. If the material properties are E=68.9

Mpa.

= =

= =

=
The first two stresses, the components acting tangential to the surface, are shear stresses

Consider the three traction vectors , acting on the surface elements whose
outward normal are aligned with the three base vectors , Fig. 3a. The three (or six) surfaces
can be amalgamated into one diagram as in Fig. 3b.
In terms of stresses, the traction vectors are

Figure 3: the three traction vectors acting at a point; (a) on mutually orthogonal planes, (b) the
traction vectors illustrated on a box element

The components of the three traction vectors, i.e. the stress components, can now be displayed on

an elemental box of finite size. However, it is assumed that the element in Fig. 4 is small enough
that the stresses can be treated as constant, so that they are the stresses acting at the origin.

The nine stresses can be conveniently displayed

in matrix form: 3 3

respect to a Cartesian coordinate system

 TYPES OF STRAIN
Components of Strain
Strain may be classified into direct and shear strain
Strain is a change in the relative configuration of points within a solid. One can study finite
strain or infinitesimal strain both are relevant to the deformations that occur.

Strains may be regarded as normalized displacements. If a structure is subjected to a stress state,

it will deform. However, the magnitude of the deformation is dependent on the size of the
structure as well as the magnitude of the stress applied. In order to render the displacement a
scale-independent parameter, the concept of strain is utilized.
The small displacements of particles of a deformed body will usually be resolved into components
Figure 2(a),2(c),2(b),2(d) represent one-
u, v, w parallel to the coordinate axes x, y, z, respectively. It will be assumed that these
dimensional, two-dimensional,
components are very small quantities varying continuously over the volume of the body.
three-dimensional and shear strains
The displacements of points in a solid in order to compute the extensional strain at the point P, respectively.
arbitrarily taken, in the direction of tO, also arbitrarily chosen, as the body deforms from the
state indicated at the left to that at the right

We designate the extensional strain at P in the direction of tO by PQ

. Our task is to see what we In case of two-dimensional strain, two normal or longitudinal strains are given by
need to know in order to evaluate the limit

+ ve sign applies to elongation; ve sign, to contraction.

Now, consider the change experienced by right angle DAB in the Figure 2 (d). The total angular
change of angle DAB between lines in the x and y directions, is defined as the shearing strain and
denoted by xy.

The shear strain is positive when the right angle between two positive axes decreases otherwise
the shear strain is negative.

In case of a three-dimensional element, a prism with sides dx, dy, dz as shown in Figure
2(b) the following are the normal and shearing strains:

vectors Lo , and L for the directed line segments PQ, P Q respectively though
they are in fact meant to be small, differential lengths. Proceeding in the same way as we did in
our study of the truss, we write, as a consequence of vector addition

The remaining components of shearing strain are similarly related:

 u in terms of the vector difference of the two directed line
segments, namely

We now introduce a most significant constraint, We assume, as we did with the truss, that
displacements and rotations are small displacements relative to some characteristic length of
the solid, rotations relative to a radian. This should not to be read as implying our analysis is of
limited use. Most structures behave, i.e., deform, according to this constraint and, as we have

equations with respect to the undeformed configuration. In fact not to do so would be erroneous.
Explicitly this means we will take

With this we can claim that the change in length of the directed line segment, PQ, in moving to

We have

where t is, as before, a unit vector in the direction of PQ

From here on in, constructing an expression for requires the machine-like evaluation of the

displacement taken with respect to position, and the manipulation of all of this into a form which
reveals what s needed in order to compute the relative change in length of the arbitrarily
oriented, differential line segment, PQ. We work with respect to a rectangular Cartesian
coordinate frame, x,y, and define the horizontal and vertical components of the displacement
vector u to be u,v respectively. That is, we set

Where the coordinates x,y label the position of the point P. The differential change in the
displacement vector in moving from P to Q, a small distance which in the limit will go to zero,
may then be written

Carrying out the scalar product, we obtain for the change in length of PQ:

We next approximate the small changes in the horizontal and vertical, scalar components of

along the x and y axes as we move to point Q. That is

Similarly, it may be shown that the normal strains in the y and z- directions are:

Building on the last figure, we define a rotation at the point P as the average of the rotations of
the two, x,y, line segments. That is we define

Note the negative sign to account for the different directions of the two line segment rotations. If,
Strain-displacement relations:
for example, / is positive, and / =- / then there is no shear strain, no change in the
right angle, but there is a rotation, of magnitude / positive about the z axis at the point P.
Normal Strain
These three quantities the three components of strain at a point
Consider a line element of length x emanating from position (x, y) and lying in the x - direction,
denoted by AB in Fig. 4. After deformation the line element occupies A B , having undergone a
translation, extension and rotation.

If we know the way x(x,y), xy(x,y), and y(x,y) vary, we say we know the state of strain at any
point in the body. We can then write our equation for computing the extensional strain in any
arbitrary direction in terms of these three strain components associated with the x,y frame at a
point as:

Finally, note that if we are given the displacement components as continuous functions x and y
we can, by taking the appropriate partial derivatives, compute a set of strain functions, also
continuous in x,y. On the other hand, going the other way, given the three strain components, x,
xy, y as continuous functions of position, we cannot be assured that we can determine unique,
continuous functions for the two displacement components from an integration of the strain-
displacement relations. We say that the strains represent a compatible state of deformation only if
Figure 13
4 Translation and rotation in an elastic cord we can do so, that is, only if we can construct a continuous displacement field from the strain
components.
To define normal strain, refer to the following Figure 5 where line AB of an axially loaded

The length of AB is x. As shown in Figure 5(b),

points A and B have each been displaced,
i.e., at point A an amount u, and at point B an
amount u+ u. Point B has been displaced by

A, and the length x has been increased

by u. Now, normal strain may be defined as
(a)
(b)

Figure 5 Axially loaded bar

In view of the limiting process, the above represents the strain at a point. Therefore "Strain

Fig. 6 illustrates the two-dimensional deformation of a rectangular element with original

dotted outline. The displacements of various corner reference points are indicated in the figure.
Reference point A is taken at location (x,y), and the displacement components of this point are
thus u(x,y) and v(x,y). The corresponding displacements of point B are u(x + dx,y) and v(x +
dx,y), and the displacements of the other corner points are defined in an analogous manner.
According to small deformation theory, u(x + dx,y) u(x,y)+( u/ x)dx, with similar expansions
for all other terms.
The normal or extensional strain component in a direction n is defined as the change in length
per unit length of fibers oriented in the n-direction. Normal strain is positive if fibers increase in
length and negative if the fiber is shortened. In Fig. 6, the normal strain in the x-direction can
thus be defined by

FIG. 6 Two-dimensional geometric strain deformation

 At any point within a material, if the two shear stresses are zero on a plane, this plane is called
principal plane. The normal stress acting on the principal plane is called principal stress, and its Complex stresses
direction is called principal direction. If a cubic element is chosen such that all the faces of the
cube are free of shear stresses, the element is called principal element. In a practical design, a structure is usually subjected to a combination of different types of
loading that generate different types of stresses within the structure. For example, the stress
1.1 Two-dimensional state of stress field in a beam column joint is very complex, with combinations of bending, shearing and
contact stresses (Figure 1.1(a)). If a cut (plane) is taken through a point, the stress on the plane
In some cases, the stresses relative to a particular direction are sufficiently small compared to is usually different to the stress on a different plane through the same point, not just in terms
the stresses relative to the other two directions. Typical example problems include stresses in of magnitude but also direction. On an arbitrary plane through a point, a general ( ) stress can
a thin plate subjected to in-plane loadings (Figure 1.3(a)) and in a thin-walled vessel under always be resolved into three independent components that are perpendicular to each other
internal pressure (Figure 1.3(b)) or torsion (Figure 1.3(c)). Suppose that the small stress is (Figure 1.1(b)). The three components include a normal stress ( n), which is perpendicular to the
related plane, two shear stresses ( 1 and 2), which are parallel to the plane and perpendicular to each
other. The stresses at a point inside the joint are best presented by the stresses acting on an
infinitesimal cubic element taken around the point. The element has six faces (planes) that are

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.1

To the z direction and is ignored, the three-dimensional state of stress can be reduced to a either perpendicular or parallel to each other. On each of the faces there are three independent
two-dimensional one. Since the remaining stresses lie in a plane, the simplified two-dimensional stresses, including two shear stresses and a normal stress.
problems are called plane problems. For the thin plate subjected to in-plane loads, Figure 1.3(a) Figure 1.2 shows all the stresses at a point in a material, which is sufficient and necessary to
shows the two-dimensional state of stress. For a thin-walled cylinder subjected to internal represent the state of stress at the point.
pressure or torsion, the states of stress are shown by Figures 1.3(b) and 1.3(c).
In Figure 1.3, the normal stresses ( x and y have a single subscript index that indicates the
coordinate axis the stresses are parallel to. The first subscript index of a shear stress ( xy or yx ) loads, the state of stress is, in general,
denotes the direction of the normal of the plane on which the stress acts, while the second different at different points within the structure.
index denotes the axis to which the shear stress is parallel. Since the two-dimensional element
is infinitesimal, xy is numerically equal to yx . direction is usually different to the stress
in a different direction

acting on six different planes at a point.

1.1.1 Sign convention of stresses Therefore, when we say that we know a stress, Figure 1.2
The stresses shown in Figure 1.3 are all defined as positive in the chosen coordinate system, it means that we know not only the
where the following sign conventions are followed magnitude and direction of the stress, but also
the plane on which the stress acts.
Tensile and compressive stresses are always defined, respectively, as positive and negative Since the cubic element has infinitesimal dimensions in the three co-ordinate directions, the
normal stresses acting on any two faces that are parallel to each other are equal but in opposite
directions. On any two planes that are perpendicular to each other, the shear stresses
perpendicular to the intersection of the two planes are equal, but in an opposite sense, i.e., are
either towards or away from the intersection line. At a point, therefore, there are only six
independent stresses, i.e., xx , yy , zz , xy = yx , xz = zx and yz = zy (Figure 1.2).
 Positive shear stresses are defined the same as the positive shear forces

Figure 1.5
1.1.2 Analytical method
The equilibrium of the wedge yields: Once the stress components that align with a typical x y coordinate system are found
(Figure 1.2), transforming the stresses into another coordinate system is sometimes necessary.
Two key reasons that we may want to calculate stresses in a different coordinate system include
the following
To determine the stress in an important direction, for example, stresses normal and parallel to
the plane of a weld (Figure 1.4(b));
(1.1) To determine the maximum normal stress or maximum shear stress at a point. These stresses
may not necessarily align with the chosen coordinate directions

Where an anticlockwise angle from the x-axis is defined as positive. Figure 1.6

(b) Principal stresses

From Equation (1.1), the stresses on an inclined plane change as the value of changes.
It means that on different planes taken by cutting through the point the stresses are generally
different. It is natural to think that there are special planes on which the normal stress reaches
either maximum or minimum (maximum compressive stress) algebraically.
The maximum and minimum normal stresses are both called principal stresses. When a normal
stress is either maximum or minimum, the plane on which the stress acts is always free of shear
stress. In a two-dimensional stress system, there are two principal stresses, that is, the maximum
and the minimum normal stresses at a point, as shown in Figure 1.7.
The principal stresses can be calculated as follows: Figure 1.4

(a) Stresses on an arbitrarily inclined plane

To further understand the stresses on an arbitrarily inclined plane (cut) through a point in
a material, consider the two elements taken around the point in Figure 1.4.
Since the elements are taken at the same point, we might take them for the same state of stress,
but measured in a different coordinate system. The new coordinate system, x y , is defined by a
rotation of both the coordinate axes from their original directions (Figure 1.5). The
relationship between the states of stress in terms of the original system and the rotated system can
be best presented by considering the equilibrium of the wedge of material (Figure 1.6) taken from
Figure 1.5(b). The normal stress, , and shear stress, , acting on the inclined plane are,
Figure 1.7 (1.2)
respectively, the normal stress, x , and shear stress, x y , in the rotated coordinate system, while
the stresses acting on the vertical and horizontal sides of the wedge are identical to those acting
on the vertical and horizontal sides of the element (Figure 1.5(a)) in the original coordinate
system.
1.1.3 Graphic method (c) The directions of principal stresses

Mohr s circle illustrates principal stresses and stress transformations via a graphical format, The angle between a principal stress and the x-axis can be calculated as follows:
that is, a graphic representation of Equations (1.1 1.4). The circle is plotted in a plane
coordinate system where the horizontal axis denotes normal stress. The vertical coordinate
denotes the shear stress on the same plane (Figure 1.10). While plotting a Mohr s circle a sign
(1.3)
convention, for example,, must be followed.
Here we take tensile stresses and shear stresses that would turn an element clockwise as positive.
Figure 1.10 shows how the stresses acting on an element are related to a Mohr s circle

Since the two principal stresses are perpendicular to each other, the direction of the second
principal stress is +90.
In a plane problem, there are two principal stresses (Equation (1.2)) and two associated
directions. The easiest way to relate the stresses to their respective directions is based on the
following simple observation.
In Figure 1.8, the shear stresses xy generates tension in one diagonal direction and
compression in the other, which suggests that combined with actions of x and y , the
normal stress in the direction of the tension diagonal is more tensile or larger than that in
the direction of the compression diagonal. Hence, it can be concluded that the direction of
1 is related to where the shear stresses are pointing to.

At a point in a material, a normal stress is a principal stress if:

Figure 1.10 ;

The two principal stresses are shown by the coordinates of the two intersections of the circle Or
with the horizontal axis (where shear stresses are zero). The vertical coordinates of either the the plane on which the normal stress acts is free of shear stresses. The plane is one of the
highest or the lowest point on the circle denote the maximum magnitude of shear stress that is principal planes.
also equal to the radius of the circle. If the state of stress at a point is known, that is, x , y and
xy are known, the following steps can be followed to plot a Mohr s circle: (d) Maximum shear stress
Set up a co-ordinate system where the horizontal axis is the normal stress axis and the vertical Following the same argument as for the existence of maximum normal stresses, there exist special
axis is the shear stress axis; positive directions of the axes take upwards and to the right. planes on which shear stress reaches maximum or minimum. (They have equal magnitudes in an
Locate two points, A and B, related to, respectively, the stresses on the right and upper faces of opposite sense.) Figure 1.9 shows a concrete cylinder under compression.
a state-of-stress element, with respective coordinates ( x , xy) and ( y xy ), in the co- The cylinder fails due to maximum shearing at about 45 to the axial of compression. The cylinder
ordinate system and connect the two points by a straight line. The sign convention defined in may fail along the other diagonal direction under the same compression due to an equal shear
Section 1.1.1 must be followed to locate the two points. The intersection of the straight line with stress of opposite sense. By observation, the plane perpendicular to the axial direction is a
the -axis is marked O and is at a distance of ave = x+ y /2 away from the origin. principal plane since there is no shear stress acting on this plane. The maximum shear stress acts
With its centre at O , draw a circle passing through points A and B. on the plane that is 45 away from the principal plane. From Equation (1.1), the maximum shear
Measure coordinates of the two intersections of the circle with the -axis to obtain the two stress can be obtained by replacing x and y with 1 and 2, respectively:
principal stresses.
Measure the radius of the circle to obtain the maximum shear stress. (1.4a)
To determine the magnitudes of the stresses acting on an inclined plane, away from the right-
hand-side face, measure an angle of 2 from OA and take the coordinates of the intersection with
the circle. And from Equation (1.2):
The horizontal and vertical coordinates of the intersection are, respectively, the normal and
shear stresses on the inclined plane.
(1.4b)

Figure 1.9
[Solution] 1.2 Key points review
The state of stress of the shaft is determined by the shear stress caused by the torque.
On the element taken, there are no normal stresses. 1.2.1 Complex stress system
Thus:
At a point in a material, there are six independent stress components, including three normal
stresses and three shear stresses.
Calculating the magnitudes of 1 and 2 (Equation (1.2)): In a two-dimensional case, there are three independent stresses, two normal stresses and one
shear stress, at a point of the material.
A stress usually varies from point to point.
A stress is uniquely defined by the following three properties:
magnitude
direction
plane (cross-section/cut) on which the stress acts.
Without knowing any of the three, the stress is not completely defined.
Principal stresses are normal stresses and include both maximum and minimum compressive
Calculate the orientation of these principal stresses (Equation (1.3)):
stresses.
In a three-dimensional stress system, there are three principal stresses; while in a two-
dimensional system, there are two principal stresses.
Principal stresses are always perpendicular to each other.
The plane on which a principal stress acts is free of shear stresses.
Maximum shear stress is equal to half of the maximum difference between principal stresses.
Maximum shear stress is always 45 away from a principal stress.

stresses 1 and 2.

equal to 1 2/2.

The direction of 1 is 45 away from the x-axis clockwise, which can be judged by the above x+ y /2 acts on the planes of maximum shear stresses.
sketched deformation, where a tensile strain is observed in this direction 1 = 2
point
EXAMPLE 1.2
A thin-walled cylinder has an internal diameter of 60mm and a wall thickness of 1.5 mm.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Determine the principal stresses at a point on the outside surface of the generator when the
Consider the bar shown in Figure E1.2 under torsional loading. Determine the principal stresses
cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 6 MPa and a torque, about its longitudinal axis, of
and their orientation.
1.0 kN m. If the cylinder is made from plates that are welded along the 45 seams, calculate the
normal and shear stresses along the seams.

Figure E1.2

Figure E1.2
 [Solution]
The state of stress is defined by the axial and hoop stresses caused by the internal pressure and
the shear stress due to the applied torque. The pressure p acting on the end plate area A is
equivalent to an axial force of:

The maximum shear stress is (Equation (1.4a)):

And the hoop force, Py , is equal to:

Along the 45 seams (Equation (1.1)):

For the thin-walled cylinder, the cross-sectional area can be calculated approximately by dt.
For the infinitesimal element taken at A (Figure E1.2), the hoop stress is:

Complex Strain The axial stress is:

Consider a rectangular block of material OLMN as shown in the xy plane (Fig. 1.11). The strains
along Ox and Oy are x, and y, and xy is the shearing strain.

Since the wall of the cylinder is thin, that is, t << d, the torsional constant is calculated
approximately as:

Where D is the outside diameter of the cylinder. Considering D d, the shear stress due to the
torque is then:

Fig. 1.11. Strains on an inclined plane

From Equation (1.2):
Let the diagonal OM be of length a; then ON = a cos and OL = a sin , and the increases
in length of these sides under strain are x a cos and y sin (i.e. strain x original length).
If M moves to M', the movement of M parallel to the x axis is
The line OM also rotates, but clockwise, through a small angle and the movement parallel to the y axis is

Thus the movement of M parallel to OM, which since the strains are small is practically
Thus the required shear strain in the direction OM, i.e. the amount by which the angle coincident with MM', is
OPN changes, is given by

Then
Substituting for from eqn. (1) gives

which again is similar in form to the expression for the shear stress t on any inclined plane . . (1)
For consistency of sign convention, because OM moves clockwise with respect to OM it is
considered to be a negative shear strain, ie.
This is identical in form with the equation defining the direct stress on any inclined plane
with x and y replacing x and y and ½ xy, replacing xy, i.e. the shear stress is replaced by
HALF the shear strain.

Principal Strain- Mohr s strain circle Shear strain

Since the equations for stress and strain on oblique planes are identical in form, as noted To determine the shear strain in the direction OM consider the displacement of point P at the foot
above, it is evident that Mohr s stress circle construction can be used equally well to represent of the perpendicular from N to OM (Fig. 1.12)
strain conditions using the horizontal axis for linear strains and the vertical axis for halfthe
shear strain. It should be noted, however, that angles given by Mohr s stress circle refer to the
directions of the planes on which the stresses act and not to the direction of the stresses In the strained condition this point moves to P'
themselves. The directions of the stresses and hence the associated strains are therefore
normal (i.e. at 90º) to the directions of the planes. Since angles are doubled in Mohr s circle Since
construction it follows therefore that for true similarity of working a relative rotation of the
axes of 2 x 90 = 180 must be introduced. This is achieved by plotting positive shear strains
vertically downwards on the strain circle construction as shown in Fig. 1.13

The sign convention adopted for strains is as follows:

Linear strains: extension positive
compression negative

Shear strains:
The convention for shear strains is a little more During straining the line PN rotates
Fig. 1.12 Enlarged view of part of Fig. 1.11
difficult. The first subscript in the symbol counterclockwise through a small angle
xy usually denotes the shear strain associated with
that direction, i.e. with Ox. Similarly, yx is
the shear strain associated with Oy
Fig. 1.13. Mohr s strain circle.
If, under strain, the line associated with the first subscript moves counterclockwise with respect
to the other line, the shearing strain is said to be positive, and if it moves clockwise it is said to
be negative. It will then be seen that positive shear strains are associated with planes carrying
positive shear stresses and negative shear strains with planes carrying negative shear stresses

Thus

Mohr s circle for strains x, y and shear strain xy (positive referred to x direction) is therefore
constructed as for the stress circle with ½ xy replacing xy and the axis of shear reversed, as
shown in Fig. 1.14.

The maximum principal strain is then 1 at an angle 1 to x in the same angular direction as
that in Mohr s circle (Fig. 1.14).
Again, angles are doubled on Mohr s circle

Strain conditions at any angle to x are found

as in the stress circle by marking off an angle
2u from the point representing the x direction,
i.e. x . The coordinates of the point on the
circle thus obtained are the strains required.
Alternatively, the principal strains may be Fig. 1.14. Strain system at a point, including
determined analytically from eqn. (1). the principal strains and their inclination

i.e.

As for the derivation of the principal stress equations, the principal strains, i.e. the maximum and
minimum values of strain, occur at values of 8 obtained by equating d /d to zero.

i.e. once again identical in form to the principal stress equation with replacing and ½
replacing .

Similarly