Ch.

8-How Do organisms Reproduce

1. Reproduction is the process by which a living organism is able to produce new individuals of its own kind.
Unlike other life processes such as nutrition, respiration, etc., it is not essential to, maintain the life of an
individual organism. But it is important for the existence and continuity of the species.
2. Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.
3. It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by copying of DNA (Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell.
Reproduction involves the creation of DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by the cell involved in the
process.
4. The process of DNA copying leads to variations that help the species to withstand drastic
environmental changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a
longer time.
5. This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution.
6. Living organisms’ reproduce mainly through :

• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

• It involves only one parent.

• There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
• The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
• Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental conditions and when
there is an abundance of food.
• It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium.

The nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm divides

resulting in the formation of two daughter cells It occurs during highly favourable conditions.

The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.

In organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at one end, binary
fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple Fission: In Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite).

In this during unfavourable conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself
forming a cyst.

Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia simultaneously

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When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: In both unicellular and Multicellular

In Hydra(multicellular)
In this new organism develops on bud (out growth on the parent body)
The neworganism remains attach to the parent body till it get matures. Ex- hydra, yeast

In Yeast (Unicellular):-

The parent yeast cell develops a bud or an outgrowth at its upper end.

The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into the outgrowth which grows bigger
and finally separates from the parent cell to lead an independent existence.

Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms :

(i) Fragmentation:
• Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body organisation like
Spirogyra.
• Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or fragments). Each
fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.

Note:-However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from
tissues which form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence,
they need to use more complex methods of reproduction

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 (ii) Regeneration:
• It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts.
• Some organisms show have high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for
example; Planaria.
• Note:-Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form a mass of cells
from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell types and tissues. These
changes occur in an organized sequence known as development).

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus).

• Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures called hyphae.

• The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures called spores are
formed.
• Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall.
• They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the unfavourable
environmental conditions.
• When the spores fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts
such as roots, stems, and leaves.
Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

• Natural vegetative propagation.

• Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).
Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Bryophyllum by leaves.
In bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches along
the leaf margins and when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

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Importance of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative
propagation.
• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
• Seedless varieties can be obtained.
• The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods like
layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium
under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass of
cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium where it differentiates
and forms a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction in plants, Sexual reproduction in human beings. The
mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two different sexes
i.e. male and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male gametes
i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having female sex organs
produces ova which are generally large and store food. Male and female gametes fuse to form
a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different organisms
which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
• Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new combination of
genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
• Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.
• Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA matter to half so
that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA as the parents it maintains
DNA in a species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of combining DNA
from two different organisms which may bring some undesirable features also.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

• The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

• The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
• Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud stage.
• Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
• Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male gametes.
Each stamen has two parts—
• Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large number of pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes.
• It has three parts—
• Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains during pollination.

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 • Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen part and contains ovules.
Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:

(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.

(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower or
another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with the help of some
agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during
sexual reproduction

• Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants.

The events are:-
Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the
ovary, through micropyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg).

Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with female germ
cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as
syngamy. The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the process is known as triple
fusion. So in flowering plants two fusions take place during fertilisation. It is called double

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fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

• The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
• Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
Embryo has two parts: Plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is
known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male parent
produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female gametes called ova.
Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced in large numbers in the testes.
Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary produces one ovum in one month. There is no
food stored in the sperms whereas ova contain stored food. Both the gametes are microscopic
unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes as compared to the body cells.

Sexual maturation: The period of life when production of germ cells i.e. ova (female) and sperm
(male) start in the body. This period of sexual maturation is called puberty.

Changes at Puberty

Common in male and female

Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples.
In girls Breast size begin to increase.Menstrual cycle begins.
In boys Thick hair growth on face. Voice begins to crack.
These changes indicate that sexual maturity is taking place.

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Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system consists of the following components

• 1 pair of testes
• A system of ducts
o Epididymis
o Vas deferens or the sperm duct
o Urethra
• A system of glands
o Seminal vesicles
o Prostate gland
• A copulatory organ called a penis.

Explanation:-
• Testes A pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outside the abdominal
cavity.
• Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for the production of sperms. Male germ
cell i.e. sperms areformed here. Testes release male sex
hormone(testosterone),regulateproduction of sperms andbring changes at puberty.
• Vas deferens - It passessperms from testes up to urethra.
• Urethra - It is a commonpassage for both sperms and
• urine. Its outer covering is called penis (iv)Associated glands
• Seminal vesicles and prostate gland add their secretion to the sperms. This fluid provide
nourishment to sperms and make their transport easy. Sperm along with secretion of
glands form semen.
Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

• 1 pair of ovaries
• 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
• A uterus/womb
• A vagina/birth canal.

Explanation
• Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity.
• At the time of birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova
start maturing only from the time of puberty.
• Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known
as ovulation.

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Functions of ovary

• To produce and release ova

• To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

.
Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female
gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium.
Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to
the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby is delivered.
Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through
which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months(Gestation period).

FERTILISATION:

Fertilization is fusion of sperm and egg. It takes place in fallopian tube. Fertilized egg is called as
zygote which develops into embryo.
The zygote, gets attached in the lining of the uterus, and starts dividing This is called implantation.
The uterus holds the developing embryo in its layer through placenta and umbilical cord.
When egg is not fertilized then inner lining of uterus breaks and comes out through the vagina as
blood and mucus (menses). This cycle repeats every month and is called menstrual cycle.
GESTATION: The period from fertilization to the birth of the baby. The development of the child inside
the mother’s body takes approximately nine months 280-290 days.

PREPARATION OF UTERUS:

Uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.

The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

PLACENTA:

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.
On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface area.
Functions of Placenta:
Transport oxygen from the mother’s body to the embryo.

The developing embryo generate waste substances which are removed by transferring them into the
mother’s blood through the placenta.
Parturition: The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus

MENSTRUATION / MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day.

Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month
toreceive a fertilized egg.
Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo
iffertilization had taken place.
The lining of the uterus slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and
mucous.

This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts
forabout two to eight days.

MENARCHE AND MENOPAUSE:

Menstruation starts in human females at the puberty.

The starting of menstruation is called Menarche. Menstruation continues in human females tillthe
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age of 45-50. At this age menstruation comes to an end.
Stoppage of menstruation is called Menopause.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
The process of sexual maturation is gradual and takes place along with general body growth. Some
degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the body or the mind is ready for sexual
acts or for having and bringing up children.

Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These
are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be caused by bacteria for example;
syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of
these diseases can be avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the
sexual act.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy through different methods—Natural methods, Barrier
method, Oral contraceptives, Surgical methods.

Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted diseases, prevent
unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian tube :
Eg ;-(i) Use of condoms: (ii) Diaphragm.
(ii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its insertion
causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects

Chemical methods

• Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

Surgical methods

• Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in females.
• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the developing
embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide which
involves the killing of the female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the
male-female ratio in a population.