Engineering Surveying

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
1. BASIC DEFINITIONS

Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three

dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth.
These features may then be represented in analog form as a contoured map, plan or
chart, or in digital form as a three dimensional mathematical model stored in the
computer.

The objective of surveying is the preparation of plans and maps of the areas. In the
absence of accurate maps, it is impossible to layout the alignment of road, railways,
canals, transmission power lines etc.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Surveying is primarily divided in to two parts.

 Plane Surveying
 Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying is type of surveying which assumes that the Earth is flat (plane), which
is the most commonly practiced form of surveying. Curvature is ignored and calculations
are performed using the formulas of plane trigonometry and the properties of plane
geometry. These may be considered accurate for limited areas. These are mostly used in
any engineering work like highway, canal, and bridge etc. It consists primarily of locating
the positions of features on the ground (or fairly close to it) and all height are referenced
to the mean surface of the earth (mean sea level). If the area that you are covering with
your survey is less than about 250 km2, the assumption of a flat earth is valid for most
standards of measurement in 2-D. Larger areas cause the systematic errors caused by the
flat Earth assumption to become apparent in the measurements.

L(horizontal)

Projection

Figure 1.1 Plane Surveying

1
CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Example: If the distance b/n two points A & B on the hillside is L then the distance to be
plotted is Lcos 

Plumb bob

 Lcos Horizontal plane



Horizontal plane L

Figure 1.2 Plane Surveying

Note: Horizontal plane is the plane, which is normal to the direction of gravity, which is
determined by plumb bob.

Geodetic Surveying is type of surveying which consider the shape of the earth as
spherical or ellipsoid of revolution. As in plane surveying all height are referenced to the
surface of mean ellipsoid or mean sea level (MSL). For the sake of plotting on the paper
map their projection length is calculated and curvature correction is applied for every
length. Geodetic surveys are precise over large areas. Example: If the distance between
two points A & B on the earth surface is to be measured. The distance or length of line
connecting these two points is treated as arc.
C=L2-L1

L
L

A B

Figure 1.3 Geodetic Surveying

Classification of Surveying Based on Nature of the Field

Surveying is classified in to three parts according to their field

1. Land Surveying
a. Topographical Surveying: - This kind of surveying is to show the
topography of mountain, terrain, river, water bodies, and roads. It is three-
dimensional. Topographical maps are used to select routes, crossing for
bridges, canals, and dams.

2
 Engineering Surveying

b. Cadastral Surveying: - The main aim of these surveying is to fix boundary

lines, calculation of the area of land properties and preparation of revenue
map for the state. This surveying is generally plotted to large scale than
topographical surveying.
c. City Surveying: - This surveying is carried out for the construction of roads,
parks, water supply for any developing township.

2. Hydrographic Surveys: - This survey deals with the surveying of mapping of large
water bodies for the purpose of navigation and construction of harbor works etc.

Example: Hydrographic Survey of Lake Tana.

1640
1620
1600

Figure 1.4 Hydrographic Survey

3. Astronomical Surveys:-These Survey which are carried out for determining the
absolute location i.e. latitude of different place on the earth surface and direction of
line on the surface of the earth by making observation to heavenly bodies i.e. stars &
Sun.

Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose

Surveying is also classified based up on purpose as.

1. Engineering Surveying- for the execution of engineering works such as roads, railways,
dams.
2. Mine Survey- for the control of underground workings for mineral extraction.
3. Geological Survey- for determining different strata in the earth
4. Military survey - for determining points of strategic importance
5. Archeological Survey

Classification based on instruments

According to the instruments used Surveying is classified in to:

Chain Surveying
Compass Surveying
Plane table Surveying
Theodolite Surveying
Tachometer Surveying
Photogrammetric Surveying

3
CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

EDM Surveying

3. STAGES OF SURVEYING WORKS

i. Planning, analysis and decision – no. of crew, measuring instrument, measurement methods, and time of
measurement has to be planned.
ii. Care and adjustment of instrument – surveying requires experience in handling the equipment used in
field and office works. For example, while taking out the instrument from the box, do not lift it by the
telescope or with hands under the horizontal circle plate. It should be lifted by placing the hands under the
levelling base.
iii. Field works- consists of the measurement of angles and distances and the keeping of record of what has
been done in the form of field notes. Field note includes numeric values, sketches and explanatory notes.
iv. Office works- consists of data processing, drafting computing and designing.
v. Setting out works – Marking the required points and sections using peg on the field.

4. UNITS OF MEASURMENT

Generally measurements are classified in to two parts.

 Linear measurement
 Angular measurement
The system most commonly used in distance and angle measurements are in system internationalea (SI).
Table 1.1 Basic units and their abbreviations

Quantity Length Mass Time

SI Unit meter kilogram second

Abbreviations m kg s

Other units derived from the SI units by directly multiplying itself or by multiplying each other.
Table 1.2 Derived quantity and their units

Quantity Area Velocity Acceleratio Force Pressure Volume

n

SI unit m2 m/s m/s2 Kg.m/s2 Kg/(m.s2) m3

Table 1.3 Prefix and their meanings

Term deca hecto kilo mega giga tera deci centi milli micro nano Pico hecto
Means 101 102 103 106 109 1012 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 102

4
 Engineering Surveying

Prefix da h k M G T d c m µ n p h

There are three systems used for plane angle measurements, namely the sexagestimal, the centesimal and
radiant (arc units).

Sexagestimal units are used in many parts of the world and measure angles in degrees, minute and seconds of
arc. A circle is divided into 360 equal degrees, so that a right angle is 90. Degrees may be further divided into
minutes and seconds. But parts of a degree are now frequently referred to decimally. For instance seven and a half
degrees is now usually written 7.5°.

Radian units are another unit of angle measurement used in most softwares, consider the unit circle (a circle of
radius 1) whose centre is the vertex of the angle in question. Then the angle cuts off an arc of the circle, and the
length of that arc is the radian measure of the angle. It is easy to convert between degree measurement and radian
measurement. The circumference of the entire circle is 2 ( is about 3.14159), so it follows that 360° equals 2
radians. Hence, 1° equals /180 radians and 1 radian equal 180/ degrees. 1 radian = 57.2957 degrees, 1 degree =
60’= 3600 ‘’= 0.0174532 radians.

Centesimal system is common in Europe and measure angles in gons (g).

Half circle π rad = 180 ° = 200 gon

1 gon=100cgon =1000mgon
In surveying, the reciprocals of π/180 ° or π/200 gon are used so often that the symbol ρ has been introduced as:
180 °/ π = ρ (o) or 200/ π = ρ (gon)

Other Less frequently used SI Units

Pressure - The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (pa) which is equal to the 1 N forces acting on 1 m 2 area.
P= F/A
1pa = 10-5 bar = 10-2 milibar
Temperature – Basic unit of temperature is Kelvin. 0K or 0 Kelvin is the point at which no heat energy exists in
a substance, and is called absolute zero. There are also other units for temperature, namely, Celsius and
Fahrenheit .The relationship between all are shown below.
Degrees Kelvin = Degrees Celsius + 273
Degrees Fahrenheit =9/5 *(Degree Celsius) + 32

5. REFERENCE SYSTEMS

Every measurement in surveying needs reference surface as well as datum to locate a point coordinate. The
reference surface should also be defined to measure the height of a point above it. Reference Surfaces are
surfaces relative to which the measurement is taken and the coordinates or the relative position of points are
determined. Reference surfaces can be local or global depends up on the required application.

Geoid (mean sea level) is mean equipotential surface of the earth's gravity field, which is used as a reference for
height measurement in levelling. Geoid can be local or global.

5
CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Ellipsoid is mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse about the earth’s polar axis. It is a geometric
reference surface that closely approximates the geoid and used by surveyors for the computation of geodetic and
rectangular coordinates. E.g. Clark 1880, WGS 84.

Figure 1.5 Geoid, Reference Ellipsoid and Topography

Datum is a reference from which measurements are made. In surveying, a datum is a collection of constants,
physical models, orientation and origin of, and it is used to define the coordinate system. Horizontal datums are
used for describing a point on the earth's surface, in latitude and longitude or another coordinate system. Vertical
datums measure elevations or depths. E.g. Adindan and WGS 84 datums.

Basically coordinate system can be 2-D or 3-D, in 3-D coordinate systems the position of a point would be
determined in terms of x, y, z or Ф, λ, h. In case of 2-D only x, y or Ф, λ determine the location of a point.

Types of Coordinates

1. 3-D Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates - The system has its origin at the mass-centre of the Earth with
the X- and Y-axes in the plane of the equator. The X-axis passes through the meridian of Greenwich, and
the Z-axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a
right-handed system. Geocentric coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth.

6
 Engineering Surveying

Figure 1.6 Geocentric Cartesian coordinates system

2. 2-D Cartesian coordinates - flat map has only two dimensions: width (left to right) and length (bottom
to top). Transforming the three dimensional Earth into a two-dimensional map is subject of map
projections and coordinate transformations. Here, like in several other cartographic applications, two-
dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x, y), also known as planar rectangular coordinates, are used to
describe the location of any point in a map plane, unambiguously. It is a system of intersecting
perpendicular lines, which contains two principal axes, called the X- axis (Easting) and Y-axis
(Northing). The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the origin. The plane is marked at
intervals by equally spaced coordinate lines, called the map grid. Giving two numerical
coordinates x and y for point P, one can now precisely and objectively specify any location P on
the map. Grid on a map represents lines having constant 2D Cartesian coordinates (x,y). It is almost
always a rectangular system and is used on large and medium scale maps to enable detailed calculations
and positioning.

Figure 1.7 2-D Cartesian coordinate system

3. 2-D Polar coordinates (α,d) – the coordinate system in which the position of a point in 2-D determined

and the direction to the point. The angle α is called azimuth or bearing and is measured in a clockwise
in forms of the distance d from the origin to the point and the angle a between a fixed (or zero) direction

direction. It is given in angular units while the distance d is expressed in length units.

7
CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Figure 1.8 Polar coordinate system

The transformation of polar coordinates (α,d) into Cartesian coordinates (x,y) is done when field measurements,
angular and distance measurements are transformed into map coordinates. The equation for this transformation is:

The inverse equation is:

A more realistic case makes use of a translation and a rotation to transform one system to the other.

4. 2-D Geographic coordinates-are the most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines
of geographic latitude (φ) and longitude (λ). Lines of equal latitude are called parallels. They form
circles on the surface of the ellipsoid. Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they form
ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid. Both lines form the graticule when projected onto a map
plane. Note that the concept of geographic coordinates can also be applied to a sphere as the reference
surface. Geographic coordinates are also known as Geodetic coordinates.

8
 Engineering Surveying

Figure 1.9 Geographic coordinate system

The latitude (φ) of a point P is the angle between the ellipsoidal normal through P and the equatorial plane.
Latitude is zero on the equator and increases towards the two poles to maximum values of +90 (90°N) at the
North Pole and - 90° (90°S) at the South Pole.

The longitude (λ) is the angle between the meridian ellipse which passes through Greenwich and the
meridian ellipse containing the point in question. It is measured in the equatorial plane from the meridian of
Greenwich (λ = 0°) either eastwards through λ = + 180° (180°E) or westwards through λ = -180° (180°W).

5. 3-D geographic coordinates (ϕ, λ, h) are obtained by introducing the ellipsoidal height h to the system.
The ellipsoidal height (h) of a point is the vertical distance of the point in question above the ellipsoid. It
is measured in distance units along the ellipsoidal normal from the point to the ellipsoid surface. 3D
geographic coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth.

Figure 1.10 3-D Geographic coordinates

6. PLANS AND MAPS

9
CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Plan is the graphical representation, to some scale, of the features on, near or below the surface of the earth as
projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by plane of the paper on which the plan is drawn. However
since the surface of the earth is curved and the paper of the plan or map is plane, no part of the surface can be
represented on such maps without distortion. In plane surveying the areas involved are small; the earth’s surface
may be regarded as plane and hence map is constructed by orthographic projection without measurable
distortion.

The representation is called a map if the scale is small while it is called a plan if the scale is large. On a plan,
generally only horizontal distances and directions are shown. On topographic map, however the vertical distances
are also represented by contour lines, hachure or other systems.

7. SCALE OF THE MAP

Scale is the fixed ration between the distances between points on a map to ground.
Engineer’s scale – "1 Map Unit = X Land Units" 1cm = 100m
Representative fraction – ‘1 map unit is equivalent to 24,000 land units’ 1/24,000
Graphical Scale – line subdivided into plan distance corresponding to convenient units of length on the ground.

10