g

Definition of Communication
Communication can broadly be defined as exchange of ideas, messages and information between
two or more persons, through a medium, in a manner that the sender and the receiver understand
the message, I.e develop common understanding of the message. The word communication is
derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which means to share, impart, participate,
exchange, transmit or to make common. It emphasises on sharingcommon information, ideas and
messages. It is not merely issuing orders and instructions. “Communication is the transfer of
information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being understood by the receiver”.
—Koontz and Weihrich“Communication is the art ofdeveloping and attaining understanding
between people. It is the process of exchanging information and feelings between two or more
people and it is essential to effective management.” —Terry and Franklin“Communication is the
sum of all things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another.
It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and
understanding.” —Allen Louis“Communication is the process by which people attempt to share
meaning via the transmission of symbolic messages''. The types of communication include:
• VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS TYPES
As mentioned above, verbal communication is the method of sending and receiving information
using words as the mode of transmission. This can be done by either engaging in verbal
conversations or by sending written messages. For example, Gerald wanted to convey to his boss
that he would be taking a day off from work as he has his doctor’s appointment. He chose to
send the message via e-mail as that would be considered more professional rather than making a
call regarding the same.The method of verbal communication can also be classified into different
types and they are:
a. Intrapersonal communication
b. Interpersonal communication
c. Small group communication
d. Public communication
e. Mass communication
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is nothing but the internal dialogue people usually engage in. This
type of communication takes place when a person talks to themselves.Here,communication takes
place within the brain. People usually interact with themselves on many occasions such as when
processing vague information, reaching clarity about something, tackling overwhelming
emotions, daydreaming etc. For example, Katie always has the habit of discussing with herself
before taking any important decisions. She feels that talking to herself helps her tackle any
confusion efficiently.
Interpersonal Communication
This type of communication is also called “Dyadic communication” and it takes place between
two or more individuals. This method involves various aspects of communication such as
listening, speaking and responding through words and various acknowledging non-lexical fillers
such as “uh-huh”, “hmm” and some head and hand gestures etc.
Small group Communication
This is a type of interaction that takes place in a small group between three or more people. This
kind of group would involve interactions about a specific topic or commonly recognized goals.
Some examples of small group communication are board meetings, team discussions etc. All the
members of the group unanimously discuss and conclude.
Public Communication
In this communication, one speaker conveys information to a large group of people. This takes
place in a setting where a large group of people assemble to receive the information from the
speaker. Some examples of this type of communication involve election campaigns, public
speeches etc. where information is passed on from one common source to hundreds of
individuals.
Mass Communication
Mass communication takes place when a small group of people pass down information to a large
number of varied populations using an exclusive medium of communication. This type of
communication adopts a special kind of medium that would facilitate the information to reach a
wide majority of people. Some examples of mass communication are newspapers, radio,
television, posters etc. Recently social media has taken the world by storm and has been very
efficient in communicating ideas and information all across the globe within seconds.
• NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication refers to the conveyance of information, feelings, and messages through
means other than spoken or written words. It encompasses a wide range of physical, visual, and
auditory cues that can significantly impact the overall communication process.The method of Non-
verbal communication iclude:
a. Eye contact
b. Facial expression
c. Haptics
d. Parlanguage
e. Proxemics
Eye Contact
our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us. The saying “The eyes are
the window to the soul” is actually accurate in terms of where people typically think others are
“located,” which is right behind the eyes (Andersen, 1999). Certain eye behaviors have become
tied to personality traits or emotional states, as illustrated in phrases like “hungry eyes,” “evil
eyes,” and “bedroom eyes.” To better understand oculesics, we will discuss the characteristics
and functions of eye contact and pupil dilation. Eye contact serves several communicative
functions ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring interaction, to conveying
information, to establishing interpersonal connections. In terms of regulating communication, we
use eye contact to signal to others that we are ready to speak or we use it to cue others to speak.
As we learned, eye contact is a key immediacy behavior, and it signals to others that we are
available for communication. Once communication begins, if it does, eye contact helps establish
rapport or connection. We can also use our eye contact to signal that we do not want to make a
connection with others. For example, in a public setting like an airport or a gym where people
often make small talk, we can avoid making eye contact with others to indicate that we do not
want to engage in small talk with strangers. As you can see, eye contact sends and receives
important communicative messages that help us interpret others’ behaviors, convey information
about our thoughts and feelings, and facilitate or impede rapport or connection. This list reviews
the specific functions of eye contact:
a. Regulate interaction and provide turn-taking signals
b. Monitor communication by receiving nonverbal communication from others
c. Signal cognitive activity (we look away when processing information)
d. Express engagement (we show people we are listening with our eyes)
e. Convey intimidation
f. Express flirtation
g. Establish rapport or connection.
Facial Expressions
Our faces are the most expressive part of our bodies. Think of how photos are often intended to
capture a particular expression “in a flash” to preserve for later viewing. Even though a photo is
a snapshot in time, we can still interpret much meaning from a human face caught in a moment
of expression, and basic facial expressions are recognizable by humans all over the world. Much
research has supported the universality of a core group of facial expressions: happiness, sadness,
fear, anger, and disgust. The first four are especially identifiable across cultures (Andersen,
1999). However, the triggers for these expressions and the cultural and social norms that
influence their displays are still culturally diverse. If you’ve spent much time with babies you
know that they’re capable of expressing all these emotions. Getting to see the pure and innate
expressions of joy and surprise on a baby’s face is what makes playing peek-a-boo so
entertaining for adults. As we get older, we learn and begin to follow display rules for facial
expressions and other signals of emotion and also learn to better control our emotional
expression based on the norms of our culture.
Smiles are powerful communicative signals and, as you’ll recall, are a key immediacy behavior.
Although facial expressions are typically viewed as innate and several are universally
recognizable, they are not always connected to an emotional or internal biological stimulus; they
can actually serve a more social purpose. For example, most of the smiles we produce are
primarily made for others and are not just an involuntary reflection of an internal emotional state
(Andersen, 1999). These social smiles, however, are slightly but perceptibly different from more
genuine smiles. People generally perceive smiles as more genuine when the other person smiles
“with their eyes.” This particular type of smile is difficult if not impossible to fake because the
muscles around the eye that are activated when we spontaneously or genuinely smile are not
under our voluntary control. It is the involuntary and spontaneous contraction of these muscles
that moves the skin around our cheeks, eyes, and nose to create a smile that’s distinct from a fake
or polite smile (Evans, 2001). People are able to distinguish the difference between these smiles,
which is why photographers often engage in cheesy joking with adults or use props with children
to induce a genuine smile before they snap a picture.Our faces are the most expressive part of our
body and can communicate an array of different emotions.
Haptics
Think of how touch has the power to comfort someone in moment of sorrow when words alone
cannot. This positive power of touch is countered by the potential for touch to be threatening
because of its connection to sex and violence. To learn about the power of touch, we turn to
haptics, which refers to the study of communication by touch. We probably get more explicit
advice and instruction on how to use touch than any other form of nonverbal communication. A
lack of nonverbal communication competence related to touch could have negative interpersonal
consequences; for example, if we don’t follow the advice we’ve been given about the importance
of a firm handshake, a person might make negative judgments about our confidence or
credibility. A lack of competence could have more dire negative consequences, including legal
punishment, if we touch someone inappropriately (intentionally or unintentionally). Touch is also
used in many other contexts—for example, during play (e.g., arm wrestling), during physical
conflict (e.g., slapping), and during conversations (e.g., to get someone’s attention) (Jones,
1999). We also inadvertently send messages through accidental touch (e.g., bumping into
someone). One of my interpersonal communication professors admitted that she enjoyed going
to restaurants to observe “first-date behavior” and boasted that she could predict whether or not
there was going to be a second date based on the couple’s nonverbal communication. What sort
of touching behaviors would indicate a good or bad first date?
Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of the use of personal and interpersonal space in communication. It involves
the distance maintained between individuals during interaction, which can signify comfort levels,
power dynamics, and cultural norms. The way individuals position themselves and the physical space
they occupy can communicate their level of engagement, formality, or intimacy.
Haptics
Haptics refers to the use of touch in communication, such as handshakes, hugs, and pats on the
back. The way individuals initiate, reciprocate, and interpret touch can convey a range of
messages, including affection, dominance, or discomfort. Cultural norms and personal
preferences play a significant role in the interpretation of haptic communication.
• WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
 Written communication refers to the conveyance of information, ideas, and messages through
the use of written words, symbols, and text. It is a fundamental form of communication that
plays a significant role in various personal, professional, and academic settings.There are many
different types of written communication in the case of a business that can be used for some
purpose or another. But all of these can be classified into three different types. These are as
follows:
1. Transactional Written Communication
It refers to those written communications where a message is sent to get a response from the
reader. It includes requesting a meeting, asking a favor, or a quick clarification.The sender can
choose the tone and voice because, ultimately, they will receive a message back. The best
medium for this is usually an online medium. It is the fastest medium and thus most appropriate
for transactional written communication purposes.
2. Informational Written Communication Skills
It includes the sender delivering a message for the benefit of the receiver. It is less dependent on
the reader, and thus no response is required here except in case the reader has some queries or
doubts.It can be done through offline or online channels. Communication examples of this can be
an email or a memo sent to an individual or a group.
3. Instructional Written Communication
It gives the receiver instructions or directions regarding a specific task. Thus, these messages
should be detailed and easy to understand. It includes the basics, which is also a good idea to
give the receiver a clear and thorough understanding of the topic.
Key aspects of written communication include:
1. Clarity and Conciseness: Effective written communication should strive to be clear, concise,
and easy to understand. This involves using straightforward language, avoiding unnecessary
jargon or complex terminology, and presenting information in a logical and organized manner.
Clarity helps ensure the intended message is accurately conveyed and understood by the reader.
2. Tone and Style: The tone and style of written communication can greatly impact the reader's
perception and interpretation of the message. Tone refers to the overall attitude or emotion
conveyed through the writing, such as formal, informal, friendly, or authoritative. Style
encompasses the specific writing techniques, vocabulary, and sentence structure used to express
the message. Adjusting the tone and style to the audience and context is crucial for effective
written communication.
• VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Visual communication refers to the conveyance of information, ideas, and messages through the
use of visual elements, such as images, graphs, diagrams, and other visual aids. It is a powerful
form of communication that can complement or even replace verbal and written communication
in various contexts.
Key aspects of visual communication include:
1. Imagery: Imagery encompasses the use of photographs, illustrations, icons, and other visual
elements to convey information and evoke emotions. Images can be used to provide context,
support arguments, simplify complex ideas, and enhance the overall communication
effectiveness. The selection, composition, and quality of images can significantly impact the
audience's interpretation and engagement with the visual content.
2. Graphs and Data Visualization: Graphs, charts, and other data visualization tools are effective
means of presenting numerical data, trends, and relationships in a clear and compelling manner.
These visual aids can help audiences quickly understand and interpret complex information,
making it more accessible and memorable. Appropriate selection and design of data visualization
elements, such as color schemes, axes, and labeling, are crucial for effective communication of
the intended message.
3. Infographics: Infrographics are visual representations that combine elements such as images,
icons, and text to convey information in a concise and engaging way. Infographics are
particularly useful for communicating complex ideas, processes, or statistical data in a visually
appealing and easy-to-understand format. Effective infographic design involves the strategic use
of layout, color, typography, and visual hierarchy to guide the viewer's attention and enhance the
overall communication impact.
4. Diagrams and Illustrations: Diagrams and illustrations are visual aids that can explain
processes, structures, or relationships in a clear and intuitive manner. These visual elements can
be particularly useful in technical or scientific communication, where complex concepts need to
be conveyed effectively. The design and level of detail in diagrams and illustrations should be
tailored to the target audience and the specific communication objectives.
Successful visual communication involves the strategic selection, design, and integration of
various visual elements to effectively convey information, evoke emotions, and achieve the
desired communication goals. It is a powerful tool that can complement and enhance verbal and
written communication in a variety of contexts, from educational settings to marketing and
advertising.
• INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication refers to the exchange of information, ideas, and messages between
two or more individuals in a direct, face-to-face, or personal manner. It is the most fundamental
form of communication and plays a crucial role in building and maintaining relationships, as
well as facilitating understanding and cooperation.
Key aspects of interpersonal communication include:
1. Verbal and Non-verbal Elements:Interpersonal communication involves both verbal and non-
verbal elements.Verbal communication includes the words, tone, and volume used by the
communicators, while non-verbal communication encompasses body language, facial
expressions, gestures, and eye contact.The integration of these verbal and non-verbal cues
contributes to the overall meaning and impact of the interpersonal communication.
2. Immediacy and Feedback: Interpersonal communication is characterized by its immediacy, as
the communicators can exchange messages, receive feedback, and adjust their responses in real-
time. This immediate feedback loop allows for clarification, elaboration, and the opportunity to
address any misunderstandings or ambiguities as they arise. The ability to provide and receive
immediate feedback enhances the effectiveness of interpersonal communication and helps to
build mutual understanding.
3. Relationships and Context:Interpersonal communication is heavily influenced by the
relationship between the communicators and the specific context in which it takes place.The
nature of the relationship, whether it is personal, professional, or casual, can affect the tone,
language, and overall dynamic of the communication.The context, such as the physical
environment, cultural norms, and social expectations, also shapes the interpersonal
communication process and the way it is perceived and interpreted.
4. Empathy and Emotional Intelligence:Effective interpersonal communication requires the
ability to understand and respond to the emotional states and perspectives of the
communicators.Empathy, the capacity to share and comprehend the feelings of others, is a
crucial skill in interpersonal communication. Emotional intelligence, which involves the
awareness, management, and expression of one's own emotions, as well as the recognition of
others' emotions, enhances the overall quality and effectiveness of interpersonal communication.
5. Conflict Resolution and Negotiation: Interpersonal communication often involves navigating
and resolving conflicts or differences of opinion. PEffective interpersonal communication skills,
such as active listening, empathy, and problem-solving, are crucial for conflict resolution and
successful negotiation.The ability to manage interpersonal conflicts constructively can strengthen
relationships and lead to mutually beneficial outcomes.
Interpersonal communication is a complex and dynamic process that underlies our personal and
professional interactions. By understanding the key elements of interpersonal communication,
individuals can develop the necessary skills to build stronger relationships, enhance their
communication effectiveness, and navigate various social and professional situations more
successfully.
• ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication refers to the process of exchanging information, ideas, and
messages within the context of an organization. It encompasses the various communication
channels, patterns, and dynamics that exist among the members of an organization, as well as
between the organization and its external stakeholders. Types of organizational communicatio
include:
Downward Communication
Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward
communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of
command is a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to
transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels.Employees require this
information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers.
Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes –Providing
feedback on employees performance, Giving job instructions, Providing a complete
understanding of the employees job as well as to communicate them how their job is related to
other jobs in the organization, Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the
employees, highlighting the areas of attention,
2. Upward Communication
Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication.
It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward
communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors.The subordinates
also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward
communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to
participate in the decision- making process.
3. Horizontal or Lateral Communication
Horizontal or lateral communication is established between individuals or departments located at
the same hierarchical level. The role of this type is to facilitate the coordination of activities
aimed at common objectives, excluding the intervention of senior managers.
4. Diagonal Communication
Diagonal communication is practiced in situations where members of the organization cannot
communicate through other channels. For example, the use of project management,
communications frequently occur in diagonals between the project team and the rest of the
compartment structure.
• INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Informal communication refers to the causual and spotaneous exchange of information within an
organization, often outside of the formal commuication channels. it is more flexible, personal,
and occurs naturally between individuals or groups. Informal communication within a workplace
may not follow a specific path or rules. There are four different types of informal communication
and these are-
1. Single Strand Chain
In a Single Strand Chain type of communication, information passes from one person to another
in a single sequence. The first employee will communicate with the second employee who in
turn will communicate with the third person and so on. Here the person A talks to B who talks to
C and to D and so on and this will create a chain. The chance of facts getting distorted in such
channels of grapevine communication is very high as the chain might be very long.
2.Gossip Chain
In Gossip Chain communications, people communicate informally with each other in groups.
One person may convey gossip or fact to people that cluster around him. This communication
may be used for non-job-oriented work.
3.Probability Chain
A vital form of communication is Probability Chain where each employee tells another person
the same message randomly. He does not adhere to specific rules and might share this
information with anyone in the company irrespective of the fact that he is his friend or simply a
casual acquaintance. The Law of probability is a vital factor in this type of communication as
some people might come to know about the information whereas others might not have any
inclination about it.
4. Cluster Chain
A cluster Chain is a form of communication where one person may share the news with a
specific group of person and these, in turn, will either keep the news to themselves or share it
with their selected group.
• FORMAL COMMUNICATION
Formal communication refers to the structured and official exchange of information within an
organization or between organizations. It typically follows established protocols, procedures,
guidelines to ensure clarity, accuracy, and consistency. There are several types of formal
communication which include:
1. In-person meetings
Sometimes, you need to get everyone literally in the room to make decisions, share news, or hash
things out. At these times, the team’s collective energy and real time interactions can help you
move things forward or brainstorm new ideas.
2. Phone or video calls
In the age of instant messaging it seems somehow invasive to call someone without warning.
However, a quick phone or a video call on Switchboard, Microsoft Teams, Skype, etc. can often
cut through the notification noise and provide clarity, fast. According to Forbes, these examples
of synchronous communication are more popular than others in all settings: on-site, remote, and
hybrid.
3. Instant messaging
Quick, casual, and to the point, instant messaging via Slack or the chat function of your video
conferencing platform is the digital equivalent of a hallway conversation. 67% of respondents to
an Expert Market survey preferred it over other forms of workplace communication. Forbes also
found it was significantly more popular among remote (38%) and hybrid (33%) teams than on-
site (12%). Instant messaging can cause a lot of notifications but, used wisely, it lets you interact
in real time and get answers fast. It’s also good for light relief, like sharing funny GIFs.
4. Live webinars or classes
Whether in person or online, real-time learning allows for spontaneous interactions and for
people to ask and answer questions. If people are engaged, it’s an effective way to learn and a
good way to address a large group. Communication tools you can use to host webinars include
Switchboard (which makes everything multiplayer so people can interact with content),
GoToWebinar, or Zoom, among many others.
 • DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Digital Communication has since then emerged as a powerful tool that connects individuals and
organisations across the globe. It has revolutionised how we interact, collaborate, and share
information and opened up endless possibilities by eliminating geographical boundaries.
According to Statista, 54 per cent of the respondents said there is an increased focus on Digital
Communications in their organisation after Covid-19. Digital Communication is the process of
exchanging information, messages, and ideas using digital technologies and platforms. It
involves the transmission and reception of data through electronic devices and networks. Digital
Communication enables real-time interaction, instant messaging, video conferencing, and
sharing of multimedia content across vast distance. Digital Communication is also important for
various other reasons as well which are given below:
a) Better engagement of workers
b) Comfortable and convenient experience
c) Universally acceptable
d) Transparency within the organisation
e) Saves time, energy and money
Digital Communication possesses a range of unique features that distinguish it from traditional
communication methods. Understanding these key features is essential to fully grasp the power
and capabilities of Digital Communication. Let's explore some of its significant features:
1. Instantaneous interaction
One of the defining features of Digital Communication is its ability to enable immediate and
real-time interaction. Whether it's through instant messaging, video calls, or live chat, Digital
Communication allows individuals to connect and communicate with each other instantly,
transcending geographical barriers.
2. Multimedia integration
Unlike traditional communication methods that primarily rely on text-based messages, Digital
Communication seamlessly integrates various multimedia elements. Users can share and receive
photos, videos, audio recordings, and other forms of media to enhance their communication and
convey messages more effectively.
3. Asynchronous and synchronous communication
Digital Communication offers the flexibility of both asynchronous and synchronous
communication. Asynchronous communication allows individuals to send messages and receive
responses at their convenience, such as through email or social media posts. On the other hand,
synchronous communication enables real-time conversations through platforms like video
conferencing, where participants can engage in discussions without delays.
4. Accessibility and convenience
Digital Communication has significantly increased accessibility and convenience. With the
proliferation of smartphones and internet connectivity, people can engage in communication
anytime and anywhere. Whether it's sending a quick message during a commute or participating
in a virtual meeting from a remote location, Digital Communication provides unprecedented
convenience and flexibility.
5. Collaboration and co-creation
Digital Communication facilitates collaboration and co-creation among individuals and teams.
Through shared documents, cloud-based platforms, and collaborative tools, people can work
together on projects, share ideas, and contribute to a collective effort, regardless of their physical
location.
6. Global reach
Digital Communication provides a platform for global connectivity. People can connect with
individuals, organisations, and communities from all corners of the world with just a few clicks.
This global reach fosters collaboration, knowledge sharing, and cultural exchange on an
unprecedented scale.
Understanding these key features of Digital Communication helps us harness its power to its full
potential. As technology keeps evolving, we can expect further advancements and innovations
that will shape the future of communication.
• ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
Animal communication is pretty much the same as human communication. The same old process
of passing information to one another or the whole group results in a response or some change.
As humans, there is sender, receiver and feedback involved. The only difference you can find is
that you speak with proper words while they speak through using different methods of
communication. There are 4 common types of animal communication that animals use to express
themselves, which are:
1. Auditory communication involving sound
2. Visual communication involving gesture, posture, etc.
3. Tactile communication involving touch
4. Chemical communication involving pheromone
Usually, animal communication occurs between the same members of a species, but it can also
take place between different species. Of course, humans and pets are common example of that.
Some animals are very social and expressive, while some could be extremely lone,
communicating only among their own members of species. Some animal species rely on one
method of the methods mentioned above to communicate with each other, while some species
use more than just one. Interesting facts about animals are that they use communication to
express their affection, warn off of threats, or attract a mate.
1. Auditory Communication
Have you ever wondered how animals communicate with sound? When we talk about animal
communication, the first thing that probably comes to your mind, which you are sure of, must be
noises and sound. Growing up, even if you don’t know anything about animals, you must have
woken up to the chirping of the birds. That’s called auditory communication. Animals use sounds
to express their feelings. When a pet owner provides some food to his dog and the dog barks, that
means the dog is happy. Similarly, when a lion growls at a hunter, that means the lion is warning
the hunter. Some animals use sounds to alarm their buddies about the approaching danger, while
some use them to impress their mates. When a bird sings, usually it’s for his mate or to teach his
baby birds. Some animals don’t have vocal organs but rather have complex auditory
communication methods. Insects like cicadas, mosquitos, tenrecs etcs. Relays on their body parts
to create auditory communication methods.
2. Visual communication
Visual communication in animals is based on visible signals. These visible signals could include
gestures, postures, facial expressions, colouration, camouflaging, etc. Few of these visual
communication forms might not seem obvious at first glance, but with close inspection, you will
be able to understand them. Gestures and postures are the most commonly used visual
communication for animals. You can see animals doing body movements such as raising hands,
flicking feathers, shrinking, slapping the ground, slow body language, eye contact, etc., to attract
their fellow mates’ attention, to ward off danger, for playtime or hunting. As for facial signals,
the most common example you will find is of a young chimpanzee.
3. Tactile Communication
Tactile communication is said to be the most common form of animal communication. Tactile
communication requires touching and the participants to be nearby. Animals usually prefer to
stay in groups which put limitations on tactile communication. It’s safe to say tactile
communication happens between the same group of species, but it’s not rare among different
groups of species. You can look at the zoo animals or pet houses where cats and dogs live side by
side.Tactile communication is called a common form of animal communication due to mating
reasons. That way, tactile communication definitely occurs among every species of animal that
goes through heat. Meanwhile, it is also recognized as a form of social bonding, infant care,
grooming, or showcase of dominance. You can take a look at monkeys and apes who love to pick
bugs off each other to display affection.
4. Chemical Communication
Chemical communication is animal communication where the animals leave behind pheromones
in the environment for different reasons. Pheromones are the chemical substance produced and
released by animals that affect the behaviour or psychology of other animals of their own
species. It’s mostly seen among ants and bees. There are different types of pheromones seen in
animals – releaser pheromones, primer pheromones, alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones,
and sex pheromones.
The most common forms of communication between humans and animals are auditory, tactile,
and visual. The earlier example of a dog barking at his owner to express his happiness for
receiving food is an auditory form of communication. Besides, when your pet whines for your
attention or growls to express dissatisfaction and when you play with them or instruct them with
something and receive their response – these are all auditory communication methods. Tactile
communication occurs when your pet licks you or when you scratch their fur that emits a purr
out of them – these are known as tactile methods of communication. As for visual
communication, when you train your pet by mimicking a motion or displaying a movement on
either posters, books, or phones – that’s called visual communication.
• INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication studies communication across different cultures and social groups
and describes the many communication processes and related issues among groups of individuals
from varied cultural backgrounds. Knowing a foreign language is just part of the parcel—the
other party’s cultural background, values, and beliefs also need to be understood. This is where
intercultural communication skills are indispensable. They are needed to successfully
communicate with people from other cultures and social groups. And intercultural
communication skills also include a willingness to be adaptable and accept that other cultures
may communicate and do things differently. Intercultural communication essentially means
communication across different cultural boundaries. When two or more people with different
cultural backgrounds interact and communicate with each other or one another, we can say that
intercultural communication is taking place. So intercultural communication can be defined as
the sharing of information on different levels of awareness between people with different cultural
backgrounds, or put simply: individuals influenced by different cultural groups negotiate shared
meaning in interactions. You may have also come across the terms multicultural communication
and cross-cultural communication. How do these differ from intercultural communication? Let’s
take a look!
Multicultural communication
Multicultural refers to how a group or team is composed, in particular a group that is made up of
people with different nationalities. In fact, communication in multicultural settings has become
commonplace today.
Cross-cultural communication
Cross-cultural means comparing two or more different cultures; so cross-cultural communication
examines the varying communication styles of different cultural groups. Intercultural, finally,
refers to exchanges taking place between different cultures. So, in a nutshell, intercultural
communication relates to interactions among people from different cultures, while cross-cultural
communication involves comparing interactions among people from the same culture to those
from another culture.
• PLANT COMMUNICATION
Plant communication refers to the process by which plants exchange information, signals, and
messages with other plants, as well as with other organisms in their environment. This
communication can take place between different parts of the same plant, between individual
plants of the same species, or even between plants of different species.
Key aspects of plant communication include:
1. Signaling Mechanisms:Chemical signaling: Plants release a variety of chemical compounds,
known as phytochemicals or plant hormones, that can be detected and interpreted by other plants
or organisms. These include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), as well as non-volatile
signaling molecules. Electrical signaling: Plants can also use electrical signals, which are
transmitted through their vascular systems, to convey information about changes in their
environment or internal state. Mechanical signaling: Some plants can detect and respond to
physical stimuli, such as touch, vibrations, or changes in gravity, and use this information to
communicate with other plants or organisms.
2. Intra-plant Communication:Plants can coordinate and integrate various functions, such as
growth, development, and defense, through communication between different parts of the same
plant, including roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.This intra-plant communication helps the plant
respond to changes in its environment and optimize its overall health and survival.
3. Inter-plant Communication: Plants can communicate with neighboring plants of the same or
different species, often through the release of volatile organic compounds or the sharing of
underground networks, such as mycorrhizal fung.This inter-plant communication can be used to
warn nearby plants of impending threats, share resources, or coordinate collective responses to
environmental stresses.
4. Plant-Microbe Communication:Plants can communicate with various microorganisms, such as
bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that live in or around them. This communication can involve the
exchange of chemical signals or the establishment of symbiotic relationships. For example,
plants can release specific compounds to attract beneficial microbes that can help them acquire
nutrients or defend against pathogens.
5. Plant-Animal Communication:Plants can also communicate with animals, such as pollinators,
herbivores, and seed dispersers, through the production of attractants (e.g., nectar, scent) or
deterrents (e.g., toxins, thorns).This communication helps plants ensure successful reproduction
and seed dispersal, as well as defend against herbivores.
6. Evolutionary Significance:The ability of plants to communicate has evolved as an adaptive
strategy to help them thrive in complex and ever-changing environments.Plant communication
has played a crucial role in the development of plant-animal and plant-microbe interactions, as
well as in the overall resilience and adaptability of plant species.
Research in plant communication has led to significant advancements in our understanding of
plant biology, ecology, and the critical role that communication plays in the survival and
evolution of plant species. By exploring the diverse signaling mechanisms and the intricate webs
of communication within and between plants, researchers continue to uncover the remarkable
ways in which these sessile organisms interact with their environments and with other living
beings.
REFERANCE
(Andersen, 1999).Jones, 1999) EVANS 2001