Chapter-1

Instantaneous Current, voltage and power

1.1 An Oscillating Current:
It is a current, which alternately increases and decreases in magnitude with respect to time
according to some definite law.

1.2 A periodic current:

It is an oscillating current the values of which recur at equal interval of time.

1.3 Alternating Current:

It is a periodic current, the average value
of which over a period is zero. The
equation of an alternating current is the
same as that for a periodic current with
zero reference.

1.4 Period and Cycle:

The period of an alternating quantities (i, Fig.1 (a)
v, p……) is the smallest value of time which
separates recurring value of an alternating
quantity, which is shown in Fig. 1. T, the
symbol employed to designate the period
of one cycle of an alternating quantity.
One set of positive and negative values of
an alternating quantity is called a cycle. A
cycle is sometimes specified in terms of
angular velocity ω. One complete cycle is Fig. 1(b)
then said to be extend over 3600 or 2𝜋
radians of angular measure.

1.5 Frequency:
Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per
second.
Since T is the time (or duration) of one
cycle. Then− Fig. 1(c)
1 Fig. 1 Waveform of three AC variations. T is the
𝑓 = cycles per second
𝑇 period of one cycle
If T is expressed in seconds.

1
The common power plant frequencies are used today are 60, 50, and 25 cycles. Audio
frequencies range from approximately 60 cycles to 20,000 cycles. Voice frequencies occupying
the range from 20 to 2500 cycles. Radio frequencies range from 50,000 to 10 10 cycles, the AM
program broadcast bands being from 540 to 1600 kilocycles and the FM and Tv broadcast
bands being from about 50 to 200 megacycles. Radar system often operate with a carrier
frequency of 3000 or 10,000 megacycles. The present Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) standard band designations follow: (List from low frequency to extremely high frequency)

1.6 Alternating Voltage and Current represented by the sine wave.

Many of the alternating waves met with in practice approximate a sine wave very closely.
Alternating- voltage and -current calculations are
therefore based on sine waves. A true sine wave is
shown in Fig.2. The equation for it is

𝑖 = Im sin ωt … … … … . 1.1
Where 𝜔𝑡 is expressed in radians and is called the time
angle, i is the instantaneous value of the current, and
Im Is the maximum value of the sinusoidal variation.
Since 𝜔𝑡 represent an angle, equation (1.2) may be
expressed in terms of radians or degrees. Thus
𝑖 = Im sin α … … … … . 1.2
Fig.2 Typical sine wave
Where 𝛼 is in degrees or radians. Equation (1.2)
expresses the current as a sinusoidal variation with respect to time, where equation (1.2)
expresses it as a function of angular measure.

1.7 Alternating Voltage difference represented by the sine wave:

Alternating voltage or potential difference may take the form of a generated emf or the form of
a potential drop. Instantaneous values of generated emf will be designated by e, and
instantaneous values of potential drop by 𝑣. Similarly, Em and Vm will be used to distinguisha
maximum value of emf and a maximum value of potential drop respectively. Thus

𝑒 = Em sin ωt = Em sin α … … … … . 1.3

and
𝑣 = Vm sin ωt = Vm sin α … … … … . 1.4

1.8 Phase:
Phase is the fractional part of a period through which time or the associated time angle ωt had
advanced from an arbitrary reference. In case of sinusoidal variation, the origin is usually taken
as the last previous passage through zero from the negative to positive direction. Thus, one
2
 1 1
phase of a sine wave is of a period (or 300from the origin) where the ordinate is the
12 2
maximum
1
ordinate; another phase is of a period (or 900from the
4
origin) where the ordinate has its maximum positive
value; and so on for any other fractional part of T (or of
ωT = 2π).

Therefore, the phase angle of a single wave from the

zero point on the wave to the value at the point from
which time is reckoned. Thus
Fig. 3 Phase angle 𝜃 of a sine wave
𝑖 = Im sin(ωt + ϴ) … … … … . 1.5

the equation (1.5) represents a sign wave with a phase angle ϴ. The phase of the wave from
which time is reckoned (i.e., when 𝑡 = 0) is 𝑖 = Im sin ϴ. In figure 3, the angle ϴis the phase
angle of the current with respect to the point where 𝑖 = 0 as reference.

1.9 Phase Difference:

The phase angle is an important perimeter for properly locating different alternating quantities
with respect to one another. For example,if they applied voltage to a circuit is

𝑣 = Vm sin ωt … … … … . 1.6
and it is known from the nature and magnitude of the circuit perimeters that the current comes
to a corresponding point on its wave before the voltage wave by ϴo, the current can be
expressed as
𝑖 = Im sin(ωt + ϴ) … … … … . 1.7

Figure 4 shows the phase positions of 𝑣 and 𝑖 waves for

ϴ = 45o . The current in this case is said to lead the
voltage by 45o, or the voltage is said to lag the current by
45o. A given alternating quantity lags another, if it comes
to a certain point on its wave later than the other one
comes to corresponding point on its wave. Another way of
saying the same thing is that the positive maximum of the
leading quantity occurs before the positive maximum of
the lagging quantity.
Fig. 4 The 𝑖 wave leads the 𝑣
Thus, it is said that there is a phase difference of 45 o wave by ϴ = 45o
between the two waves. The angle of phase difference is
the difference of the phase angle of two waves. Thus, if
𝑣 = 100 sin (ωt + 45o ) … … … … . 1.8 and 𝑖 = sin (ωt − 15o ) … … … … . 1.9
the angle of phase difference is [45o − (−15o )]or 60o .
3
Example 1.1:
If a voltage is as having sinusoidal wave form, a maximum value of 200 volts, and an angular
frequency of 377 radians per second (60 cycle/second), and it is described to reckon time from
𝑑𝑣
the pint of zero voltage where is positive, as illustrated in figure 5(a), the mathematical
𝑑𝑡
expression for this voltage as a function of time 𝑡, is

α 2π
𝑣 = 200 sin 377t ω = =
𝑡 T
= 2πf … … … … . 1.10

If it is assumed that, time is to be reckoned form the

point of positive maximum voltage, the angular
Fig. 5(a) Graphical representations
displacement (ωt) refer to above each +90°, and the
of equations (1.10)
expression of the voltage becomes
𝑣 = 200 sin (377t + 90°)
Or

𝑣 = 200 cos 377t … … … … . 1.11

Equations (10) and (11) describe exactly the same type

of voltage variation except for the 𝑡 = 0 reference.
Example 1.2:
Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the Fig. 5(b) Graphical representations
sinusoidal of equations (1.11)

𝑣 = 12cos⁡
(50𝑡 + 10°)
Solution:
The amplitude is Vm= 12 volt. The phase is ϴ = 10°. The angular velocity is ω = 50 rad/sec.
2π 2π 1 1
The period is T = = = 0.1257 𝑠𝑒𝑐. The frequency is 𝑓 = T = 0.1257 = 7.958 𝑜𝑟 8 Hz
ω 50

Example 1.3:
Calculate the phase angle between 𝑣1 = −10 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 50° 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣2 = 12sin⁡
(ω𝑡 − 10°). State
which wave is leading.
Solution:
In order to compare 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 , we must express them in the same form. So 𝑣1 is in sin form:

4
 𝑣1 = −10 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 50° = 10 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 50° − 180° = 10 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 130°
𝑣1 = 10cos 𝜔𝑡 − 130°
And

𝑣2 = 12 sin ω𝑡 − 10° = 12 cos ω𝑡 − 10° − 90°

𝑣2 = 12cos⁡
(ω𝑡 − 100°)
Therefore the phase difference between 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 is 30°.
Comparing the two shows that 𝑣1 lags 𝑣2 by 30°. This is the same as saying that 𝑣2 leads by 𝑣1
by 30°.
Assignment 1:
Find the phase angle between
𝑖1 = −4 sin 377𝑡 + 55° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 = 5 cos 377𝑡 − 65°
Does 𝑖1 lead or lag 𝑖2 ?

1.10Instantaneous power
1.10.1 Impedance
Mathematically a particular type of function is required to relate voltage and current is an a-c
circuit. The one generally employed is called the impedance (Z) of the circuit. The impedance
function must tell two important facts: (1) the ratio of Vm and Imand the phase angle between
the two waves of voltage and current. So, the impedance function in abbreviatedform is
expressed:

Z is the magnitude of the impedance and is represented by a number of ohms. It defines the
ratio of Vm to Im. The angle associated with Z, if it is positive, defines the lead of the voltage with
respect to the current. Other way of saying asthe current lags the voltage.

5
The determination of the complete impedance function
for various combinations R, L and C is the first step in a-c
circuit analysis. The combination considered in this
chapter are shown in figure 6.
1.10.2 Power in R Branch
Let a circuit element, which possesses only ohmic
resistance. It is well known that resistance impedes the
motion of electricity and causes an irreversible
transformation of electrical into heat energy in
accordance with Joule’s law.
If a voltage𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 is applied to a branch of R
resistance, figure 7, the equation according to Fig. 6 circuit arrangement of R,
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is Land C

𝑣 = Ri = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 1.12
From which
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 = Im sin 𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 1.13
𝑅

From the above equation it is evidenced that

Vm
= R and the current wave is in time phase
Im
with voltage wave. So the impedance of a
simple R branch maybe expressed as

ohms
The instantaneous poweris
𝑝 = 𝑒𝑖 (generated)
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖(absorbed) Fig. 7 Presentation of equation(15)
The instantaneous power is absorbed by the R:

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 14

6
Since2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡, it follows that
1
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝= − cos 2𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 15
2 2
Figure 7 shows the component parts of
equation(15). The equation shows that the
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 Fig. 8 oscillogram : voltage, current and
instantaneous power− cos 2𝜔𝑡wave
2 power variation in a R branch.
various with double-frequency with respect to
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
the frequency of the current or the voltage, which is the average positive value of . As a
2
result, at no time, the power reaches Instantaneous negative value.
Photographic records of 𝑣, 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 in R branch
are shown in figure 8. The oscillogram shown in
figure illustrates that voltage and currents are
in time phase in a resistive circuit.

1.10.3 Power in L Branch

Fig. 9 The L branch
If a circuit element of pure inductance, figure 9, is
considered, the circuit equation for the circuit is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 16
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 … … … … . 17
𝐿
𝑉
𝑚
𝑖 = − 𝜔𝐿 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶1 … … … … . 18 [Integrating both side]

The Integrating constant 𝐶1 is considered to be equal to zero. Since only the steady-state
current about the zero axis is to be considered.
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 90°) = Im sin(𝜔𝑡 − 90°) … … … … . 19
𝜔𝐿
Inductance opposes the rate of change of current, and for this reason it is called electrical
inertia. Since the inductance L limits the rate at which the current can change, it follows
logically that L actually governs the maximum value of the current in an a-c circuit which is
energized by a voltage of specified angular velocity.
Vm
It is observed form equation (19)that = ωLand that 𝑖 lag 𝑣 by 90° (quarter of a cycle). The
Im
impedance of a L branch is
7
Thus, the inductive reactance

𝐗 𝐋 = ωL = 2πfL … … … … . 20
Example 1.4:
The inductive reactance of a 10 millihenry inductance coil in a 60 cycle circuit is

𝐗 𝐋 = 2πfL = 2π × 60 × 0.010 = 3.77 𝑜𝑕𝑚𝑠

And

The instantaneous power delivered to the pure

inductance branch as obtained multiplying equation
(16) by equation (19) is

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ωt Im sin ωt − 90° … … … … . 21

1
𝑝 = (𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ) −2 sin ωt cos ωt … … … … . 22
2
or
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝=− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 23 Fig. 10 𝑣, 𝑖, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 variations in a L
2
Figure 10 shows the 𝑣 [𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 16 ], 𝑖[𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 19 ], 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝[𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 23 ] variations in
a purely inductance branch. It observes that the power variation is again a double-frequency
with respect to the frequency of the driving voltage. The fact that equation (23) indicates
negative power during the first one quarter of a cycle of the driving voltage, that is, from
𝑇
𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 , is the direct result of the choice of the time reference.
4

1.10.3 Power in C Branch

If it assumed that a sinusoidal voltage,𝑉𝑚 sin ωt , is applied to an ideal capacitor as indicated in
figure 11, the expression for steady state equilibrium is
𝑞
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐶 … … … … . 24

The equation (24) is differentiated with respect to time, it

follows that
𝑑𝑞
= 𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 25
𝑑𝑡
or
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= 1 (sin 𝜔𝑡 + 90°) … … … … . 26
Fig. 11 The C branch
𝜔𝐶

8
 1
The ratio of Vm to Im in the pure C branch is , and the current lead the applied voltage by one
𝜔𝐶
quarter of a cycle or 90°. So the impedance of the C branch is

1
The magnitude of the impedance, , is called capacitive reactance (X c ).Xc is inversely
𝜔𝐶
proportional to the frequency of the driving voltage and alsoinversely proportional to the
capacitance of the capacitor. In the above expression, 𝜔 is expressed in radians per second, C is
expressed in farad and capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms.

Example 1.5:
The capacitive reactance of a 15 microfaradcapacitor in a 25 cycle circuit is
1 1
Xc = 𝜔𝐶 = 2π×25×15×10 −6 = 425 ohms

And

= -j425
The instantaneous power delivered to the C branch is
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ωt Im sin ωt + 90° … … … … . 27
1
𝑝 = (𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ) 2 sin ωt cos ωt … … … … … . 28 Fig. 12 𝑣, 𝑖, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 variation in C branch
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡 … … … … . 29
2
The phase relation of 𝑣, 𝑖, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝in a purely capacitance branch are shown in figure 12.
1.10.4 Power in RLC branch
If a current of sinusoidal wave form, 𝑖 = Im sin ωt, is assumed to flow through RLC branch
shown in figure 13, and voltage across each element is
𝑣𝑅 = Ri = R Im sin ωt … … … … . 30
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 = ωLIm cos ωt … … … … . 31
𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (Im sin ωt)dt
𝑣𝐶 = = =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
−Im
𝑣𝐶 = cos ωt … … … … . 32
ωC Fig. 13 The RLC branch

9
The voltage applied to the RLC branch is the sum of the three component voltages. So sum of
the equations(30), (31) and (32) is
−Im
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝐶 = R Im sin ωt + ωLIm cos ωt + cos ωt … … … … . 33
ωC
−I m
𝑣 = R Im sin ωt + ωLIm cos ωt + cos ωt … … … … . 34
ωC

1
𝑣 = R Im sin ωt + (ωL − )I cos ωt … … … … . 35
ωC m
1
R Im and ωL − ωC Im are considered as the base and
perpendicular of the right triangle show in figure 14. The fact
1
that ωC acts oppositely to the quantity ωLin governing current
1 Fig. 14 Impedance of RLC branch
flow requires thatωC be treated negatively if ωL is treated
positively.

1
If both sides of the equation (35) is divided by 𝑅 2 + (ωL − ωC )2 , the equation takes the form

1
𝑅 ωL − ωC 𝑣
𝐼𝑚 sin ωt + cos ωt = … … . 36
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑅2 + ωL − ωC 𝑅2 + ωL − ωC 𝑅2 + ωL − ωC

𝑅
cos 𝜃 = … … . 37
1 2
𝑅 2 + ωL − ωC

And 1
ωL − ωC
sin 𝜃 = … … . 38
1 2
𝑅 2 + ωL − ωC

Then
𝑣
𝐼𝑚 sin ωt cos 𝜃 + cos ωt sin 𝜃 =
1 2
𝑅 2 + ωL − ωC

𝑣 = Im Z sin(ωt + 𝜃) = Vm sin(ωt + 𝜃)

2
Vm 1
=Z= 𝑅2 + ωL −
Im ωC

10
 1
In a branch where ωL is negligibly small as compared with R and , the ωL term maybe
ωC
considered to be equal to zero, in which case the branch reduces to a resistance and
capacitance branch.

The negative angle implies that the current wave lag the voltage wave by a negative angle. The
correct physical interpretationis that the current wave lead the voltage wave by the angle
1
ωL−
−1 ωC
tan .
𝑅
1
Wherein ωL = ωC , the impedance reduces to R∠0°, under this condition the RLC branch
would be a purely resistive branch. If R is a fixed quantity,the above condition may be obtained
by the adjustment of a L, C, or ω.
Example 1.6:
If 𝑅 = 10Ω, L = 0.056 henry, and C = 50µf (micro-frad), find the impedance of RLC branch at
60 Hz.

200
𝑖= sin(377𝑡 + 72.6°)
33.4
The expression for the instantaneous power delivered RLC branch may be obtained form
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = [Vm sin(ωt + 𝜃)] Im sin ωt … … . 41
= Vm Im sin ωt (sin ωt cos 𝜃 + cos ωt sin 𝜃)
Vm Im Vm Im
= (2sin2 ωt) cos 𝜃 + 2 sin ωt cos ωt sin 𝜃
2 2
Vm Im Vm Im
= 1 − cos2ωt cos 𝜃 + (sin2ωt) sin 𝜃
2 2

11
 Vm Im Vm Im Vm Im
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − cos2ωt 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + sin2ωt sin 𝜃 … … . 42
2 2 2
The component parts of equation (42) together with the result graph of instantaneous power
are shown in figure 15. If is evident that the
average value with respect to time of either the
cos2ωt and the sin2ωt term over the cycle is
equal to zero.There fore,the average power equal
to
Vm Im
Pav = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
The above expression for average power may also
be obtained by finding the average value of the
Fig. 15 Presentation of equation (41) for 𝜃 = 30°
right hand side of the equation (41) as follows:
T
1
Pav = Vm sin(ωt + 𝜃) Im sin ωt 𝑑𝑡
T 0

Vm Im
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … … … … … . . . 43
2
1.11Real Power and Reactive Power or Reactive Volt-Amperes
Instantaneous real power refers to
V m Im V m Im
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − cos2ωt 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , the first two terms on the right-hand side of equation (42).
2 2
Figure 15 shows that these two terms combine to form an Instantaneous power variation which
contains no negative values hence these combined term in equation (42) is called the
Instantaneous real power.
Unless qualified to mean Instantaneous real power, the expression real power refers only to
V m Im
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, the average value of the total Instantaneous power with respect to time.
2

V m Im
The third term on the right hand side of the equation (42), sin2ωt sin 𝜃 , is called
2
Instantaneous reactive power, Instantaneous quadrature power, Instantaneous reactive volt-
V m Im
amperes, etc. For the reason that the area under the sin2ωt sin 𝜃 curve represents the
2
energy which oscillates between the driving source and the reactive (either inductive or
capacitive) elements of the receiving circuit.
It observes from figure 15 that theInstantaneous reactive power is that portion of the total
Instantaneous power variation which has equal positive and negative loops, and which contains
the sin of the phase angle between 𝑣 and 𝑖 as a factor, that is, reactive factor sin 𝜃 .
Unless qualified mean Instantaneous reactive power or Instantaneous reactive volt-amperes,
V m Im
the expressions the reactive power andreactive volt-amperes refer simply to sin𝜃, the
2

12
maximum Instantaneous value of the third term on the right hand side of equation (42). The
unit of reactive volt-amperes is called vars.
V m Im V m Im
Both the real power, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, and the reactive volt-amperes sin𝜃, are important
2 2
quantities, and they are often measured independently. A watt meter being used to measure
V m Im
the real power 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃and a reactive volt-ampere meter, that is, varmeter being used to
2
V m Im
measure reactive power sin𝜃.
2

The real power and the reactive power maybe combined to yield the volt-amperes of the
V m Im
circuit, that is, 2

2 2
Vm Im Vm Im Vm Im
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + sin𝜃 =
2 2 2

Example 1.7:
1
In an RLC circuit, ifR = 19.7Ω and ωL − ωC = Fig. 16 power, reactive power and volt-amperes
21.1Ω, evaluate the expressions for the
Instantaneous current for the Instantaneous power for input voltage𝑣 = 141.4 sin 377𝑡.

The Instantaneous current is

141.4
𝑖= sin 377𝑡 − 47° = 4.9 sin 377𝑡 − 47° Ω
28.87
The Instantaneous power is, by equation (42),
Vm Im Vm Im Vm Im
p= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − cos2ωt 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + sin2ωt sin 𝜃
2 2 2
141.4 × 4.9 141.4 × 4.9 141.4 × 4.9
= cos 47° − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 × 377𝑡 cos 47° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 × 377𝑡 sin 47°
2 2 2
= 236 − 236 cos 754𝑡 + 253 sin 754𝑡watts

The instantaneous real power is 236 − 236 cos 754𝑡watts.

The instantaneous reactive power or volt-amperes is253 sin 754𝑡 vars.
The real power is 236 watts.
The reactive power or volt-amperes is 253 vars.

13
Assignment 2
A current 𝑖 = 5 sin(100𝑡 + 30°)amperes flows in a purely resistive branch of 20 ohms.
(a) Write the expression for v as a function of time employing numerical coefficients.
(b) What is the frequency of the voltage variation?
(c) Write the expression for p as a function of time, employing numerical coefficients.
(d) What is the frequency of the power variation?
Assignment 3
A resistive element of 20 ohms, an inductance coil of L = 300 milliherirys and RL = 10 ohms, and
a condenser of 50μF capacitance are connected in series to form an RLC branch. Avoltage
𝑣 = 100 sin 157t volts isapplied to the RLC branch.
(a) What is the numerical value of 𝑍𝑅𝐿𝐶 ?
(6) Write the expression for 𝑖, employing numerical coefficients.
(c) Write the expression for 𝑝, employing numerical coefficients, and express all trigonometric
functions with exponents no higher than unity.
(d) What is the average value of the power delivered to the branch?
(e) What is the maximum value of the reactive volt-amperes?
(f) Write the expression for the voltage drop across the 20-ohm resistive element as a function
of time, employing numerical coefficients.
(g) Write the expression for the instantaneous power delivered to the 20-ohm resistor as a
function of time, employing numerical coefficients.

14
 Chapter-2
Phasors

Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with
than sine and cosine functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources.Solutions
of such circuits would be intractable otherwise. We need to be familiar with complex numbers.

A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 … … … … … … … (2.1𝑎)
Where𝑗 = −1and x is the real and imaginary parts of z. In this context, the variables x and y do not
represent a location as in two-dimensional vector analysis.But rather they are the real and imaginary
parts of z in the complex plane.

The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜑 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜑 … … … … … … … (2.1𝑏)
Where r is the magnitude of z, and𝜑 is the phase of z. So that z can be represented in three
ways:
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 Rectangular form
𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜑 Polar form … … … … … … … (2.2)
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜑 Exponential form
The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. 9.6, where
the x axis represents the real part and the y axis represents the imaginary part of a complex
number. Given x and y, we can get r and 𝜑 as
𝑦
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2, 𝜑 = tan−1 𝑥 … … … … … … … … … (2.3𝑎)

On the other hand, if we know r and 𝜑 we can obtain x and y as

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜑, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜑 … … … … … … … … (2.3𝑏)

Thus, z may be written as

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠𝜑 = 𝑟 cos 𝜑 + 𝑗 sin 𝜑 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜑 … … (2.4)

Therefore
Fig. 2.1complex quantity
cos 𝜑 + 𝑗 sin 𝜑 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2.5)
Which shows that cos 𝜑 and sin 𝜑are the real and imaginary parts of 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 . We may write

cos 𝜑 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 andsin 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑚(𝑒 𝑗𝜑 ) … … (2.6)

15
Mathematical Operations 2.1:
The following operations for phasors 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠𝜑, 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2 =
𝑟2 ∠𝜑2 are important.
Addition:
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑗 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 … … … … (2.7𝑎)
Subtraction:
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑗 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 … … … … (2.7𝑏)
Multiplication:
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠𝜑1 + 𝜑2 … … … … … … … … … … … (2.7𝑐)
Division:
𝑧1 𝑟1
= ∠𝜑1 − 𝜑2 … … … … … … … … … … (2.7𝑑)
𝑧2 𝑟2
Reciprocal:
1 1
= ∠ − 𝜑 … … … … … … … … … … … . … (2.7𝑒)
𝑧 𝑟
Square Root:
𝜑
𝑧 = 𝑟∠ . … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2.7𝑓)
2
Power:
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠𝑛𝜑. … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2.7𝑔)
Complex Conjugate:

𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥 − 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠ − 𝜑 = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑗𝜑 . … … … … (2.7𝑕)
From equation (2.7e)
1
= −𝑗. … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2.7𝑕)
𝑗
From figure 2.2, the phasorA may be written in rectangular form as
𝐀 = 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑗𝑦𝐴 … … … … … . . (2.8)
Figure 2.2 shows that the angle 𝜃𝐴 , between direction of phasor A and
the direction of positive x axis is
Fig. 2.2Phasor A and its parts
𝑦𝐴
𝜃𝐴 = tan−1 … … … … … . . (2.9)
𝑥𝐴
and

16

Fig. 2.3 Operator j applications

 A= 𝑥𝐴 2 + 𝑦𝐴 2 … … … … … . . (2.10)
In as much as+y-axis projection is +90°from the +x-axis, when applied to a phasor, rotate it 90°
counter clockwise without changing the phasor magnitude.
Let, j be an operator which produces a 90°counter clockwise rotation of any phasor to which it
is applied as a multiplying factor. Considering that j operates on a given phasor 𝐀, the direction
of which is along the +x-axis.Then, by definition, when phasor A of figure 2.3 is multiplied by 𝑗 a
new phasor, 𝑗𝐀, 90° counter clockwise from 𝐀,will be obtained.If the operator 𝑗is applied to the
phasor𝑗𝐀it will, by definition, rotate 𝑗𝐀90° in the counter clockwise direction. The result is
𝑗𝑗𝐀 = 𝑗 2 𝐀 as shown in figure 2.3. Also from figure 2.3

𝑗 2 𝐀 = −𝐀
Hence
𝑗 2 = −1
And

𝑗 = −1 … … … … … . . (2.11)

The phasor 𝐀as a complex number is plotted in the complex plain in figure 2.2. Since 𝑗 = −1 ,

𝑗 2 = −1
𝑗 3 = 𝑗 2 = −1
𝑗4 = 𝑗2. 𝑗2 = 1
𝑗 5 = 𝑗. 𝑗 4 = 𝑗 … … … … … . . (2.12)
.
.
.
𝑛+4
𝑗 = 𝑗𝑛
Example 2.1:
Express the following complex number in polar and exponential form:
(a) 𝑧1 = 6 − 𝑗8 and (b) 𝑧2 = −6 − 𝑗8
Solution:
In polar and exponential form
𝑦 8
(a) 𝑟1 = 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦1 2 = 62 + (−8)2 = 10, 𝜃1 = tan−1 𝑥 1 = 360° − tan−1 6 = 306.87°
1

𝑧1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 = 10∠306.87° = 10𝑒 𝑗 306.87° or 10 − 𝑒 −𝑗 53.13°

𝑦 8
(b) 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2 = (−6)2 + (−8)2 = 10, 𝜃1 = tan−1 𝑥 2 = 180° + tan−1 6 =
2
233.13°

𝑧2 = 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 = 10∠233.13° = 10𝑒 𝑗 233.13°

17
Assignment 4
Express the following complex number in polar and exponential form:
(a) 𝑧1 = 5 + 𝑗12 and (b) 𝑧2 = −3 + 𝑗7

Example 2.2:
Convert the following complex number in rectangular form:
𝜋
(a) 𝑧1 = −50∠286° and (b) 𝑧2 = 20𝑒 −𝑗 3

Solution:
(a) 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 = 𝑟1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑗𝑟1 sin 𝜃1 = −50 cos 286° − 𝑗50 sin 286° = −12.94 + 𝑗48.3
𝜋 𝜋
(b) 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 2𝑗 𝜃2 = 𝑟2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑟2 sin 𝜃2 = 20 cos(− 3 ) + 𝑗20 sin(− 3 ) = 1 − 𝑗17.32

Assignment 5
Convert the following complex number in rectangular form:
𝜋
(a) 𝑧1 = 40∠305°and (b) 𝑧2 = 50𝑒 𝑗 2

Example 2.3:
𝑨+𝑩
If 𝐀 = 2 + j5 and 𝐁 = 4 − j6, find:(a)𝐀∗ (𝐀 + 𝐁), (b)𝑨−𝑩

Solution:
(a) If𝐀 = 2 + j5, then 𝐀∗ = 2 − j5 and𝐀 + 𝐁 = 2 + 4 + 𝑗 5 − 6 = 6 − 𝑗1
So that

𝐀∗ 𝐀 + 𝐁 = 2 − 𝑗5 6 − 𝑗1 = 12 − 𝑗2 − 𝑗30 − 5 = 7 − 𝑗32
(b) Similarly,
𝐀 − 𝐁 = 2 − 4 + 𝑗 5 − (−6) = −2 + 𝑗11
Hence
𝑨+𝑩 6 − 𝑗1 (6 − 𝑗1)(−2 − 𝑗11) −12 − 𝑗66 − 𝑗2 − 11
= = =
𝑨 − 𝑩 −2 + 𝑗11 (−2 + 𝑗11)(−2 − 𝑗11) −2 2 − (𝑗11)2
−23 − 𝑗64
= = −0.184 − 𝑗0.512
125

18
Example2.4:
Evaluate:

Solution:

Thus,

2 + 𝑗5 (8𝑒 𝑗 10° ) 43.08∠78.2°

= = 9.67∠40.66°
2 + 𝑗4 + 2∠ − 40° 4.45∠37.54°
Example 2.5:

If 𝐀 = 6 + 𝑗8, find: (a) 𝐀, (b) 𝐀4

Solution:
(a) First, convert 𝐀 to polar form:
8
𝑟= 62 + 82 = 10, 𝜃 = tan−1 = 53.13°, 𝐀 = 10 ∠53.13°
6
Then

𝐀 = 10∠53.13°/2 = 3.16∠26.56
(b) Since 𝐀 = 10 ∠ 53.13°,
𝐀4 = 𝑟 4 ∠4𝜃 = 104 ∠4 × 53.13° = 10,000∠212.52°
Assignment 6
Evaluate:

6∠30° + 𝑗5 − 3 𝑗(3 − 𝑗4)∗

𝑎 𝑏
−1 + 𝑗2𝑒 𝑗 45° −1 + 𝑗6 (2 + 𝑗)2
Assignment 7
1
If 𝐀 = 3 − j4, find:(a) 𝐀 3 and(b)ln 𝐀

19
The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,

𝑒 ±𝑗𝜙 = cos ϕ ± j sin ϕ … … … … … . . (2.13)

Which shows that we may regard cos ϕ and sin ϕas the real and imaginary parts of 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 . We
may write

cos ϕ = Re 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 … … … … … . . (2.14𝑎)

sin ϕ = Im 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 … … … … … . . (2.14𝑏)

Given a sinusoid 𝑣 𝑡 = Vm cos(ωt + ϕ), we use equation (2.14a) to express 𝑣 𝑡 as

𝑣 𝑡 = Vm cos(ωt + ϕ) = Re Vm 𝑒 𝑗 ωt+ϕ
… … … … … . . (2.15)

Or

𝑣 𝑡 = Re Vm 𝑒 𝑗 ϕ 𝑒 𝑗 ωt … … … … … . . (2.16)

Thus,
𝑣 𝑡 = Re 𝐕𝑒 𝑗 ωt … … … … … … . (2.17)

Where,
𝐕 = Vm 𝑒 𝑗 ϕ = Vm ∠ϕ … … … … … … . (2.18)
𝐕is thus the phasor representation of sinusoidal 𝑣 𝑡 . In other word, a phasor is a complex
representation of the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid. Either Eq. (2.14𝑎) or Eq. (2.14𝑏) can
be used to develop the phasor, the standard convention is to use Eq. (2.14𝑎).
On the way of looking Eqs. 2.17 and (2.18) is to consider the plot ofsinor𝐕𝑒 𝑗 ωt =
Vm 𝑒 𝑗 ωt+ϕ on the complex plane. If we use sine for the phasor instead of cosine, then𝑣 𝑡 =
Vm sin ωt + ϕ = Im(Vm 𝑒 𝑗 ωt+ϕ )and corresponding phasor is the same as that in Eq. (2.18).
As time increases, the sinor rotates on a circle of radiusVm at an angular velocity ωin the
counter clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 2.4(a). We may regard 𝑣 𝑡 as the projection of the
sinor𝐕𝑒 𝑗 ωt on the real axis, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The value of the sinor at time t = 0 is the
phasor 𝐕 of the sinusoidal 𝑣 𝑡 the sinor may be regarded as a rotating phasor. Thus,when ever
a sinusoid is expressed as a phasor, the term 𝑒 𝑗 ωt is implicitly present. It is therefore important,
when dealing with phasors, to keep in mind the frequency ω of the phasor.

20
 Fig. 2.4: Representation of 𝐕𝑒 𝑗 ωt (a) sinor rotating counterclockwise, (b) its
projection on the real axis, as a function of time.

Eq. 2.17 states that to obtain the sinusoid corresponding to a given phasor 𝐕, multiplying the
phasor by the time factor 𝑒 𝑗 ωt and take the real part. As a complex quantity, a phasor may be
expressed in rectangular form, polar form, or exponential form. Since a phasor has magnitude
and phase (direction), it behaves as a vector and is printedin boldface. For example, phasor
𝐕 = Vm ∠ϕ and 𝐈 = Im ∠ − θ are graphically presented in Fig. 2.5. Such a graphical
representation of the phasors is known as a phasor
diagram.
Eqs. 2.16 through (2.18)reveal that to get the phasor
corresponding to a sinusoid, we first express the
sinusoid in the cosine form so that the sinusoid can be
written as the real part of the complex number. Then
we take out the time factor𝑒 𝑗 ωt . By suppressing the
time factor, we transform the sinusoid form the time
domain to the phasor domain. The transformation is
summarized as follows:

Fig:2.5: A phasor diagram showing

𝐕 = Vm ∠ϕ and 𝐈 = Im ∠ − θ

21