USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO

DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES

GST 214: Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution 2nd Semester, 2023/2024 Session

TOPIC: Security, Its Definition, Origin, Forms, Levels, Approaches, Modalities, Relevance,
Agencies, Challenges and August 2024 Nation-Wide Protests

Introduction
The concept of security is always used formally and informally in interpersonal talks, intragroup
discourses, and intergroup engagements, such as public speeches among citizens, clerics, academia,
politicians, clerics, and law enforcements. This becomes evident as most Nigerian literatures and national
dailies abound in the issue of security, especially newspapers and news headlines and it demonstrates that
security is vital to life. Thus, it is the primary function of every government at all levels (federal, state and
local) to provide adequate security to people’s lives and property in all living and work places, such as
markets, schools (primary schools, secondary schools, polytechnics, colleges of education and
universities); sporting centres; and healthcare facilities for hitch-free and fast service-delivery, goal
attainment and rapid national development.

Definitions of Security
Security like most concepts in social sciences has diverse definitions, and it means different things to
different people, at different places and in different periods. Arnold Wolfers (1952, p. 485) sees security
as the absence of threats to acquired values, whereas David A. Baldwin (1997, p. 13) conceives security
“as a low probability of damage to acquired values”. In sum, the concept and definitions of security is
highly controversial (Spanish Institute of Strategic Studies, IEEE IEEE, 2011) and contested (Baldwin,
1997). Selcuk NAS (2015) sets out a distinction between security and safety, and thus downplays their
interchangeability, when he defines security as a state of being away from hazards associated with
deliberate intention of human to cause harm” and its’ “source of hazard is posed by human deliberately”,
while safety refers to a state of being away from hazards caused by natural forces or human errors
randomly” and its’ “source of hazard is formed by natural forces and/or human errors”. Simply, the
common types of safety include physical safety, emotional safety, financial safety and social safety.

Forms of Security
There are several forms of security e.g. state security, private security, industrial security, executive
security, formal and informal security. But emphasis is placed on only four (4) forms of security in this
course. These are physical security, cyber-security, social security & psychological security.
Physical security includes all measures e.g. guards, surveillance cameras, fences, doors, gates, alarm
system deployed for protection of persons & other material objects against threat and harm in society.
Cyber-security all techniques & tools e.g. antivirus software, encryption, update software and intrusion
detection system) used to prevent intruders from breaking into virtual assets (e.g. computer program,
electronic data) & services (e.g. internet connectivity, networks, other digital items.
Social security is a welfare given in material (food items, clothes, drugs) & non-material (healthcare,
guidance and counseling) forms to less privileged persons & vulnerable communities to be resilient and
more functional in society.
Psychological security is the form of protection that radiates the mind of an individual. It is a feeling of
being covered, saved and comfortable with a given state of affairs in one’s inner self.

Levels of Security
Georg Sorensen (1996) identifies 3 levels of security, which are individual security, national security,
and international security. Sorensen extends and broadens security beyond mere inter-state relations as
marginalised in traditional international relations. Using sociological lens, postmodernists and
poststructuralists, scholars have widen scope of security research, theory and practice by considering
other aspects of life e.g. gender, ecology, community, humanity and others.
Personal/individual security level is the degree of protection and safety perceived and enjoyed within
oneself, an individual mind and interest. It is the level to which a person life is protected against any harm
coming from any objects, institutions and bodies.
National security level is the extent of protection to a country’s citizens and border. It is security against
external aggressors and internal threats at a nation-state level i.e. defence to people, property and territory
against foreign countries and their allies.
National Security is the continued ability of a country to pursue the development of its internal life
without threat of interference from foreign powers (Kennan, 1948). National security level’s aspects are
below:
i. External security level is the degree of safety, protection, resilience enjoyed by a given nation
against foreign attackers. It is provided via military (army, navy, air force)
ii. Internal security level or home security is the degree of protection available, acceptable,
accessible affordable to local population against local rioters, rebels and others
International security level refers to the extent of collective peace, maintenance of laws and orders
displayed between and among countries at the global scene. It demonstrates the aggregate of quantity and
quality protection, safety and orderliness by each nation towards the sustainability of universal order. It
explains that a security threat brewing up between countries constitutes serious challenges to the world as
seen in Russia-Ukraine, Israel-Palestine, North Korea-USA It is also called ‘global security level’.

Security Approaches and Modalities

Literature abounds in four (4) major security approaches, which are i. Human security approach; ii. Welsh
security approach; iii. Paris security approach; and iv. Copenhagen security approach. But, only human
security is discussed in this course

Human security approach

The philosophy and practice of ‘human security’ is initiated, developed and propagated by the United
Nations (UN) via its agencies e.g. (UNDP) and is located on humanistic sociology. This approach or
theory demonstrated that during the provision of security individual person is the object and subject of
attraction, attention, protection not nation-state.
Dimensions of Human Security Theory/Approach
This approach known as ‘Human security approach’ has seven (7) major dimensions. The dimensions are
also called pillars. These dimensions are mostly used to characterize and explain human security
approach. They are as follows:
i. Economic security deals with guaranteeing income, savings, and paid jobs
ii. Food security emphasizes regular supply of nutritious and balanced diet
iii. Health security focuses on people’s access to good facilities, staff, care, therapy
iv. Environmental security means people are free from pollution, floods and other natural
disasters
v. Personal security exemplifies protection of life against attacks and harms
vi. Community security explains state of safety of people against conflict and crisis
vii. Political security represents existence of good leaders and governance
In a related development, David Welch (2022) argued that provision of security requires taking into
account a few measures. These measures are referred five (5) modalities of security.
i. Prevention or deterrence
ii. Interdiction
iii. Defence
 iv. Resilience
v. Recovery
The ideas are emphasized as the usual determinants of greater security and thus require to be protected
from intruders especially those pose threats to people, properties and places.

Relevance of Security and Safety

There are many benefits attached to existence of security and safety in the society. They include:
i. It safeguards persons, physical property and virtual assets
ii. It deters intruders, criminalities and
iii. It promotes responses to emergencies
iv. It reduces incidents, vulnerabilities and liabilities
v. It promotes survival and wellbeing of people and communities
vi. It promotes adherence to ethics/principles e.g. accountability
vii. It ensures compliance to existing rules and regulations

Security Agencies in Nigeria

Nigeria has diverse security agencies, whose primary tasks are beefing up security for citizens and foreign
nationals, who are residing in. Some of the security agencies are:
i. Military (Army Force, Air Force and Naval Force)
ii. Police Force (Regular Police, Mobile Police, Traffic Warden, Special Constabulary Police &
Supernumerary Police )
iii. Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC)
iv. Intelligence Unit (Department of State Services DSS, National Intelligence Agency NIA; and
Defence Intelligence Agency DIA)
v. Nigerian Immigration; Correction & Customs Services
vi. Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), Independent Corrupt Practices and
Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC),

Challenges Facing Security Agencies in Nigeria

There is no individual or institution e.g. Ministry, Department & Agency (MDI) without issues.
Challenges in security agencies are:
i. Weak state-of-the-art security tools & techniques
ii. Weak terms and condition of services e.g. life assurance
iii. Weak community-security agencies relations
iv. Weak staffing (selecting, recruiting, training personnel
v. Weak funding of police, correction service and civil defence
vi. Weak public image due to corruption
vii. Weak public trust on security operatives e.g. police

Protests as Threats to Security in all Fronts and at all Times in Africa

Nigeria has witnessed a series of mass protests since its’ return to democracy on May 29, 1999. However,
the three (3) most significant protests were carried out in recent years. First, nation-wide protests called
#OccupyNigeria were staged from 2nd January, 2012 to 14th January, 2012 which was in President Dr.
Goodluck Ebele Azikwe Jonathan’s regime, when jacked up fuel price. Second, there were protests called
#EndSARS on October 10 to 12 October, 2022 during President Muhammad Buhari’s regime. It was
organized to end Special Anti-Robbery Squad’s (SARS) brutality against innocent Nigerians. Third,
Nigeria recently witnessed another nation-wide protests tagged, #EndBadGovernance which were
organized on August 1 to 2, 2024 during President Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s reign.
August 2024’s Mass Protests as Responses to President Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s Misgovernance
The recently organized mass protests on August 1 to 2, 2024 were backlash to Tinubu’s inhuman,
strangulating and deadly economic policies that have been heightening economic hardships in the
country. These protests, which were alleged to have been organized, funded and supported by opposition
parties’ leaders and members, including aggrieved ruling parties’ members and officials were reactions to
the following causes i.e. challenges:
i. Fixed exchange rate was removed, which
ii. Depletion of national currency values
iii. Increase high cost of governance
iv. Extravagant spending on frivolities by governments and their officials/politicians
v. Fuel subsidy removal without fairly reinvesting in people’s welfare, wellbeing and happiness
vi. Increase in taxes and tariffs on goods and services
vii. Unmet campaign promises
viii. Rising level of insecurity across the country
ix. Increasing rate of poverty and hunger occasioned by shortage in food supply and jobs
x. Rising high cost of living among the masses

Conclusion
The concept of security and safety are twin ideas which express the acts of protecting goods, services, and
people in all societies across the world. Theory of state creation by Thomas Hobbes assumes that
indiscriminate & widespread exploitation, oppression, repression e.g. killings, maiming, robbing & other
life threatening acts against the less powerful by the more & most powerful individuals/groups are factors
for formation of state/gov’t. Thus, security and safety are indispensable social phenomena for rapid and
sustainable development, including effective service delivery and goal-attainment in every organisation
such as schools, markets, homes and health facilities. It is sad that Nigeria’s fragile security was
threatened by “Bad Governance” that led to the mass protests tagged, #EndBadGovernanceInNigeria. The
protests started on 1st August, 2024 as a response to economic hardships, rising level of insecurity,
poverty and hunger occasioned by continual depletion of national currency values, high cost of living, and
poor exchange rates in the country. The protests hit major towns and cities, particularly Abuja, Kano,
Kaduna, and Lagos.